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阿兰·雷奈《
美国电影
名人录》《美国电影名人录》（主编） 《
电影鉴赏家指南》
《国际电影百科全书》（主编）
《电影指南》（主编）
《新媒体词典》
The New Wave
Media Culture
Celebrity
Alain Resnais
American Film Now
Who’s Who in American Film Now (ed.)
The Connoisseur’s Guide to the Movies
The International Encyclopedia of Film (ed.)
The Film Guide (ed.)
The Dictionary of New Media
牛津大学出版社出版的作品可进一步推进牛津大学在研究、学术和教育方面的卓越目标。
Oxford University Press, Inc., publishes works that further Oxford University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education.
牛津 纽约 奥克兰
开普敦 达累斯萨拉姆 香港 卡拉奇
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版权所有 © 1977、1981、2000、2009 James Monaco
Copyright © 1977,1981, 2000, 2009 by James Monaco
牛津大学出版社于 1977 年首次出版。198
Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016
First published in 1977 by Oxford University Press, Inc.
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016
Oxford 是牛津大学出版社的注册商标。
Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press.
版权所有。未经牛津大学出版社事先许可，不得以任何形式或方式（电子、机械、复印、录音或其他方式）复制、存储或传播本出版物的任何部分。
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Oxford University Press.
出版编目数据可从美国国会图书馆获取。
Cataloging-in-Publication data is available from the Library of Congress.
ISBN: 978-0-19-532105-0 (pk.)
ISBN: 978-0-19-532105-0 (pbk.)
由于本页无法清楚地容纳所有必要的出处，因此以下页面被视为版权页的扩展。
Since this page cannot legibly accommodate all necessary credits, the following page is regarded as an extension of the copyright page.
35798642
35798642
在美国
采用无酸纸印刷。
Printed in the United States of America
on acid-free paper.
丹尼斯·莱维托夫 (Denise Levertov) 的《权利》中的一段 © Denise Levertov，1957 年，经城市之光图书 (City Lights Books) 许可重印。唐纳德·巴塞尔姆 (Donald Barthelme) 的悲伤页面© Donald Barthelme, 1970, 1971, 1972，经 Farrar, Straus & Giroux, Inc. 许可重印。克里斯蒂安·梅茨 (Christian Metz) 的“图像轨道大句法类别总表”，摘自《电影语言：A》克里斯蒂安·梅茨 (Christian Metz) 的《电影符号学》，迈克尔·泰勒 (Michael Taylor) 翻译，© 1974 年，牛津大学出版社，经许可转载。
The passage from Denise Levertov’s “The Rights” © Denise Levertov, 1957, reprinted by permission of City Lights Books. The page from Donald Barthelme’s Sadness © Donald Barthelme, 1970, 1971, 1972, reprinted with the permission of Farrar, Straus & Giroux, Inc. Christian Metz’s “General Table of the Large Syntagmatic Category of the Image-Track” from Film Language: A Semiotics of the Cinema by Christian Metz, translated by Michael Taylor, © 1974 by Oxford University Press, Inc., reprinted by permission.
C重新编辑
Joe Dunn：照片编辑器。
CREDITS
Joe Dunn: Photo Editor.
关于类型的注释
A NOTE ON THE TYPE
本版《如何阅读电影》以 Adobe 发布的 Aldus 为背景。著名印刷师 Hermann Zapf 于 1954 年为 Stempel 铸造厂设计了 Aldus，作为他著名的 Palatino 的更具可读性的伴侣。这个名字是为了纪念阿尔杜斯·马努蒂斯 (Aldus Manutius)，一位富有创新精神的 15 世纪意大利印刷商和出版商。扎普夫是二十世纪领先的字体设计师之一，也是数字排版的先驱。显示类型为 Myriad Pro。字幕采用 Gill Sans 字体。
This edition of How to Read a Film is set in Adobe’s release of Aldus. Renowned typographer Hermann Zapf designed Aldus in 1954 for the Stempel foundry as a more readable companion to his famous Palatino. The name honors Aldus Manutius, the innovative fifteenth-century Italian printer and publisher. Zapf was one of the leading type designers of the twentieth century, and a pioneer in digital typography. The display type is Myriad Pro. The captions are set in Gill Sans.
内容
Contents
Film, Recording, and the Other Arts
Film, Photography, and Painting
Film and the Environmental Arts
Negatives, Prints, and Generations
Opticals, the Lab, and the Post House
3 THE LANGUAGE OF FILM: SIGNS AND SYNTAX
Denotative and Connotative Meaning
Creating an Art: Lumière versus Méliès
The Silent Feature: Realism versus Expressionism
Hollywood: Genre versus Auteur
Neorealism and After: Hollywood versus the World
The New Wave and the Third World:
Entertainment versus Communication
The Postmodern Sequel: Democracy, Technology, End of Cinema
Beyond Cinema: Metafiction, Metareality
5 FILM THEORY: FORM AND FUNCTION
The Poet and the Philosopher: Lindsay and Münsterberg
Expressionism and Realism: Arnheim and Kracauer
Montage: Pudovkin, Eisenstein, Balázs, and Formalism
Mise-en-Scène: Neorealism, Bazin, and Godard
Film Speaks and Acts: Metz and Contemporary Theory
6 MEDIA: IN THE MIDDLE OF THINGS
The Technology of Mechanical and Electronic Media
7 MULTIMEDIA: THE DIGITAL REVOLUTION
1916–1930: Silent Film, Radio, and Sound Film
1931–1945: The Great Age of Hollywood and Radio
1946–1960: The Growth of Television
1981–1999: The Digital Transition
READING ABOUT FILM AND MEDIA: A SELECT LIBRARY
2. The Technology of Film and Media
5. Film Theory and Practical Criticism
介绍
Introduction
《如何阅读电影》第一版出版于 1977 年，也就是上一代人之前。这本书出版的时机恰到好处。我们正处于电影史上一个激动人心的时期的尾声。在六七十年代，电影制片人发现了自己的历史，新一代的电影人出现了，我们正处于新技术的边缘，它不仅会改变我们制作电影的方式，而且会改变我们的整个沟通系统。
The first edition of How to Read a Film appeared in 1977, a generation ago. The timing had been right for the book. We were just at the end of an exciting period in film history. In the sixties and seventies filmmakers had discovered their own history, a new generation of cineastes had emerged, and we were on the verge of a new technology that would change not only the way we make movies—but our entire system of communication.
观察这种社会结构转变的发展是令人着迷的。新技术无处不在，它不仅对我们制作电影的方式产生了深远的影响，而且对所有媒体的制作方式都产生了深远的影响。微型计算机革命在《如何阅读电影》第一版问世时就开始了，它彻底主导了我们这一代的文化和商业史。今天我们处理文本、图像和声音的方式与三十年前截然不同。一百多年前电影的发明所预示的媒体联盟现在已成为现实。电影作为二十世纪的决定性媒介，似乎只是二十一世纪新媒体的序幕。随着化学和机械的旧技术继续让位于数字电子和光子学，电影制片人正在重新发现先锋精神。这种媒介正在重塑自身：现在，如果你能想到它，你就能拍摄它。
It has been fascinating to watch the development of this tectonic shift in society. The new technology is pervasive, and its effect on the way we make not only movies but all media is profound. The microcomputer revolution, which was beginning just as the first edition of How to Read a Film appeared, has thoroughly dominated the cultural and business history of our generation. The way we process text, images, and sounds today is radically different from what it was thirty years ago. And the union of media, which the invention of movies foreshadowed more than a hundred years ago, is now a reality. It’s as if film, the defining medium of the twentieth century, was but prologue to the new media of the twenty-first. As the old technologies of chemistry and mechanics continue to yield to digital electronics and photonics, filmmakers are rediscovering the pioneer spirit. The medium is reinventing itself: now, if you can think it, you can film it.
我们消费电影的方式发生了更大的变化。在 20 世纪 70 年代，电影爱好者围绕剧目剧目安排自己的生活，并且可能会旅行五十英里去观看一部罕见电影的放映。如今，数以万计的电影可以在光盘上或网络上找到，您可以确信，在谷歌扫描完世界上所有的书籍后，他们会将注意力转向数字化世界上所有的电影。三十年前，我们中很少有人真正拥有电影；如今，我们中的大多数人都拥有电影。今天，我们中不这样做的人就更少了。现在，电影更像书籍（书籍即将变得更加电影化）。在过去的三十年里，我们对电影娱乐的接触程度增加了几个数量级。在我看来，这种转变是如此之大，以至于它带来了体验的质的变化，而不仅仅是量的变化。更重要的是，它对社会契约产生了深远的影响。（第六章和第七章的大部分内容都涉及现在主宰我们生活的新“媒体圈”。）
The way we consume motion pictures has changed even more. In the 1970s, film buffs organized their lives around repertory-house schedules, and might travel fifty miles to catch a screening of a rare film. Today, tens of thousands of films are available on disc or on the web and you can be sure that, after Google finishes scanning all the world’s books, they’ll turn their attention to digitizing all the world’s movies. Thirty years ago, very few of us actually owned movies; today, even fewer of us do not. Films are a lot more like books, now (and books are about to become more cinematic). In the past three decades our exposure to filmed entertainment has increased by several magnitudes. To my mind, this shift has been so great that it amounts to a qualitative—not just quantitative—change in the experience. More important, it has had a profound effect on the social contract. (Much of Chapters 6 and 7 deal with this new “Mediasphere” which now dominates our lives.)
历经三十多年、四个版本*如您所料，《如何阅读电影》的部分内容我们删去了很多早期历史，以便为对当代场景的一些评论腾出空间。第三版增加了第七章，讨论自 1977 年以来发展起来的数字世界。第一版和第二版包括一个术语表，该术语表发展得如此之快，以至于在 1999 年成为了自己的书（《新媒体词典》）。现在网络上有如此多的参考书目工具，早期版本的大量参考书目已被更短、更简洁的建议阅读列表所取代，我希望您会发现它更有用。
Over the course of more than three decades and four editions* parts of How to Read a Film have changed radically, as you might expect. We’ve cut a lot of earlier history to make room for some comments on the contemporary scene. Chapter 7 was added to the third edition to discuss the digital world that had grown up since 1977. The first and second editions included a glossary which grew so much that it became its own book in 1999 (The Dictionary of New Media). Now that there are so many bibliographical tools available on the web, the extensive bibliography of the earlier editions has been replaced with a much shorter, more succinct list of suggested reading, which I hope you will find more useful.
但零件变化很小。第 1 章（“电影作为一门艺术”）、第 3 章（“电影语言”）和第 5 章（“电影理论”）已更新，但并未彻底重组。电影这一媒介与其他艺术的关系仍然与三十年前一样。在我看来，符号学仍然是理解电影如何表达其含义的最佳方式（而来自古代大师的例子似乎是最好的例证）。电影理论的基础知识在上个世纪得到了很好的描述，尽管当代学者可能不同意，但我认为在过去的几十年里我们并没有超出第五章中讨论的作品。
But parts have changed very little. Chapters 1 (“Film as an Art”), 3 (“The Language of Film”), and 5 (“Film Theory”) have been updated but not radically restructured. The medium of film still bears the same relationship to the other arts as it did thirty years ago. Semiotics still seems to me the best way to understand how films mean what they mean (and examples drawn from the old masters seem the best illustrations). The basics of film theory were well described in the last century and—although contemporary academics may disagree—I don’t think in the last decades we’ve gone very far beyond the works discussed in Chapter 5.
第二章（“技术”）提出了一个困境。马耳他十字、可变快门——甚至是反光相机——对于数字一代来说一定像是古色古香的古董。它们在第四版中仍然存在，因为它们阐明了重要的原则。数字媒体的危险之一是它的抽象性：我认为，了解机械/化学电影的运作方式对于理解媒体至关重要。
Chapter 2 (“Technology”) presented a dilemma. The Maltese Cross, the variable shutter—even the reflex camera—must seem like quaint antiques to the digital generation. They are still here in the fourth edition because they illustrate important principles. One of the dangers of digital media is its abstraction: an appreciation for how mechanical/chemical cinema worked is, I think, critical to understanding the medium.
你会发现第 4、6 和 7 章有重大变化。超过 30% 的文本是新的；有 125 个新插图和图表。但请理解，尽管有这些变化，第 4 章（“电影史”）和第 6 章（“媒体”）仍然只是历史的草图：许多重要且有趣的电影和电视节目没有入选。
You’ll find major changes in Chapters 4, 6, and 7. More than thirty percent of the text is new; there are 125 new illustrations and diagrams. But please understand that, despite the changes, Chapters 4 (“Film History”) and 6 (“Media”) remain just sketches of history: Scores of important and interesting films and television programs didn’t make the cut.
我在 20 世纪 70 年代以自由撰稿人的身份在 Smith-Corona 电动打字机上写下了《如何阅读电影》的第一版，并用它敲出了大约 150 万字。我重写了一系列 Power-Books 的最新版本，处理从第二版的数字排版中检索到的文件。这次经历很有趣。作家的工具，就像画家的工具一样，可以对作品产生显着的影响。一旦亨利·詹姆斯赚到足够的钱从手写转向听写，他的小说长度就会增加一倍或三倍。欧内斯特·海明威用铅笔写字。站起来。你在他的散文中感受到了这一点。文字处理软件的主要优点是修改能力。当我读完第二版的旧句子时，我立即看到了工艺的变化。在古老的散文中，我一次又一次地看到自己在旋转。短语、从句，有时整个句子的存在只是为了打发时间，保持节奏，同时我想出如何表达我的想法。这是打字的功能。我已经清理了很多这些填充物。
I wrote the first edition of How to Read a Film on a Smith-Corona electric typewriter on which I had pounded out about 1.5 million words as a freelance writer in the 1970s. I rewrote recent editions on a series of Power-Books, working on files that had been retrieved from the digital typesetting for the second edition. The experience was fascinating. Writers’ tools, like painters’, can have a marked effect on the work. Henry James’s novels doubled and tripled in length once he was earning enough to switch from hand-writing to dictation. Ernest Hemingway wrote with a pencil. Standing up. You feel it in his prose. The main advantage of word-processing software is the power to revise. As I worked my way through the old sentences of the second edition, I saw immediately how the craft had changed. Time and again in the old prose, I saw myself spinning wheels. Phrases, clauses, sometimes whole sentences existed only to pass the time, keep the rhythm going, while I figured out how to say what I had in mind. This is a function of typewriting. I’ve cleaned up a lot of this padding.
能够以书中出现的近似字体查看屏幕上的段落也很有启发性。您可以看到双倍行距 Courier 打字稿中不明显的问题。（是的，你可以在过去的校样上做到这一点，但这对大多数作家来说是一种昂贵的奢侈。）写作的视觉架构变得更加重要。打字稿或手稿与印刷书籍的关系就像铅笔草图与成品画的关系一样。作家现在开始像画家一样对最终产品拥有同样的控制权。
Being able to look at the paragraphs on the screen in an approximation of the font in which they will appear in the book was also instructive. You can see problems that aren’t apparent in a double-spaced Courier type-script. (Yes, you could do this in the old days on galley proofs, but that was an expensive luxury for most writers.) The visual architecture of writing becomes more important. The typescript or manuscript bears as much relation to the printed book as pencil sketches do to finished paintings. Writers are now beginning to have the same control over the final product that painters have always had.
也许比修订能力和对文本结构的增强控制更重要的是电子出版为实时写作提供的机会。书籍一直是“批处理的”。一旦一本书付印，它就完成了。出版经济使得频繁版本变得困难。现在我们有能力——同时也有责任——保持文本的新鲜度。与这一新设施密切相关的是电子文本的交互性。我一直怀念谈话的另一方；现在，我希望至少能听到其中的一部分。（查看 ReadFilm.com 网站以获取评论和更新。）
Perhaps even more important than the power of revision and increased control over the architecture of the text is the opportunity electronic publishing provides for real-time writing. Books have always been “batch-processed.” Once a book goes to press it is finished. The economics of publishing made frequent editions difficult. Now we have the ability—and with it goes a responsibility—to keep the text fresh. Closely allied with this new facility is the interactivity of electronic text. I’ve always missed the other side of the conversation; now, I expect to hear at least a part of it. (Check the website at ReadFilm.com for comments and updates.)
所有这些高科技优势都很有趣，但不要太快放弃媒体的经典工艺。1995 年 2 月在洛杉矶举行的多媒体会议上，我观看了新的 QuickTime VR 技术的演示。当看到它运行时，大批观众自发地鼓掌。然后，演讲者描述了 Apple 的 VR 团队如何首先尝试使用录像带作为 QuickTime VR 的源材料，后来拒绝了它，转而使用昂贵的全景静态相机，最后选择了老式的 35 毫米静态摄影。“电影！” 他惊呼道：“这东西的分辨率令人难以置信！” 观众席上的好莱坞专业人士被这个讽刺逗笑了。
All these high-tech advantages are intriguing, but don’t give up on the classic crafts of media too quickly. At a multimedia conference in Los Angeles in February 1995, I watched a demonstration of the new QuickTime VR technology. The large audience broke into spontaneous applause when they saw it in operation. The speaker then described how the VR team at Apple had first tried videotape as the source material for QuickTime VR, rejected it in favor of an expensive panoramic still camera, then finally settled on old-fashioned 35 mm still photography. “Film!” he exclaimed, “This stuff has incredible resolution!” The Hollywood professionals in the audience chuckled at the irony.
正如十九世纪的电影媒介本身不太可能很快消失一样，书籍这一巧妙的装置也不会很快消失。就像斜面或轮子一样，这本书是一个简单但坚固耐用的多功能机器。没有一个明智的人会更喜欢使用计算机屏幕来阅读文本（或查看图片），而不是打印精美的页面。这东西有令人难以置信的分辨率。此外，将页面在一侧缝合在一起为许多应用提供了出色的搜索引擎。
And just as the nineteenth-century film medium itself isn’t likely to disappear anytime soon, neither is the ingenious device that is a book. Like the inclined plane or the wheel, the book is a simple machine of rugged versatility. No sensible person would prefer a computer screen to a well printed page for reading text (or looking at pictures). This stuff has incredible resolution. Moreover, sewing the pages together on one side provides an excellent search engine for many applications.
然而，最终证明这本书持久价值的并不是装订印刷的技术优势，而是它的物理现实。数字技术提供印刷品的分辨率和视觉效果只是时间问题。它永远无法提供的是一本书的“物性”。在日益虚拟和抽象的世界中，这些具有独特重量、感觉和气味的物理物体将越来越受到重视。
In the end, however, it is not the technical superiority of print on bound pages that will prove the lasting value of the book but rather its physical reality. It is only a matter of time before digital technology provides the resolution and visual power of print. What it can never provide is the “thingness” of a book. In an increasingly virtual and abstract world, these physical objects, with unique weight, feel, and smell, will be increasingly prized.
“没有想法，只有事物，”威廉·卡洛斯·威廉姆斯告诉我们。
“No ideas but in things,” William Carlos Williams told us.
多年来重温《如何阅读电影》的好处之一是有机会再次与大卫·林德罗斯和汉斯·迈克尔·博克合作。和以前一样，David Lindroth 提供了富有创意且引人入胜的图表。他为这些概念的实现做出了重大贡献。他的投入非常宝贵。《Film verstehen》德文版总编辑汉斯·迈克尔·博克 (Hans-Michael Bock)再次为该版本赋予了本土精神，这是简单翻译所无法传达的。牛津大学出版社的编辑 Cybele Tom 和 Rowohlt Verlag 的 Frank Strickstrock 在此过程中提供了耐心的支持和宝贵的意见。意大利语版译者 Alberto Farina、捷克语译者 Tomáš Liška 和土耳其语译者 Ertan Yilmaz 提供了有益的更正和评论。乔·邓恩（Joe Dunn）作为本期照片编辑的工作非常出色。牛津大学的总编辑杰西卡·瑞安 (Jessica Ryan) 非常小心地处理了一个复杂的项目。对大家，非常感谢。
One of the plusses in revisiting How to Read a Film over the years has been the chance to work again with David Lindroth and Hans-Michael Bock. As before, David Lindroth has provided creative and engaging diagrams. He has added significantly to the realization of these conceptions. His input has been invaluable. Hans-Michael Bock, the general editor of the German edition, Film verstehen, has once again given a native Geist to that version that a simple translation never could have conveyed. Editors Cybele Tom at Oxford University Press and Frank Strickstrock at Rowohlt Verlag provided patient support and valuable input during the process. Alberto Farina, translator of the Italian edition, Czech translator Tomáš Liška, and Turkish translator Ertan Yilmaz have provided helpful corrections and comments. Joe Dunn did a great job as photo editor for this edition. Jessica Ryan, Managing Editor at Oxford, took great care with a complex project. To all, much thanks.
我也很感谢我的妻子和孩子。虽然以这种方式感谢家人是传统做法，但在这种情况下，这是双重恰当的。他们不仅提供了作家所需的支持、鼓励和耐心，多年来还做出了直接贡献。他们在研究、编辑、制作和编程方面的帮助非常宝贵。我希望他们同意这个家庭项目比任何庭院旧货出售更有趣。
I’m also grateful to my wife and children. While it is traditional in acknowledgments of this kind to thank your family, in this case it is doubly appropriate. Not only did they offer the support, encouragement, and patience any writer needs, over the years they have also contributed directly. Their assistance in research, editing, production, and programming has been invaluable. I hope they agree that this family project was more fun than any yard sale.
杰明
J.M.
纽约萨格港
Sag Harbor NY
2008年11月
November 2008
* 《如何阅读电影》也被翻译成德文（Film verstehen， Rowohlt Verlag，四个版本）；荷兰语（电影：Taal、techniek、geschiedenis、 Uniboek）、意大利语（Leggere un film、 Zanichelli）、土耳其语（Bir Film Nasil Okunur？、 Oglak Yagyinlari）；捷克语（Jak Císt Film、 Albatros）；日本人; 中国人; 波斯语; 和韩语。
* How to Read a Film has also been translated into German (Film verstehen, Rowohlt Verlag, four editions); Dutch (Film: Taal, techniek, geschiedenis, Uniboek), Italian (Leggere un film, Zanichelli), Turkish (Bir Film Nasil Okunur?, Oglak Yagyinlari); Czech (Jak Císt Film, Albatros); Japanese; Chinese; Farsi; and Korean.
第二版序言
Preface to the Second Edition
真的有必要学习如何阅读电影吗？显然，任何两岁以上智力最低的人都可以或多或少地掌握电影、唱片、广播或电视节目的基本内容，而无需任何特殊训练。然而，正是因为媒体如此密切地模仿现实，我们理解它们比我们理解它们要容易得多。在过去的一个世纪里，电影和电子媒体极大地改变了我们感知世界和我们自己的方式，但我们却很自然地接受它们向我们传达的大量信息，而不去质疑它们如何告诉我们它们所讲述的内容。 。《如何阅读一部电影》是一篇从多个层面理解这一关键过程的文章。
Is it necessary, really, to learn How to Read a Film? Obviously, anyone of minimal intelligence over the age of two can—more or less—grasp the basic content of a film, record, radio, or television program without any special training. Yet precisely because the media so very closely mimic reality, we apprehend them much more easily than we comprehend them. Film and the electronic media have drastically changed the way we perceive the world—and ourselves—during the past century, yet we all too naturally accept the vast amounts of information they convey to us in massive doses without questioning how they tell us what they tell. How to Read a Film is an essay in understanding that crucial process—on several levels.
首先，电影和电视是通用的传播媒介。某些基本的有趣的感知规则在起作用：第三章“电影语言：符号和句法”研究了其中一些概念。在更高级的层面上，电影显然是一门复杂的艺术——可能是二十世纪最重要的艺术——具有相当复杂的理论和实践历史。第一章“电影作为一门艺术”提出了电影如何融入更传统艺术的范畴；第四章“电影史的形态”试图对电影艺术的发展进行简要回顾；第五章“电影理论：形式与功能”回顾了过去七十五年的一些主要理论发展。
In the first place, film and television are general mediums of communication. Certain basic interesting rules of perception operate: Chapter 3, “The Language of Film: Signs and Syntax,” investigates a number of these concepts. On a more advanced level, film is clearly a sophisticated art—possibly the most important art of the twentieth century—with a rather complex history of theory and practice. Chapter 1, “Film as an Art,” suggests how film can be fit into the spectrum of the more traditional arts; Chapter 4, “The Shape of Film History,” attempts a brief survey of the development of the art of movies; Chapter 5, “Film Theory: Form and Function,” surveys some of the major theoretical developments of the past seventy-five years.
电影是一种媒介和艺术，但它也是一项非常复杂的技术事业。我希望第二章“技术：图像和声音”是对有趣的电影科学的简单阐述。尽管电影占据主导地位，但二十世纪电子媒体——唱片、广播、磁带、电视、视频——的发展与电影的发展并行。电影与媒体的关系与日俱增。第六章概述了媒体（印刷媒体和电子媒体）的一般理论，讨论了同样复杂的电子媒体技术，最后对广播和电视的历史进行了概述。自从本书第一版出版三十年前以来，电影已经成为更大的视听媒体世界的一部分：第七章探索这个新世界。
Film is a medium and an art, but it is also, uniquely, a very complex technological undertaking. Chapter 2, “Technology: Image and Sound,” is—I hope—a simple exposition of the intriguing science of cinema. Although film is dominant, the development of the electronic media—records, radio, tape, television, video—has proceeded in parallel with the growth of film during the twentieth century. The relationship between film and media becomes stronger with each passing year; Chapter 6 outlines a general theory of media (both print and electronic), discusses the equally complex technology of the electronic media, and concludes with a survey of the history of radio and television. Since the first edition of this book appeared thirty years ago, film has become part of a much larger universe of audiovisual media: Chapter 7 explores this new world.
从这个大纲中可以看出， 《如何阅读电影》的结构是全局的，而不是线性的。在这七章中，每一章的目的都是试图解释一下电影如何在心理上对我们产生影响，以及它如何在政治上影响我们。然而，可以从多个角度来探讨这两个核心主导问题。由于大多数人首先认为电影是一门艺术，所以我从现象的这一方面开始。由于缺乏技术知识就很难理解艺术是如何发展的，因此第二章立即讨论电影科学。理解了技术，我们就可以开始发现电影作为一种语言是如何运作的（第三章）。由于实践确实（或应该）先于理论，因此工业和艺术的历史（第 4 章）先于其智能化（第 5 章）。最后，我们将焦点扩大到在媒体（第 6 章）和数字革命（第 7 章）的更大背景下观看电影。
As you can see from this outline, the structure of How to Read a Film is global rather than linear. In each of the seven chapters the intention has been to try to explain a little of how film operates on us psychologically, how it affects us politically. Yet these twin central dominant questions can be approached from a number of angles. Since most people think of film first as an art, I’ve begun with that aspect of the phenomenon. Since it’s difficult to understand how the art has developed without some knowledge of the technology, Chapter 2 proceeds immediately to a discussion of the science of film. Understanding technique, we can begin to discover how film operates as a language (Chapter 3). Since practice does (or should) precede theory, the history of the industry and art (Chapter 4) precedes the intellectualization of it here (Chapter 5). We conclude by widening the focus to view movies in the larger context of media (Chapter 6) and the digital revolution (Chapter 7).
这种顺序对我来说似乎最合乎逻辑，但读者可能更喜欢从历史或理论、语言或技术开始，事实上，本书的构建方式使得各部分可以按任何顺序独立阅读。（这导致了少量的重复，请您谅解。）还请记住，在任何此类工作中，都倾向于规定而不是简单地描述所研究的现象。接下来的几页讨论了数百个分析概念，但我要求读者仅仅考虑它们——概念、分析工具——而不是给定的定律。电影研究令人兴奋，因为它不断发酵。我希望《如何阅读电影》是一本可以争论、可以讨论、可以使用的书。在任何理解的尝试中，问题通常比答案更重要。
This order seems most logical to me, but readers might very well prefer to begin with history or theory, language or technology, and in fact the book has been constructed in such a way that the sections can be read independently, in any order. (This has resulted in a small number of repetitions, for which I ask your indulgence.) Please remember, too, that in any work of this sort there is a tendency to prescribe rather than simply describe the phenomena under investigation. Hundreds of analytical concepts are discussed in the pages that follow, but I ask that readers consider them just that—concepts, analytical tools—rather than given laws. Film study is exciting because it is constantly in ferment. It’s my hope that How to Read a Film is a book that can be argued with, discussed, and used. In any attempt at understanding, the questions are usually more important than the answers.
一些杂项说明：电影片名均为英文，除非通常使用原始外文片名。如果半色调是胶片帧的直接放大，则已在标题中注明；在大多数其他情况下，您可以假设半色调是宣传剧照，可能与电影的实际图像略有不同。
A few miscellaneous notes: Film titles are in English, unless the original foreign language titles are commonly used. In cases where halftones are direct enlargements of film frames, this has been noted in the captions; in most other cases, you can assume the halftones are publicity stills and may differ in slight respects from the actual images of the film.
致谢
Acknowledgments
三十二年来，无数同事为《如何阅读电影》做出了贡献。尽管他们中的许多人（威廉·K·埃弗森、大卫·博姆比克）已不再与我们在一起，但我认为记住他们的贡献很重要。
Over thirty-two years numerous colleagues have contributed to How to Read a Film. Although many of them (William K. Everson, David Bombyk) are no longer with us, I think it important to remember their contributions.
我特别感谢 Reuben Abel、Jerome Agel、Richard Allen（纽约大学）、Dudley Andrew、Adriano Aprà、Patricia Aufderheide、Joelyn Ausanka、Allen Austill、Stellar Bennett（NET）、Hans-Michael Bock、David Bombyk、Leo Braudy（ USC）、Kent R. Brown、Jeremy Butler、Curtis Church、Kate Collins、Sonia Coudeville、Gary Crowdus （Cineaste）、 Ursula Deren（BBC）、William D. Drennan、Joe Dunn、William K. Everson、Raymond Fielding（佛罗里达州立大学）大学）、Kathleen Fitzpatrick、Ellie Fuchs、Marc Fürstenberg、Claudia Gorbman、Paul C. Hillery、Kozu Hiramatsu（索尼）、Cal Hotchkiss（柯达）、Penelope Houston （视听）、 Jo Imeson、Annette Insdorf（哥伦比亚大学）、 Dana Kasarsky、Bruce Kawin、Eileen M. Krest、Peter Lebensold、David Lindroth、Richard Lorber、Timothy J. Lyons、Terry Maguire (FCC)、Joe Medjuck（多伦多大学，然后是 Montecito Pictures）、Karl Mefford（Montecito Pictures）、 Sreekumar Menon、Andrew Monaco、Charles Monaco、Margaret Monaco、Robert Monaco、Ludwig Moos (Rowohlt Verlag)、Kenneth Nolley (威拉米特大学)、Wallis Osterholz、James Pallot、Shlomo Perets (Microtype)、Leonard Quart、James Raimes、Roger Rawlings、史蒂文Reich、Richard Reisman、Bruce Ricker（Rhapsody Films）、Ellen Royer、Jessica Ryan、Anne Sanow、Susan Schenker、Alan Schneider（茱莉亚音乐学院）、Jean Shapiro、Fred Soroka、Jerrold Spiegel、Clay Steinman、Dan Streible（德克萨斯大学）、 Frank Strickstrock（Rowohlt Verlag）、Cybele Tom（牛津大学出版社）、Sarah Warner（IEEE）、John Wright 和 Robert Wohlleben。
I thank, among others, Reuben Abel, Jerome Agel, Richard Allen (NYU), Dudley Andrew, Adriano Aprà, Patricia Aufderheide, Joellyn Ausanka, Allen Austill, Stellar Bennett (NET), Hans-Michael Bock, David Bombyk, Leo Braudy (USC), Kent R. Brown, Jeremy Butler, Curtis Church, Kate Collins, Sonia Coudeville, Gary Crowdus (Cineaste), Ursula Deren (BBC), William D. Drennan, Joe Dunn, William K. Everson, Raymond Fielding (Florida State University), Kathleen Fitzpatrick, Ellie Fuchs, Marc Fürstenberg, Claudia Gorbman, Paul C. Hillery, Kozu Hiramatsu (Sony), Cal Hotchkiss (Kodak), Penelope Houston (Sight and Sound), Jo Imeson, Annette Insdorf (Columbia University), Dana Kasarsky, Bruce Kawin, Eileen M. Krest, Peter Lebensold, David Lindroth, Richard Lorber, Timothy J. Lyons, Terry Maguire (FCC), Joe Medjuck (University of Toronto, then Montecito Pictures), Karl Mefford (Montecito Pictures), Sreekumar Menon, Andrew Monaco, Charles Monaco, Margaret Monaco, Robert Monaco, Ludwig Moos (Rowohlt Verlag), Kenneth Nolley (Willamette University), Wallis Osterholz, James Pallot, Shlomo Perets (Microtype), Leonard Quart, James Raimes, Roger Rawlings, Steven Reich, Richard Reisman, Bruce Ricker (Rhapsody Films), Ellen Royer, Jessica Ryan, Anne Sanow, Susan Schenker, Alan Schneider (Juilliard), Jean Shapiro, Fred Soroka, Jerrold Spiegel, Clay Steinman, Dan Streible (University of Texas), Frank Strickstrock (Rowohlt Verlag), Cybele Tom (Oxford University Press), Sarah Warner (I.E.E.E.), John Wright, and Robert Wohlleben.
我特别感谢这些年来我的学生，尽管他们可能不知道，但他们付出的至少和他们得到的一样多。
I am especially grateful to my students over the years who, although they may not know it, gave at least as much as they got.
1
电影作为一门艺术
1
Film as an Art
FILM, RECORDING, AND THE OTHER ARTS
Film, Photography, and Painting
Film and the Environmental Arts
“将一个想法翻译成艺术语言会如何影响这个想法？每种特定艺术语言的思想形式是什么？”
“How does the translation of an idea into the language of the art affect the idea? What are the thought-forms of each particular artistic language?”
艺术的本质
The Nature of Art
如果正如罗伯特·弗罗斯特曾经说过的那样，诗歌是你无法翻译的东西，那么“艺术”就是你无法定义的东西。尽管如此，尝试还是很有趣的。艺术涵盖了如此广泛的人类努力，以至于它几乎更多的是一种态度而不是一种活动。多年来，这个词的含义的界限逐渐但不可阻挡地扩大了。文化历史学家雷蒙德·威廉姆斯将艺术视为“关键词”之一——为了理解文化与社会之间的相互关系，必须理解它。例如，与“社区”、“批评”和“科学”一样，“艺术”一词的历史揭示了有关我们文明如何运作的丰富信息。回顾这段历史将有助于我们理解相对较新的电影艺术如何适应艺术的一般模式。
If poetry is what you can’t translate, as Robert Frost once suggested, then “art” is what you can’t define. Nevertheless, it’s fun to try. Art covers such a wide range of human endeavor that it is almost more an attitude than an activity. Over the years, the boundaries of the meaning of the word have expanded, gradually yet inexorably. Cultural historian Raymond Williams cited art as one of the “keywords”—one that must be understood in order to comprehend the interrelationships between culture and society. As with “community,” “criticism,” and “science,” for example, the history of the word “art” reveals a wealth of information about how our civilization works. A review of that history will help us to understand how the relatively new art of film fits into the general pattern of art.
古人将七种活动视为艺术：历史、诗歌、喜剧、悲剧、音乐、舞蹈和天文学。每个人都受自己的缪斯支配，每个人都有自己的规则和目标，但所有七个人都因一个共同的动机而团结在一起：它们是工具，有助于描述宇宙和我们在其中的位置。它们是理解存在奥秘的方法，因此，它们本身就带有这些奥秘的光环。因此，它们是宗教活动的各个方面：表演艺术庆祝仪式；历史记录了种族的故事；天文学研究了天空。在这七种古典艺术中，我们都可以发现当代文化和科学类别的根源。例如，历史不仅通向现代社会科学，还通向散文叙事（长篇小说、短篇小说等）。另一方面，天文学代表了现代科学的全部范围，同时它在占星学的预测和解释功能中也暗示了社会科学的另一个方面。在诗歌的标题下，希腊人和罗马人认识到三种诗歌方式：抒情诗、戏剧诗和史诗诗。都产生了现代文学艺术。
The ancients recognized seven activities as arts: History, Poetry, Comedy, Tragedy, Music, Dance, and Astronomy. Each was governed by its own muse, each had its own rules and aims, but all seven were united by a common motivation: they were tools, useful to describe the universe and our place in it. They were methods of understanding the mysteries of existence, and as such, they themselves took on the aura of those mysteries. As a result, they were each aspects of religious activity: The performing arts celebrated the rituals; history recorded the story of the race; astronomy searched the heavens. In each of these seven classical arts we can discover the roots of contemporary cultural and scientific categories. History, for example, leads not only to the modern social sciences but also to prose narrative (the novel, short stories, and so forth). Astronomy, on the other hand, represents the full range of modern science at the same time as it suggests another aspect of the social sciences in its astrological functions of prediction and interpretation. Under the rubric of poetry, the Greeks and Romans recognized three approaches: Lyric, Dramatic, and Epic. All have yielded modern literary arts.
图 1-1。古老的缪斯。_ _ 卡利俄珀（史诗）、克利奥（历史）、埃拉托（爱情诗）、墨尔波墨涅（悲剧）、特西科雷（合唱舞蹈）、波利海姆尼亚（神圣音乐）、尤特佩（抒情诗）、塔利亚（喜剧）和乌拉尼亚（天文学） 。中间的那个人就是阿波罗。（佛罗伦萨皮蒂宫。）
Figure 1-1. THE ANCIENT MUSES. Calliope (epic poetry), Clio (history), Erato (love poetry), Melpomene (tragedy), Terpsichore (choral dancing), Polyhymnia (sacred music), Euterpe (lyric poetry), Thalia (comedy), and Urania (astronomy). The fellow in the middle is Apollo. (Pitti Palace, Florence.)
然而，到了十三世纪，“艺术”这个词已经有了更加实际的含义。中世纪大学的文科课程仍然有七个组成部分，但定义方法已经发生了变化。古典时期的文学艺术——历史、诗歌、喜剧和悲剧——已经融入了文学和哲学的模糊定义的混合体中，然后根据语法、修辞和逻辑（三艺）等分析原则进行了重新排序，结构艺术的要素而不是艺术的品质。舞蹈从列表中删除并被几何取代，标志着数学的重要性日益增加。只有音乐和天文学与古代类别保持不变。
By the thirteenth century, however, the word “art” had taken on a considerably more practical connotation. The Liberal Arts curriculum of the medieval university still numbered seven components, but the method of definition had shifted. The literary arts of the classical period—History, Poetry, Comedy, and Tragedy—had merged into a vaguely defined mix of literature and philosophy and then had been reordered according to analytical principles as Grammar, Rhetoric, and Logic (the Trivium), structural elements of the arts rather than qualities of them. Dance was dropped from the list and replaced by Geometry, marking the growing importance of mathematics. Only Music and Astronomy remained unchanged from the ancient categories.
在大学修道院之外，这个词就更加灵活了。我们仍然谈论战争的“艺术”、医学的“艺术”，甚至钓鱼的“艺术”。到了十六世纪，“艺术”显然是“技能”的同义词，例如，车轮工匠既是艺术家又是音乐家：每个人都练习一种特定的技能。
Outside the university cloisters, the word was even more flexible. We still speak of the “art” of war, the medical “arts,” even the “art” of angling. By the sixteenth century, “art” was clearly synonymous with “skill,” and a wheelwright, for example, was just as much an artist as a musician: each practiced a particular skill.
到了十七世纪末，这个词的范围再次开始缩小。它越来越多地应用于以前从未包括在内的活动——绘画、雕塑、素描、建筑——我们现在称之为“美术”。现代科学与艺术分离且相互矛盾的概念的兴起意味着天文学和几何学不再被视为与诗歌或音乐相同的眼光。到了十八世纪末，艺术家特有的浪漫主义视野恢复了古典时代围绕着这个世界的一些宗教光环。现在“艺术家”和“工匠”之间有了区别。前者是“有创造力的”或“有想象力的”，后者只是一个熟练的工人。
By the late seventeenth century, the range of the word had begun to narrow once again. It was increasingly applied to activities that had never before been included—painting, sculpture, drawing, architecture—what we now call the “Fine Arts.” The rise of the concept of modern science as separate from and contradictory to the arts meant that Astronomy and Geometry were no longer regarded in the same light as Poetry or Music. By the late eighteenth century, the Romantic vision of the artist as specially endowed restored some of the religious aura that had surrounded the word in classical times. A differentiation was now made between “artist” and “artisan.” The former was “creative” or “imaginative,” the latter simply a skilled workman.
在十九世纪，随着科学概念的发展，艺术概念的缩小仍在继续，似乎是为了回应更严格的逻辑活动。曾经的“自然哲学”被称为“自然科学”；炼金术的艺术变成了化学的科学。新科学是精确定义的智力活动，依赖于严格的操作方法。因此，艺术（越来越被认为是科学所不属于的艺术）也得到了更清晰的定义。
In the nineteenth century, as the concept of science developed, the narrowing of the concept of art continued, as if in response to that more rigorously logical activity. What had once been “natural philosophy” was termed “natural science”; the art of alchemy became the science of chemistry. The new sciences were precisely defined intellectual activities, dependent on rigorous methods of operation. The arts (which were increasingly seen as being that which science was not) were therefore also more clearly defined.
到十九世纪中叶，这个词或多或少地发展了我们今天所知道的一系列含义。它首先指视觉艺术或“美术”艺术，然后更广泛地指文学和音乐艺术。有时，它可以延伸到包括表演艺术，尽管从最广泛的意义上来说，它仍然带有中世纪的技能感，但在大多数情况下，它被严格用来指代更复杂的活动。艺术家作为被选中者的浪漫意义仍然存在：“艺术家”不仅与“工匠”（手工艺人）区别开来，而且与社会和知识地位较低的“艺术家”（表演艺术家）区别开来。
By the middle of the nineteenth century the word had more or less developed the constellation of connotations we know today. It referred first to the visual, or “Fine,” arts, then more generally to literature and the musical arts. It could, on occasion, be stretched to include the performing arts and, although in its broadest sense it still carried the medieval sense of skills, for the most part it was strictly used to refer to more sophisticated endeavors. The romantic sense of the artist as a chosen one remained: “artists” were distinguished not only from “artisans” (craftspeople) but also from “artistes” (performing artists) with lower social and intellectual standing.
随着十九世纪末“社会科学”概念的确立，现代知识活动的范围变得完整，艺术的范围也缩小到了目前的领域。那些需要用科学方法来研究的现象被归入科学的范畴并被严格定义。其他现象不太容易受到实验室技术和实验的影响，但能够以一定的逻辑和清晰的方式进行排序，它们是在社会科学的灰色地带（经济学、社会学、政治学、心理学和社会学）建立起来的。有时甚至是哲学）。那些无法融入自然科学或社会科学的智力领域被留给了艺术领域。
With the establishment in the late nineteenth century of the concept of “social sciences,” the spectrum of modern intellectual activity was complete and the range of art had narrowed to its present domain. Those phenomena that yielded to study by the scientific method were ordered under the rubric of science and were strictly defined. Other phenomena, less susceptible to laboratory techniques and experimentation, but capable of being ordered with some logic and clarity, were established in the gray area of the social sciences (economics, sociology, politics, psychology, and sometimes even philosophy). Those areas of intellectual endeavor that could not be fit into either the physical or the social sciences were left to the domain of art.
由于社会科学的发展必然限制了艺术的实用性和功利性——这可能是对这种现象的反应——审美主义理论的发展。维多利亚时代晚期的“为艺术而艺术”运动植根于艺术家作为先知和牧师的浪漫主义理论，崇尚形式而非内容，并再次改变了这个词的焦点。艺术不再仅仅是理解世界的方法；现在它们本身就是目的。沃尔特·佩特宣称“所有艺术都渴望音乐的状态”。抽象——纯粹的形式——成为二十世纪艺术作品的试金石和评判艺术作品的主要标准。*
As the development of the social sciences necessarily limited the practical, utilitarian relevance of the arts—and probably in reaction to this phenomenon—theories of estheticism evolved. With roots in the Romantic theory of the artist as prophet and priest, the “art for art’s sake” movement of the late Victorian age celebrated form over content and once more changed the focus of the word. The arts were no longer simply approaches to a comprehension of the world; they were now ends in themselves. Walter Pater declared that “all art aspires to the condition of music.” Abstraction—pure form—became the touchstone of the work of art and the main criterion by which works of art were judged in the twentieth century.*
二十世纪前三分之二期间，抽象主义热潮迅速加速。十九世纪的前卫运动从不断发展的工业技术中汲取了进步的概念，并决定某些艺术必须比其他艺术更“先进”。前卫理论——从浪漫主义时期到二十世纪末艺术历史发展的主导思想——在抽象方面得到了最好的表达。在这方面，艺术正在模仿科学和技术，寻找其“语言”的基本元素——绘画、诗歌或戏剧的“量子”：作品越抽象，它就越能揭示基础知识。
The rush to abstraction accelerated rapidly during the first two-thirds of the twentieth century. In the nineteenth century the avant-garde movement had taken the concept of progress from the developing industrial technologies and decided that some art must perforce be more “advanced” than other art. The theory of the avant garde—which was a dominating idea in the historical development of the arts from the Romantic period until the late twentieth century—expressed itself best in terms of abstraction. In this respect the arts were mimicking the sciences and technology, searching for the basic elements of their “languages”—the “quanta” of painting or poetry or drama: the more abstract the work, the better it should reveal the basics.
20 年代的达达运动模仿了这一发展。这种戏仿在二十世纪中叶的极简主义作品中得到了呼应（但没有幽默感）。这标志着先锋派向抽象斗争的终点：塞缪尔·贝克特的四十秒戏剧（或他的十页小说）、约瑟夫·阿尔伯斯的色彩练习画、约翰·凯奇的无声音乐作品。将艺术简化为最基本的量子后，艺术家唯一的选择（除了退出）就是重新开始重建艺术的结构。这种新的综合体在 20 世纪 60 年代正式开始（尽管前卫抽象主义者还有最后一张牌可以打：1970 年代的概念艺术运动，它完全消除了艺术作品，只留下了想法）。
The Dada movement of the 1920s parodied this development. And the parody was echoed (but without the humor) in the minimalist work of the middle of the twentieth century. This marked the endpoint of the struggle of the avant garde toward abstraction: Samuel Beckett’s forty-second dramas (or his ten-page novels), Josef Albers’s color-exercise paintings, John Cage’s silent musical works. Having reduced art to its most basic quanta, the only choice for artists (besides quitting) was to begin over again to rebuild the structures of the arts. This new synthesis began in earnest in the 1960s (although the avant-garde abstractionists had one last card to play: the conceptual art movement of the 1970s, which eliminated the work of art entirely, leaving only the idea behind).
前卫艺术对抽象的迷恋结束的同时，政治和经济文化同时发现了进步的谬误，并在其位置发展了一种“稳态”的存在理论。从二十一世纪的角度来看，我们可以说艺术比政治和经济使这种转变更快、更容易。
The end of the avant-garde fascination with abstraction came at the same time that political and economic culture was, in parallel, discovering the fallacy of progress and developing in its place a “steady-state” theory of existence. From the vantage point of the twenty-first century, we might say that art made the transition quicker and easier than politics and economics.
抽象的加速虽然无疑是二十世纪艺术历史发展的主要因素，但并不是唯一的因素。对抗这种审美主义的力量是我们对艺术政治维度的持续认识：即它们的根源在于社区，以及它们向我们解释社会结构的力量。
The acceleration of abstraction, while it was certainly the main factor in the historical development of the arts during the twentieth century, was not the only one. The force that counters this estheticism is our continuing sense of the political dimension of the arts: that is, both their roots in the community, and their power to explain the structure of society to us.
在西方文化中，这种相关性的力量（它导致古人将历史与音乐放在同等地位）当然没有占主导地位，但它确实有着悠久而光荣的历史，与抽象的审美冲动平行（如果从属于的话） 。20 世纪 70 年代，当本书第一版问世时，我们似乎可以肯定地认为，随着抽象主义和还原论的消失，艺术的政治维度——其社会本质——将变得越来越重要。现在，从应然的角度来看，*看来并没有——至少没有达到我们预期的程度。相反，大多数艺术，其中最主要的是电影，已经进入了商业平静期。大多数当代艺术的政治和社会商数都在明显增加：你可以从说唱音乐的主流影响、非虚构电影的蓬勃发展、数十个基于现实的有线电视频道，甚至 YouTube 革命中看到这一点。然而，这些艺术所反映的政治并没有超出 1970 年所达到的阶段：我们现在所关心的问题与当时所关心的问题或多或少是相同的。“不要杀死使者”（也不要责怪艺术家）。而且，尽管艺术家们已经理解并接受了前卫艺术的消逝，但政治家们还没有摆脱对滋养前卫艺术逻辑的左右辩证法的依赖。
In Western culture, the power of this relevance (which led the ancients to include History on an equal footing with Music) has certainly not dominated, but it does have a long and honorable history parallel with, if subordinate to, the esthetic impulse toward abstraction. In the 1970s, when the first edition of this book appeared, it seemed safe to assume that as abstraction and reductionism faded away, the political dimension of art—its social nature—would increase in importance. Now, from the perspective of the oughts,* it appears that it hasn’t—at least not to the degree we expected. Instead, most of the arts, film chief among them, have settled down into a period of commercial calm. There is an evident increase in the political and social quotient of most contemporary arts: you can see it in the mainstream influence of Rap music, the flowering of nonfiction film, dozens of reality-based cable channels, and even the YouTube revolution. However, the politics that these arts reflect hasn’t progressed much beyond the stage it had reached by 1970: more or less the same issues concern us now as then. “Don’t kill the messenger” (and don’t blame the artists). And, while the artists have understood and accepted the passing of the avant garde, the politicians haven’t yet freed themselves from dependence on the Left-Right dialectic that fed the logic of the avant garde.
所以艺术中有更多的政治——这只是简单的政治。此外，自 20 世纪 70 年代中期以来，艺术技术的爆炸式增长（我们将在第 6 章和第 7 章中详细讨论这一主题）已经掩盖并常常取代了我们所期望的新的相关性。这技术是过去百年决定艺术史的第三个基本因素。
So there is more politics in art—it’s just unsophisticated politics. Moreover, the explosion in the technology of the arts since the mid-1970s, a subject we will discuss in some detail in Chapters 6 and 7, has overshadowed and often displaced the renewed relevance that we expected. This technology is the third basic factor that has determined the history of the arts during the past hundred years.
图 1-2。约瑟夫·阿尔伯斯 (Josef Albers) 的《向广场致敬：寂静的大厅》(Homage to the Square: Silent Hall , 1961) 是他较为生动的作品之一，体现了二十世纪中叶的极简主义。（组合板上的油画，40“x 40”，纽约现代艺术博物馆。弗兰克·斯坦顿博士和夫人基金会。照片 © 1995，纽约现代艺术博物馆。）
Figure 1-2. Josef Albers’s Homage to the Square: Silent Hall, 1961, one of his more lively compositions, exemplifies mid-twentieth-century minimalism. (Oil on composition board, 40″ x 40″, The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Dr and Mrs Frank Stanton Fund. Photograph © 1995, The Museum of Modern Art, NewYork.)
最初，创作艺术的唯一方式是“实时”：歌手唱歌曲，说书人讲故事，演员表演戏剧。史前绘画和（通过象形文字）书写的发展代表了通信系统的巨大飞跃。图像可以被存储，故事可以被保留，以后可以准确地回忆起来。七千年来，艺术史本质上就是两种代表性媒介的历史：绘画和文学。
Originally, the only way to produce art was in “real time”: the singer sang the song, the storyteller told the tale, the actors acted the drama. The development in prehistory of drawing and (through pictographs) of writing represented a quantum jump in systems of communication. Images could be stored, stories could be preserved, later to be recalled exactly. For seven thousand years the history of the arts was, essentially, the history of these two representative media: the pictorial and the literary.
记录媒体的发展与代表性媒体在种类和程度上都有所不同，但其历史意义与七千年前文字的发明一样重要。摄影、电影和录音一起极大地改变了我们的历史视角。
The development of recording media, different from representative media in kind as well as degree, was as significant historically as the invention of writing seven thousand years earlier. Photography, film, and sound recording taken together shifted dramatically our historical perspective.
具象艺术使现象的“再创造”成为可能，但它们需要语言规范和惯例的复杂应用。此外，这些语言是由个人操纵的，因此选择的元素在表现艺术中过去和现在都非常重要。这个元素是大多数美学的来源绘画和文学艺术。美学家感兴趣的不是说什么，而是如何说。
The representational arts made possible the “re-creation” of phenomena, but they required the complex application of the codes and conventions of languages. Moreover, those languages were manipulated by individuals and therefore the element of choice was and is highly significant in the representational arts. This element is the source of most of the esthetics of the pictorial and literary arts. What interests estheticians is not what is said but how it is said.
与此形成鲜明对比的是，记录艺术在主体和观察者之间提供了更直接的沟通渠道。他们确实有自己的规范和惯例，这是真的：电影或录音不是现实，*毕竟。但记录媒体的语言比书面或图像语言更直接、更明确。此外，直到最近，录音艺术的历史一直在朝着更加逼真的方向直接发展。彩色胶片比黑白胶片更能再现现实；有声电影比无声电影更贴近实际体验；等等。
In stark contrast, the recording arts provide a much more direct line of communication between the subject and the observer. They do have their own codes and conventions, it’s true: a film or sound recording is not reality,* after all. But the language of the recording media is both more direct and less ambiguous than either written or pictorial language. In addition, the history of the recording arts has—until recently—been a direct progression toward greater verisimilitude. Color film reproduces more of reality than does black-and-white; sound film is more closely parallel to actual experience than is silent; and so forth.
对于那些将后者用于科学目的的人来说，再现媒体和记录媒体之间的这种质的差异是非常明显的。例如，人类学家很清楚电影相对于文字的优势。电影并没有完全消除主体和观察者之间第三方的介入，但它确实显着减少了艺术家的存在不可避免地带来的扭曲。
This qualitative difference between representational media and recording media is very clear to those who use the latter for scientific purposes. Anthropologists, for example, are well aware of the advantages of film over the written word. Film does not completely eliminate the intervention of a third party between the subject and the observer, but it does significantly reduce the distortion that the presence of an artist inevitably introduces.
结果是一系列艺术，如下所示：
The result is a spectrum of the arts that looks like this:
实时发生的表演艺术；
the performance arts, which happen in real time;
再现艺术，依赖于既定的语言规范和惯例（图像和文学）向观察者传达有关主题的信息；
the representational arts, which depend on the established codes and conventions of language (both pictorial and literary) to convey information about the subject to the observer;
记录艺术，在主体和观察者之间提供了一条更直接的路径：媒体并非没有自己的代码，但在质量上比再现艺术的媒体更直接。
the recording arts, which provide a more direct path between subject and observer: media not without their own codes but qualitatively more direct than the media of the representational arts.
也就是说，到现在为止。数字技术在电影和音频中的应用在 20 世纪 80 年代末开始蓬勃发展，它指向了一个新的话语水平：现在正在彻底改变我们对录音艺术的态度。简而言之，变形和采样等数字技术破坏了我们对所看到和听到的图像和声音的真实性的信心。真实感仍然存在，但我们不能再相信我们的眼睛和耳朵。我们将在第 7 章中更详细地讨论这些显着的发展。
That is, until now. The application of digital technology to film and audio, which began to gather momentum in the late 1980s, points to a new level of discourse: one that is now revolutionizing our attitude toward the recording arts. Simply put, digital techniques like morphing and sampling destroy our faith in the honesty of the images and sounds we see and hear. The verisimilitude is still there—but we can no longer trust our eyes and ears. We’ll discuss these remarkable developments in greater detail in Chapter 7.
看待艺术的方式
Ways of Looking at Art
为了理解录音艺术如何在艺术领域中确立自己的地位，有必要首先定义该领域的一些基本概念。有各种各样的因素相互关联，赋予古典和现代艺术各自独特的个性，从而产生一些复杂的美学方程式。两种排序系统立即显现出来，一种主要起源于十九世纪，另一种则更为现代。
In order to understand how the recording arts established their place in the spectrum of art, it’s necessary first to define some of the basic concepts of that spectrum. There is a wide variety of factors that interrelate to give each of the classical and modern arts its own particular personality, resulting in some elaborate esthetic equations. Two ordering systems, one mainly nineteenth-century in origin, the other more contemporary, suggest themselves immediately.
抽象的光谱
The Spectrum of Abstraction
这些分类系统中较旧的系统的定义取决于特定艺术的抽象程度。这是最古老的艺术理论之一，可以追溯到亚里士多德的《诗学》（公元前四世纪）。根据这位希腊哲学家的说法，艺术最好被理解为一种模仿，一种对现实的模仿，依赖于媒介（通过其表达）和模式（媒介的使用方式）。那么，艺术的模仿性越强，它的抽象性就越低。然而，无论如何，艺术都不是完全能够再现现实的。
The older of these systems of classification depends for its definition on the degree of abstraction of a particular art. This is one of the oldest theories of art, dating back to Aristotle’s Poetics (fourth century BC). According to the Greek philosopher, art was best understood as a type of mimesis, an imitation of reality dependent on a medium (through which it was expressed) and a mode (the way the medium was utilized). The more mimetic an art is, then, the less abstract it is. In no case, however, is an art completely capable of reproducing reality.
根据抽象组织起来的一系列艺术看起来像这样：
A spectrum of the arts organized according to abstraction would look something like this:
图A _
DIAGRAM A
设计艺术（服装、家具、餐具等）通常甚至不会因为被纳入艺术范围而显得庄严，但它们却位于这一尺度的左端：高度模仿（叉子非常接近）彻底重现分叉的想法）并且至少抽象的。从左到右，我们发现建筑通常具有非常低的审美商数，*毕竟; 然后是雕塑，既是环境的又是图画的；然后是位于光谱图画区域中心的绘画、素描和其他图形艺术。
The arts of design (clothing, furniture, eating utensils, and so forth), which often are not even dignified by being included in the artistic spectrum, would be found at the left end of this scale: highly mimetic (a fork comes very close to thoroughly reproducing the idea of a fork) and least abstract. Moving from left to right we find architecture, which often has a very low esthetic quotient,* after all; then sculpture, which is both environmental and pictorial; then painting, drawing, and the other graphic arts at the center of the pictorial area of the spectrum.
戏剧艺术以多种方式结合了图画和叙事元素。长篇小说、短篇小说以及非小说类作品都完全属于叙事范围。然后是诗歌，虽然本质上基本上是叙事性的，但也倾向于音乐的一端（但有时是另一个方向，朝向图画）；舞蹈，将叙事元素与音乐相结合；最后，在这个谱系的最右端，音乐——最抽象和“审美”的艺术。记住沃尔特·佩特（Walter Pater）：“所有艺术都渴望音乐的状态。”
The dramatic arts combine pictorial and narrative elements in various measures. The novel, short story, and often nonfiction as well are situated squarely in the narrative range. Then come poetry, which although basically narrative in nature also tends toward the musical end of the spectrum (but sometimes in the other direction, toward the pictorial); dance, combining elements of narrative with music; and finally, at the extreme right of the spectrum, music—the most abstract and “esthetic” of the arts. Remember Walter Pater: “All art aspires to the condition of music.”
摄影和电影在哪里适合？因为它们是记录艺术，所以它们基本上涵盖了这个古典谱系的整个范围。摄影是电影的一个特例（剧照而不是电影），它自然地将自己定位在光谱的图像区域，但它也可以在该位置左侧的实际和环境区域中发挥作用。
Where do photography and film fit in? Because they are recording arts, they cover essentially the entire range of this classical spectrum. Photography, which is a special case of film (stills rather than movies), naturally situates itself in the pictorial area of the spectrum, but it can also fulfill functions in the practical and environmental areas to the left of that position.
电影涵盖的范围很广，从实用（作为一项技术发明，它是一种重要的科学工具）到环境，再到图画、戏剧和叙事，再到音乐。尽管我们最了解它是戏剧艺术之一，但电影具有很强的图像性，这就是为什么电影更常被收藏在艺术博物馆而不是图书馆；它也比任何其他戏剧艺术都具有更强的叙事元素，这是自DW格里菲斯以来电影制作人所认识到的一个特征，格里菲斯指出查尔斯狄更斯是他的先驱之一。由于其清晰、有组织的视觉节奏以及配乐，它与音乐有着密切的联系。最后，在其更抽象的体现中，电影也具有很强的环境性：随着显示技术的成熟，建筑师越来越多地将拍摄的背景融入到他们更具体的结构中。（要了解电影中对我们未来的憧憬，请参阅史蒂文·斯皮尔伯格的《少数派报告》， 2002 年。）
Film covers a broad range, from practical (as a technical invention it is an important scientific tool) through environmental, on through pictorial, dramatic, and narrative to music. Although we know it best as one of the dramatic arts, film is strongly pictorial, which is why films are collected more often in art museums than in libraries; it also has a much stronger narrative element than any of the other dramatic arts, a characteristic recognized by filmmakers ever since D. W. Griffith, who pointed to Charles Dickens as one of his precursors. And because of its clear, organized visual rhythms—as well as its soundtrack—it has close connections with music. Finally, in its more abstract incarnations, film is strongly environmental as well: as display technologies mature, architects increasingly integrate filmed backgrounds into their more tangible structures. (For a vision of our future submerged in movies see Steven Spielberg’s Minority Report, 2002.)
这种抽象范围只是组织艺术体验的一种方式；它在任何意义上都不是法律。光谱中的戏剧性领域很容易被归入图画和叙事之中；实用艺术可以结合起来与环境。这里重要的是简单地指出抽象的范围，从最模仿的艺术到最不模仿的艺术。
This spectrum of abstraction is only one way to organize the artistic experience; it is not in any sense a law. The dramatic area of the spectrum could easily be subsumed under pictorial and narrative; the practical arts can be combined with the environmental. What is important here is simply to indicate the range of abstraction, from the most mimetic arts to the least mimetic.
（让我们记住，我们在这里所做的更多的是艺术而不是科学。这里以及整本书中的抽象图表和二分法永远不应该被认为具有法律的分量；它们只是观察的方式，试图理解的尝试。如果如果你喜欢这些抽象，请尝试一些你自己的；如果你不喜欢它们，请继续第 2 章。）
(Let’s remember that what we are doing here is more art than science. The abstract diagrams and dichotomies here—and throughout the book—should never be thought to carry the weight of law; they are simply ways of seeing, attempts at understanding. If you like these abstractions, please try some of your own; if you don’t like them, move on to Chapter 2.)
话语方式
The Modes of Discourse
第二种更现代的对各种艺术进行分类的方法取决于作品、艺术家和观察者之间的关系。这种艺术体验的三角形图像将我们的注意力从作品本身转移到了交流媒介上。抽象程度也在这里，但仅限于它影响艺术家和观察者之间的关系。我们现在感兴趣的不是作品本身的质量，而是其传播的方式。
The second, more modern way to classify the various arts depends on the relationships among the work, the artist, and the observer. This triangular image of the artistic experience directs our attention away from the work itself, to the medium of communication. The degree of abstraction enters in here, too, but only insofar as it affects the relationship between the artist and the observer. We are interested now not in the quality of the work itself, but in the mode of its transmission.
以这种方式组织起来，艺术交流的系统看起来就像图B。垂直轴构成了艺术的直接体验；垂直轴构成了艺术的直接体验；垂直轴构成了艺术的直接体验。水平面、它的传递或叙述。文物、图画表现和图画记录（横轴上方的区域）占据空间而不是时间。表演、文学和电影记录更关心时间而不是空间。（在图 A 中，空间艺术占据光谱的左侧，时间艺术占据右侧。）
Organized this way, the system of artistic communication would look something like Diagram B. The vertical axis constitutes the immediate experience of an art; the horizontal, the transmission or narration of it. Artefacts, pictorial representations, and pictorial records (that area above the horizontal axis) occupy space rather than time. Performances, literature, and film records are more concerned with time than with space. (In Diagram A, the space arts occupy the left-hand side of the spectrum, the time arts the right.)
图B _
DIAGRAM B
请注意，任何单一艺术都不是占据图 B 中的一个点，而是占据一个区域。例如，一幅画既是一件艺术品，又是一种再现。建筑物不仅是一件人工制品，而且部分是一种再现，有时也是一种表演。（建筑评论家经常使用戏剧语言来描述建筑的体验；当我们穿过它时，我们对它的体验及时发生。）此外，记录艺术经常使用表演和再现的元素。
Note that any single art occupies not a point in Diagram B but rather an area. A painting, for example, is both an artefact and a representation. A building is not only an artefact but also partially a representation and occasionally a performance. (Architectural critics often use the language of drama to describe the experience of a building; as we move through it our experience of it takes place in time.) The recording arts, moreover, often use elements of performance and representation.
图A中的频谱为我们提供了艺术固有的抽象程度的指标；换句话说，它描述了艺术与其主题之间的实际关系。图 B 的图表为我们提供了艺术家可以使用的各种话语模式的简化图景。
The spectrum in Diagram A gives us an index of the degree of abstraction inherent in an art; in other words, it describes the actual relationship between an art and its subject matter. The graph of Diagram B gives us a simplified picture of the various modes of discourse available to the artist.
“生产报告”
The “Rapports de Production”
艺术体验的最后一个方面值得研究：法国人所说的“rapports de production”（生产关系）。艺术是如何以及为何产生的？如何以及为何消费它？这是艺术体验的“三角”：
There is one final aspect of the artistic experience that should be investigated: what the French call “rapports de production” (the relationships of production). How and why does art get produced? How and why is it consumed? Here is the “triangle” of the artistic experience:
图C _
DIAGRAM C
对艺术家与作品之间关系的考察产生了艺术生产的理论，而对作品与观察者之间关系的分析则给我们提供了其消费的理论。三角形的第三条腿，即艺术家-观察者，迄今为止一直是潜在的而不是实际的，尽管随着 20 世纪 80 年代初期在线服务的发展，人们对互动交流方式的兴趣日益浓厚，现在这种关系向一些人开放了。有趣的新可能性。艺术家和观察者第一次拥有了合作的技术。互联网博客是这种合作的一个引人注目的例子，多人游戏和互动小说也是如此。
Examination of the relationship between the artist and the work yields theories of the production of art, while analysis of the relationship between the work and the observer gives us theories of its consumption. The third leg of the triangle, artist-observer, has been until now potential rather than actual, although the heightened interest in interactive means of communication, which began in the early 1980s with the growth of online services, now opens up this relationship to some interesting new possibilities. For the first time, artist and observer have the technology to collaborate. Internet blogs are a striking example of such collaboration, as are multiplayer games and interactive fiction.
无论我们从生产还是消费的角度来看待艺术体验，都有一组决定因素体验的特殊形状。它们中的每一个都有一定的功能，并且每一个又产生了自己的一般批评体系。以下是决定因素、它们的功能以及它们支持的批评体系的概述：
Whether we approach the artistic experience from the point of view of production or of consumption, there is a set of determinants that gives a particular shape to the experience. Each of them serves a certain function, and each in turn yields its own general system of criticism. Here is an outline of the determinants, their functions, and the systems of criticism they support:
图D _
DIAGRAM D
这些生产关系的决定因素在大多数人类活动中发挥作用，但它们的运作在艺术中尤其明显，因为在艺术中，往往主导大多数其他活动的经济和政治因素与心理和技术因素更加平衡。 。
These determinants of the rapports de production function in most human activities, but their operation is especially evident in the arts, since it is there that the economic and political factors that tend to dominate most other activities are more in balance with the psychological and technical factors.
从历史上看，政治决定因素是首要的：正是这个因素决定了艺术或艺术作品如何在社会上使用。在这里，消费比生产更重要。希腊和罗马的艺术理论作为一种认识论活动属于这一类别，特别是当对知识的追求被视为准宗教时。艺术作为社区庆典的仪式性方面是这种方法的核心。政治决定因素定义了艺术作品与培育它的社会之间的关系。
Historically, the political determinant is primary: it is this factor that decides how an art—or work of art—is used socially. Consumption is more important here than production. Greek and Roman theories of art as an epistemological activity fit under this category, especially when the quest for knowledge is seen as quasi-religious. The ritualistic aspect of the arts as celebrations of the community is at the heart of this approach. The political determinant defines the relationship between the work of art and the society that nurtures it.
另一方面，心理决定因素是内省的，我们的注意力不是集中在作品与整个世界之间的关系上，而是集中在作品与艺术家、作品与观察者之间的联系上。自从亚里士多德的宣泄理论以来，艺术作品的深刻心理影响就得到了认识。二十世纪初，在精神分析的伟大时代，大多数心理分析都集中在艺术家与作品之间的联系上。该作品被视为作者心理状态的指标——有点像一种深刻而复杂的罗夏墨迹测试。然而，最近，心理注意力已经转向作品与其消费者（观察者）之间的联系。
The psychological determinant, on the other hand, is introspective, focusing our attention not on the relationship between the work and the world at large, but on the connections between the work and the artist, and the work and the observer. The profound psychological effect of a work of art has been recognized ever since Aristotle’s theory of catharsis. In the early twentieth century, during the great age of psychoanalysis, most psychological analysis centered on the connection between the artist and the work. The work was seen as an index of the psychological state of its author—sort of a profound and elaborate Rorschach test. Recently, however, psychological attention has shifted to the connection between the work and its consumer, the observer.
技术决定因素支配着艺术语言。考虑到艺术的基本结构——例如油画相对于蛋彩画或丙烯酸树脂的特殊品质——可能性的限制是什么？如何将一个想法翻译成艺术语言会影响这个想法吗？每种特定艺术语言的思想形式是什么？他们如何塑造艺术家使用的材料？这些问题属于技术决定因素的范畴。录音艺术因为其技术比其他艺术复杂得多，所以特别容易受到这种分析的影响。第 2 章将深入讨论这些因素。但即使像小说这样看似非技术性的艺术也深受技术决定因素的影响。例如，如果没有印刷机的发明，小说就不可能以我们今天所知的形式存在。
The technical determinant governs the language of the art. Given the basic structure of the art—the particular qualities of oil paint, for example, versus tempera or acrylics—what are the limits of the possibilities? How does the translation of an idea into the language of the art affect the idea? What are the thoughtforms of each particular artistic language? How have they shaped the materials the artist utilizes? These questions are the province of the technical determinant. The recording arts, because they are grounded in a much more complex technology than the other arts, are especially susceptible to this kind of analysis. Chapter 2 will discuss these factors in depth. But even seemingly untechnological arts like the novel are deeply influenced by the technical determinant. For example, the novel could not exist in the form we know today without the invention of the printing press.
最后，所有艺术本质上都是经济产品，因此最终必须从经济角度来考虑。同样，电影和其他记录艺术是这种现象的主要例子。与建筑一样，它们的商业形式也是资本密集型和劳动密集型的。也就是说，它们涉及大量资金支出，并且往往需要大量工人。数字时代大大减少了艺术家在电影制作过程中的资本和劳动力投入，但这并没有降低它们的重要性：如果不是你的资本，那就是索尼的；如果这不是你的劳动成果，那就是谷歌的劳动成果。
Finally, all arts are inherently economic products and as such must eventually be considered in economic terms. Again, film and the other recording arts are prime examples of this phenomenon. Like architecture, in their commercial forms they are capital-intensive and labor-intensive; that is, they involve large expenditures of money and they often require large numbers of workers. The digital age has drastically reduced the artist’s investment of both capital and labor in the filmmaking process but it hasn’t decreased their significance: if it isn’t your capital, it’s Sony’s; if it isn’t your labor, it’s Google’s.
这四个决定因素在艺术过程的每个阶段都以新的关系展现出来。技术和经济决定因素构成了任何艺术的基础。艺术的语言及其技术在艺术家决定使用它们之前就已经存在。此外，每种艺术都受到某些经济现实的限制。电影，因为它是一种非常昂贵的艺术，特别容易受到经济考虑造成的扭曲。电影复杂的经济基础设施——构成艺术基础的复杂的制作、发行和消费规则——对电影制片人设置了严格的限制，这一事实经常被评论家忽视。这些经济因素反过来又与艺术的某些政治和心理用途有关。例如，作为一种经济商品，电影通常最好被理解为销售一种本质上是心理性质的服务：我们最常去看电影是为了它们提供的情感效果。
These four determinants reveal themselves in new relationships at each stage of the artistic process. The technological and economic determinants form the basis for any art. The language of the art and its techniques exist before the artist decides to use them. Moreover, each art is circumscribed by certain economic realities. Film, because it is a very expensive art, is especially susceptible to the distortions caused by economic considerations. The elaborate economic infrastructure of film—the complex rules of production, distribution, and consumption that underlie the art—set strict limitations on filmmakers, a fact that is often ignored by critics. These economic factors, in turn, are related to certain political and psychological uses to which an art can be put. As an economic commodity, for example, film can often best be understood as selling a service that is essentially psychological in nature: we most often go to movies for the emotional effects they provide.
面对这些不同的决定因素，艺术家在既定的可能性范围内做出选择，偶尔会开辟新天地，最常见的是重新组织和组合现有因素。
Artists, confronted with these various determinants, make choices within the set of established possibilities, occasionally breaking new ground, most often reorganizing and recombining existing factors.
当我们沿着艺术三角形的另一条腿向下移动时，决定因素在新的关系中显现出来。艺术作品一旦完成，从某种意义上说，它就有了自己的生命。首先，它是一个经济待开发的产品。这种利用会导致某些心理影响。随着电影影响力的扩大，最终产品是政治性的。无论艺术作品看起来多么与政治无关，无论你喜欢与否，每件作品都具有政治相关性。
As we move down the other leg of the artistic triangle, the determinants reveal themselves in new relationships. Once the work of art has been completed it has, in a sense, a life of its own. It is, first of all, an economic product to be exploited. This exploitation results in certain psychological effects. The end product, as the influence of the film spreads, is political. No matter how apolitical the work of art may seem, every work has political relevance, like it or not.
自古典时代以来，政治和心理决定因素就被认为是艺术体验中的重要因素。例如，贺拉斯在他的《诗学》（Ars Poetica）中宣称，一部作品的标准是它既实用又美味，“有用”和“甜蜜”或“令人愉快”。作品的功利价值由政治决定因素决定，其可享受性则由心理决定因素决定。
Since classical times the political and psychological determinants have been recognized as important factors in the artistic experience. In his Ars Poetica, for example, Horace declared that the criteria for a work were that it be both utile et dulce, “useful” and “sweet,” or “enjoyable.” The utilitarian value of the work is governed by the political determinant, its enjoy-ability by the psychological.
然而，直到现代，艺术作品的技术和经济决定因素才受到认真关注。符号学的方法是将艺术和媒体作为语言或语言系统来研究——具有内在规律的技术结构，不仅控制“所说”的内容，而且控制“所说”的方式。符号学试图描述文化现象中运作的代码和结构系统。它通过使用语言模型来做到这一点；也就是说，电影符号学将电影描述为一种“语言”。
Only in the modern period, however, has serious attention been paid to the technical and economic determinants of the work of art. The approach of semiotics is to study the arts and media as languages or language systems—technical structures with inherent laws governing not only what is “said” but also how it is “said.” Semiotics attempts to describe the codes and structural systems that operate in cultural phenomena. It does this by using a linguistic model; that is, the semiotics of film describes film as a “language.”
另一方面，辩证批评则在经济背景下研究艺术。辩证批评由 20 世纪 30 年代和 1940 年代的德国哲学家法兰克福学派（尤其是沃尔特·本雅明、TW 阿多诺和马克斯·霍克海默）首创，它分析了作品、艺术家和观察者之间的直接关系，因为它们以经济和文化的形式表达出来。政治结构。符号学和辩证法这两种现代艺术方法的结合使我们对艺术体验的复杂性有了更全面、更精确的理解。
Dialectical criticism, on the other hand, studies the arts in their economic context. Pioneered by the Frankfurt school of German philosophers in the 1930s and 1940s—especially Walter Benjamin, T. W. Adorno, and Max Horkheimer—dialectical criticism analyzes the direct relationships among the work, the artist, and the observer as they are expressed in terms of economic and political structures. The addition of these two modern approaches to the arts—semiotics and dialectics—gives us a fuller and more precise understanding of the complexities of the artistic experience.
它还允许我们更自由地定义其限制。虽然艺术家作为牧师或先知的形象占主导地位，但没有办法将作品的体验与作品的制作分开。艺术取决于艺术家。但当我们认识到美学的技术和语言根源时，我们更倾向于从消费者的角度来看待艺术体验。换句话说，我们可以将自己从艺术家/牧师的束缚中解放出来，发展出一种“新教”的艺术理论。我们已经将实用设计艺术纳入万神殿。我们可以走得更远。
It also allows us more freedom to define its limits. While the image of the artist as priest or prophet reigned, there was no way to disconnect the experience of the work from the production of it. Art depended on artists. But when we recognize the technical and linguistic roots of esthetics, we are more inclined to approach the artistic experience from the point of view of the consumer. In other words, we can liberate ourselves from artist/priests and develop a “protestant” theory of art. We have already admitted the practical arts of design into the pantheon. We can go further.
进入艺术领域最明显的候选者之一是体育。大多数体育活动都采用主角/对手的基本戏剧结构，因此可以用戏剧的方式来观看。“情节”不是预先注定的，只是增加了它的可能性和悬念的元素。每次游戏都会重复基本的“主题”上演只是强化了戏剧的仪式性方面。大多数体育活动都具有舞蹈的许多价值观。媒体不仅允许记录体育赛事以供将来学习和欣赏，而且还大大缩短了运动员和观察者之间的距离，因此增强了我们对大多数体育运动的编排方面的感觉。
One of the most obvious candidates for admission to the spectrum of the arts is sports. Most sports activities adapt the basic dramatic structure of protagonist/antagonist and can therefore be viewed in dramatic terms. That the “plot” is not preordained simply increases its possibilities and the element of suspense. That the basic “theme” is repeated every time a game is played only reinforces the ritualistic aspects of the drama. Most sports activities share many of the values of dance. Media have not only permitted the recording of sports events for future study and enjoyment but have also significantly decreased the distance between athletes and observers and therefore have heightened our sense of the choreographic aspect of most sports.
图 1-3。爱德华·戴耶斯 (Edward Dayes) 的画作《伦敦皇后广场》， 1786 年，与……有着惊人的相似之处。
Figure 1-3. Edward Dayes’s painting Queen Square, London, 1786, offers striking similarities with…
想象一下，一个完全不熟悉舞蹈或篮球的陌生人面对着这两个例子。这两种人类活动中没有任何因素要求我们区分它们：迈克尔·乔丹至少与米哈伊尔·巴里什尼科夫相当。这些大师的演奏之间的差异就像爵士乐和古典音乐之间的差异一样。运动是“无意识的”（也就是说，它们不是为了表达观点而进行的），这只会增加我们对它们的体验的潜在多样性。
Imagine a stranger totally unfamiliar with either dance or basketball being confronted with an example of each. There is no element of either human activity that would insist that we differentiate between them: Michael Jordan was at least the equal of Mikhail Baryshnikov. The difference between these masters’ performances is like the difference between Jazz and Classical music. That sports are “unintentional” (that is, that they are not performed to make a point) simply increases the potential variety of our experience of them.
人类努力的其他领域，比如体育运动，当我们从消费而不是生产的角度来看待它们时，例如消费品，它们就会具有新的意义。我们体验食物和饮料（以及香水和可能的其他感官装置）的方式与我们体验最具美感的艺术、音乐的方式大致相同。我们用来描述后者的隐喻（自从莎士比亚在《第十二夜》提出“音乐是爱情的食粮”）强化了这种密切的比较。
There are other areas of human endeavor that, like sports, take on new significance when we approach them from the point of view of consumption rather than production—consumables, for example. We experience food and drink (and perfume and possibly other sensual devices) in much the same way that we experience that most esthetic of arts, music. The metaphors we have used to describe the latter (ever since Shakespeare in Twelfth Night suggested that “music be the food of love”) reinforce this close comparison.
图 1-4…. 这幅风景画出自斯坦利·库布里克 (Stanley Kubrick) 的《巴里·林登》(Barry Lyndon)，背景发生在十八世纪。电影自然地借鉴了古老艺术的历史传统。（框架放大。）
Figure 1-4…. this landscape from Stanley Kubrick’s Barry Lyndon, set in the eighteenth century. Film naturally draws on the historical traditions of the older arts. (Frame enlargement.)
诚然，食物或饮料中的思想量往往非常低。很难用绿色蔬菜的语言来做出“陈述”。但这只是要注意，我们的味觉、嗅觉和触觉与我们的视觉和听觉在本质上是不同的。理想情况下，食品或饮料创作中的工艺元素并不比音乐或绘画中的工艺元素复杂。葡萄酒和烹饪的批评家经常使用比喻，如果我们谈论文学或绘画，这些比喻也不会不合适。
True, the quantity of thought in food or drink is often exceedingly low; it is difficult to make a “statement” in, say, the language of green vegetables. But that is only to note that our senses of taste, smell, and touch are different in kind from our senses of sight and hearing. The element of craft in the creation of food or drink is no less sophisticated ideally than it is in music or drawing. And critics of wine and cooking often use metaphors that would not be out of place if we were to talk about literature or painting.
让我们扭转这一局面：至少在某种程度上，我们消费音乐、电影和文学等艺术就像消费食物一样。就像音乐一样，饮食艺术接近于纯粹的联觉体验。迹象之一是，我们对两者的正常体验模式与叙事艺术有本质上的不同。我们像食物一样定期、反复地消费音乐。听过莫扎特的钢琴协奏曲。23 有一次，喝了一瓶Chassagne-Montrachet之后，我们并不认为我们已经用尽了它们的可能性。我们也不想谴责协奏曲或葡萄酒，因为我们无法发现其中的“意义”。如果纯粹的审美是艺术的有效标准，那么消费品就应该被纳入该范围。在过去的三十年里，发生了爆炸性的变化对食品世界的新闻报道而专门报道电影的专栏仅略有增加，而文学批评则明显下降。
Let’s turn this around: at least in part, we consume arts like music, film, and literature in the same way that we consume food. Like music, the art of food and drink comes close to a purely synesthetic experience. One sign of this is that our normal mode of experience of both differs in kind from the narrative arts. We consume music, like food, regularly and repeatedly. Having heard Mozart’s Piano Concerto no. 23 once, having drunk a single bottle of Chassagne–Montrachet, we do not think that we have exhausted their possibilities. We also do not think to censure either the concerto or the wine because we cannot discover “meaning” in it. If the pure esthetic is a valid criterion for art, then consumables should be admitted to the spectrum. During the past thirty years there has been an explosion in journalistic coverage of the world of food while column-inches devoted to film have increased only slightly and literary criticism has markedly declined.
当然，这种食物艺术理论的意思是，艺术过程中观察者或消费者的功能与艺术家/生产者的功能同样重要。如果我们不承认葡萄酒或棒球属于公认的艺术范畴，那不是这些作品的制作者的错，而是消费者的集体决定——一个可以撤销的决定。
What this theory of the art of food is meant to suggest, of course, is that the function of the observer or consumer in the process of art is every bit as important as the function of the artist/producer. If we do not admit wine or baseball to the spectrum of accepted arts, it is not the fault of the producers of those works, but rather a collective decision by consumers—a decision that can be rescinded.
还有第二个推论：如果艺术体验的总和包括消费者和生产者，并且如果我们将其表达为产品：
There is a second corollary: If the sum total of the artistic experience includes the consumer as well as the producer, and if we express it as a product:
生产x消费
PRODUCTION x CONSUMPTION
然后，一种增加总和的新方法出现了。迄今为止，我们在评价一件艺术品时，主要关注的是制作因素。我们只评判艺术家的贡献，通常是根据人为的理想来衡量：
then a novel way of increasing the sum presents itself. Heretofore, when evaluating a work of art, we have concentrated on the production factor. We have judged only the artist’s contribution, usually measured against an artificial ideal:
成就
ACHIEVEMENT
要求
REQUIREMENT
在判断其他更实用的经济活动（例如地板蜡或螺丝刀的生产）时可能具有一定价值的商，但作为艺术评价体系是似是而非的，因为它的有效性取决于分母，任意的“要求”。但我们也可以通过增加消费因素（无论是质量还是数量）来轻松地增加艺术体验。
a quotient that may have some value in judging other economic activities of a more practical nature (the production of floor waxes or screwdrivers, for example) but that is specious as a system of artistic evaluation, since it depends for its validity on the denominator, an arbitrary “requirement.” But we can just as easily increase the experience of art by increasing the factor of consumption, both in quality and in quantity.
从数量上来说，接触一件艺术品的人越多，它的潜在影响就越大。从定性的角度来看，观察者/消费者确实有能力通过成为过程中更复杂、更有创造力或更敏感的参与者来增加作品的总价值。尽管理论上可能如此，但实际上这并不是一个新想法。事实上，电影本身尤其富含此类活动。毕竟，电影爱好者已经训练自己辨别诸如雅克·图尔纳或阿奇·梅奥等小导演的电影中固有的主题、美学甚至政治价值观。充其量，这些爱好者对于该学科的普通学生来说是批评的前沿；在最坏的情况下，他们发现了一种比我们其他人从可怜的艺术矿石中提取更大价值的方法。这就是艺术的新生态。
In quantitative terms, the more people who are exposed to a work of art, the more potential effect it has. In qualitative terms, the observer/consumer does have it within his power to increase the sum value of the work by becoming a more sophisticated, creative, or sensitive participant in the process. This is not a new idea in practice, although it may be so in theory. Indeed, film itself is especially rich in this sort of activity. Film buffs, after all, have trained themselves to discern the thematic, esthetic, even political values inherent in, say, the films of minor directors such as Jacques Tourneur or Archie Mayo. At best, such buffs are the cutting edge of criticism for general students of the subject; at worst, they have discovered a way to extract greater value from poor artistic ore than the rest of us. This is the new ecology of art.
艺术家们自己也很清楚这种新的、积极响应的关系的潜力。发现艺术、发现诗歌、任意戏剧、具体音乐——所有这些都是基于对观察者增加艺术体验价值的潜在力量的理解。艺术家在每一个例子中所做的就是充当一个预观察者，一个不创造而是选择的编辑者。诗人丹尼斯·莱维托夫（Denise Levertov）简洁地表达了这项事业的逻辑：
Artists themselves are well aware of the potential of this new, responsive relationship. Found art, found poetry, aleatoric theater, musique concrète—all are based on an understanding of the potential power of the observer to multiply the value of artistic experience. What the artist does in each of these instances is to act as a preobserver, an editor who does not create, but chooses. The poet Denise Levertov has expressed the logic for this enterprise succinctly:
我想给你
一些我做的东西
I want to give you
something I’ve made
页面上的一些文字——好像
在说“这里有一些蓝色的珠子”
some words on a page—as if
to say “Here are some blue beads”
或者，“这是我在人行道上发现的一片鲜红的叶子”（因为
or, “Here’s a bright red leaf I found on
the sidewalk” (because
发现就是选择，而选择
就是做出的）……。*
to find is to choose, and choice
is made)….*
她用八行诗不仅描述了基本的艺术驱动力，还描述了不是从生产者的角度而是从消费者的角度来对待艺术的理由：“因为发现就是选择，而选择是做出来的。”
In eight lines she describes not only the essential artistic drive but also the justification for approaching art not from the point of view of the producer but from that of the consumer: “because to find is to choose, and choice is made.”
这意味着观察者不仅可以增加对艺术作品的感知，而且还可以采取行动：从每天呈现的戏剧、图画、叙事、音乐和环境材料中做出选择：选择是做出的。此外，这种新的艺术方程式还存在伦理方面的问题，因为它强烈暗示观察者与艺术家是平等的。因此，“消费者”这个词具有误导性，因为观察者不再是被动的，而是主动的。他们充分参与艺术的过程。
This means not only that observers can increase their perception of made art works, but also that they can act: making choices from the dramatic, pictorial, narrative, musical, and environmental materials that present themselves day by day: choice is made. Moreover, there is an ethical aspect to this new artistic equation, for it implies strongly that the observer is the equal of the artist. The word “consumer,” then, is misleading, for the observers are no longer passive but active. They participate fully in the process of art.
对艺术家和观察者角色的重新评估的意义不可低估。艺术在七千年的历史中必须承受的最困难的挑战是随着工业革命而发展的大规模生产技术所带来的挑战。虽然大规模生产的优势在于它使艺术不再是精英企业，但这也意味着自工业革命以来艺术家们不得不不断地奋斗以阻止他们的工作从变成商品。只有过程另一端的观察者的积极参与才能保证防止这种情况发生。
The significance of this reappraisal of the roles of artist and observer cannot be underestimated. The most difficult challenge the arts have had to sustain in their seven-thousand-year history has been that posed by the techniques of mass production that grew up with the industrial revolution. While the advantage of mass production has been that it makes art no longer an elite enterprise, it has also meant that artists have had to struggle continuously since the industrial revolution to prevent their work from being turned into a commodity. Only the active participation of the observer at the other end of the process is guarantee against this.
图1-5.. 有两种方法可以花费大量资金来制作电影。在《现代启示录》中，弗朗西斯·福特·科波拉 (Francis Ford Coppola) 与数千名演员一起重塑了越南战争。这部电影在七十年代中期耗资超过 3000 万美元……
Figure 1-5.. There are two ways to spend exorbitant amounts of money on making movies. For Apocalypse Now Francis Ford Coppola reinvented the Vietnam War with the proverbial cast of thousands. The film cost upwards of $30 million in the mid-seventies….
曾经，艺术作品纯粹是根据任意理想和人为要求来评判的，现在它可以被视为“半成品”材料，供观察者用来完成艺术过程，而不是简单地消费。现在的问题不是“这件艺术品符合标准吗？” 而是“我们怎样才能最好地利用这件艺术品？” 当然，我们这里说的是理想。事实上，大多数艺术观察者（无论是大众还是精英）仍然被动消费。但参与式艺术民主运动正在兴起：音乐家互相“模仿”；博客鼓励对文本评论进行评论；数百万人在 YouTube 上发帖。
Where once the work of art was judged purely according to arbitrary ideals and artificial requirements, now it can be seen as “semifinished” material, to be used by the observer to complete the artistic process rather than simply consumed. The question now is not, “Does this art work meet the standards?” but rather, “How can we use this art work best?” Of course, we are speaking of an ideal here. In reality, most observers of art (whether popular or elite) still passively consume. But the movement toward participatory artistic democracy is growing: Musicians “sample” each other; blogs encourage comments on comments on texts; and millions post to YouTube.
新技术增强了艺术家和观察者之间的这种新的平等。既然观察者拥有以多种方式重塑艺术家作品的技术力量，那么艺术家如果不考虑观察者新发现的自由，那就太愚蠢了。如今，任何成熟的青少年都可以像制作 CD 的唱片艺术家一样轻松地“品尝”一张最喜欢的 CD。大多数每天在 iTunes 上花费一个多小时的孩子都知道大多数流行歌曲有多个版本或“混音版”，就像他们知道电影有多个版本一样。艺术品不再是神圣的。而不是生产成品无论喜欢与否，艺术家现在都在生产原材料，我们消费者可以根据自己的喜好进行编辑：“……选择已经做出。”
The new technology amplifies this new equality between artist and observer. Now that the observer has the technological power to reshape the artist’s work in numerous ways, the artist would be foolish not to make allowances for the observer’s new-found freedom. Any sophisticated teenager today can “sample” a favorite CD just as easily as the recording artist who produced it. And most kids who spend more than an hour a day on iTunes are aware that there are multiple editions, or “mixes,” for most popular songs, just as they know that movies are released in several versions. The work of art is no longer holy. Rather than producing a finished work, the artist now produces—like it or not—raw materials that we consumers can edit to our liking: “… choice is made.”
图 1-5。......但如今，没有必要雇佣真人，大片预算中最大的项目就是 CGI 特效。对于不需要高价明星就能成功的漫画和奇幻类项目尤其如此。山姆·雷米的三部蜘蛛侠电影的总预算超过了 5 亿美元。
Figure 1-5. … But these days, there’s no need to hire real people, and the biggest line item in blockbuster budgets is CGI special effects. This is especially true of comic-book and fantasy-based projects which don’t need high-priced stars to succeed. The combined budgets for Sam Raimi’s three Spider-Man films exceeded $500 million.
抽象的范围、话语的模式、决定因素的范围、生产者和消费者的等式（及其推论，过程的民主化）——正如我们之前提到的，这些不同的艺术研究方法并不是旨在承载科学定律的分量，但只是为了帮助理解艺术体验。作为概念结构，它们很有用，但过于认真地对待它们存在危险。这些都是思维方式。它们不是归纳得出的；相反，它们是从艺术体验本身推导出来的，并且旨在将这种体验置于适当的背景中：作为一种可比性同时又显得独特的现象。艺术体验至上；这种抽象批评是——或者应该是——次要活动。
The spectrum of abstraction, the modes of discourse, the range of determinants, the equation of producer and consumer (and its corollary, the democratization of the process)—these various approaches to the study of the arts, as we noted earlier, are not meant to carry the weight of scientific law, but simply as aids to an understanding of the artistic experience. As conceptual structures, they are useful, but there is a danger in taking them too seriously. These are ways of thinking. They are not derived inductively; rather, they are deduced from the artistic experience itself, and they are meant to set that experience in its proper context: as a phenomenon that is comparable at the same time as it appears unique. The experience of art comes first; abstract criticism of this sort is—or should be—a secondary activity.
此外，这些概念结构都不是孤立存在的。这些元素都在不断变化，它们之间的关系是辩证的。兴趣不在于建筑是否是一种环境艺术或绘画艺术，而在于这些元素在艺术中彼此之间以辩证关系存在。这是使它活跃起来的核心斗争。同样，我们将电影归类为记录模式还是再现模式也并不那么重要。（它确实表现出了代表性的元素——以及表演和人工制品的元素。）重要的是这些不同模式之间的对比是电影艺术的动力源泉。
Moreover, none of these conceptual structures exists in isolation. The elements are all in continual flux and their relationships are dialectical. The interest lies not in whether or not, say, architecture is an environmental or pictorial art but in the fact that these elements exist in a dialectical relationship with each other within the art. This is the central struggle that enlivens it. Likewise, it isn’t so important whether we classify film as being in the mode of record or representation. (It does evince elements of representation—and of performance and artefact, as well.) What counts is that the contrasts between and among these various modes are the source of power for the art of film.
图 1-6。到 20 世纪 60 年代末，“美术”已经与流行文化紧密结合。博物馆不再是知识分子和学生安静的避难所，而是受欢迎的、拥挤的聚集地，排着长队等待入场。很多时候，你看不到这些画。但你可以观察到人们在看画。这一变化可以追溯到 1963 年纽约大都会艺术博物馆在防弹玻璃后面举办的具有里程碑意义的《蒙娜丽莎》展览。在这里我们看到的是“人们不看马奈的《草地上的午餐》”……
Figure 1-6. By the late 1960s, the “fine” arts had become tightly integrated into popular culture. Museums were no longer quiet refuges for intellectuals and students, but rather popular, crowded gathering places with long lines waiting for admission. More often than not, you couldn’t see the paintings. But you could observe the people looking at the paintings. The change dates from the landmark exhibition of the Mona Lisa behind bulletproof glass at New York’s Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1963. Here we see “People Not Looking at Manet’s Déjeuner sur I’Herbe”…
一般来说，抽象的范围描述了艺术与其现实原材料的关系；话语模式系统解释了艺术从艺术家向观察者传播的方式；决定因素的结构描述了定义艺术形态的主要因素；艺术家和观察者的等式提出了批判艺术现象的新角度。
Generally, the spectrum of abstraction describes the relationships of the arts to their raw material in reality; the system of modes of discourse explains something about the ways in which the arts are transmitted from artist to observer; the structure of determinants describes the main factors that define the shape of the arts; and the equation of artist and observer suggests new angles of critical approach to the phenomena of the arts.
电影、录音和其他艺术
Film, Recording, and the Other Arts
录音艺术包含了一种全新的话语模式，与现有的模式平行。生活中发生的任何可以看到或听到的事情都可以记录在胶片、磁带或光盘上。因此，电影的“艺术”是连接旧艺术的桥梁，而不是紧贴现有的艺术范畴。从一开始，电影和摄影就是中立的：媒体先于艺术而存在。“电影是一项没有未来的发明”路易斯·卢米埃的这句话经常被引用。事实上，在他那个时代，情况可能就是这样。但当这种革命性的话语模式反过来应用于每一种古老的艺术时，它就获得了自己的生命。最早的电影实验者在电影中“做了”绘画、“做了”小说、“做了”戏剧等等，逐渐地，这些艺术的哪些元素在电影情境中起作用而哪些不起作用变得显而易见。
The recording arts comprise an entirely new mode of discourse, parallel to those already in existence. Anything that happens in life that can be seen or heard can be recorded on film, tape, or disc. The “art” of film, then, bridges the older arts rather than fitting snugly into the preexisting spectrum. From the beginning, film and photography were neutral: the media existed before the arts. “The cinema is an invention without a future,” Louis Lumière is often quoted as having said. And indeed it might have appeared so in his day. But as this revolutionary mode of discourse was applied, in turn, to each of the older arts, it took on a life of its own. The earliest film experimenters “did” painting in film, “did” the novel, “did” drama, and so forth, and gradually it became evident which elements of those arts worked in filmic situations and which did not.
图 1-6。和“人群陪伴马奈的宫女！” 两个场景都来自卢浮宫，1976 年 10 月。( JM )
Figure 1-6. and “Crowds Accompanying Manet’s Odalisque!” both scenes from the Louvre, October I976.(JM)
简而言之，电影艺术是通过复制过程发展起来的。电影的中性模板被置于小说、绘画、戏剧和音乐的复杂系统之上，以揭示这些艺术的某些元素的新真理。事实上，如果我们暂时忽略早期录制过程的粗糙性，这些艺术的大部分元素在电影中都表现得非常好。事实上，在过去的一百年里，艺术史与电影的挑战紧密相连。由于录音艺术自由地从前辈那里汲取灵感，所以绘画、音乐、小说、舞台剧——甚至建筑——都必须根据电影的新艺术语言重新定义自己。
In short, the art of film developed by a process of replication. The neutral template of film was laid over the complex systems of the novel, painting, drama, and music to reveal new truths about certain elements of those arts. In fact, if we disregard for the moment the crudity of early recording processes, the majority of the elements of those arts worked very well in film. Indeed, for the past hundred years the history of the arts is tightly bound up with the challenge of film. As the recording arts drew freely from their predecessors, so painting, music, the novel, stage drama—even architecture—had to redefine themselves in terms of the new artistic language of film.
电影、摄影和绘画
Film, Photography, and Painting
乍一看，“电影”与绘画艺术最为相似。起初，电影只能在有限的程度上与绘画直接竞争；直到 20 世纪 60 年代末，胶片色彩才足够复杂，被认为是一种工具。尽管存在这种严重的限制，但摄影和电影的效果几乎是可以感受到的。立即，因为技术媒体明显地在一个公认的有限但至关重要的方面超越了绘画：它们可以直接记录世界的图像。当然，绘画艺术除了精确的模仿之外还有其他功能，但自文艺复兴早期以来，模仿一直是绘画美学的主要价值。对于那些旅行是一件困难且危险的事情的人来说，风景场景的再现是令人着迷的，而肖像则是一种近乎神秘的体验。现在，数码照片的数量比我们在快照时代所拥有的图像的数量级还要大几个数量级，因此我们倾向于淡化绘画艺术的这一功能。
“Moving pictures” are at first glance most closely parallel to the pictorial arts. At first, film could compete directly with painting only to a limited extent; it wasn’t until the late 1960s that film color was sophisticated enough to be considered more than marginally useful as a tool. Despite this severe limitation, the effects of photography and film were felt almost immediately, for the technological media were clearly seen to surpass painting and drawing in one admittedly limited but nevertheless vital respect: they could record images of the world directly. Certainly, the pictorial arts have other functions besides precise mimesis, but ever since the early Renaissance mimesis had been a primary value in pictorial esthetics. To people for whom travel was a difficult and risky business, the reproduction of landscape scenes was fascinating and the portrait an almost mystical experience. Inundated now by an overwhelming tsunami of digital photos several orders of magnitude greater than the images we owned in the age of snapshots, we tend to downplay this function of the pictorial arts.
1839 年 1 月 7 日，弗朗索瓦·阿拉戈 (François Arago) 在法国科学院的一次演讲中向全世界宣布了记录摄影图像的可行方法的发明，不久之后，肖像画就成为其主要的开发领域。银版照相术让成千上万的普通人获得了迄今为止只有精英才能获得的永生。图像的民主化已经开始。几年之内，数千家肖像画廊应运而生。
Very soon after the invention of a viable means of recording a photographic image was announced to the world on January 7,1839, in a lecture by François Arago to the French Academy of Sciences, the portrait became its chief area of exploitation. The daguerreotype allowed thousands of ordinary people to achieve the kind of immortality that had hitherto been reserved to an elite. The democratization of the image had begun. Within a few years, thousands of portrait galleries had come into being.
但路易斯·达盖尔的发明并不完整。它产生了单个图像，但该图像无法复制。达盖尔独特系统发布仅一个月后，威廉·亨利·福克斯·塔尔伯特描述了如何通过在相机中记录负片摄影图像并使用它依次产生多个正片来再现图像。这是摄影艺术的第二个重要元素。当弗雷德里克·斯科特·阿彻 (Frederick Scott Archer) 的火棉胶工艺用胶片取代了塔尔博特 (Talbot) 粗糙的纸底片时，既能捕捉图像又能无限精确地复制图像的摄影系统就完成了。
But Louis Daguerre’s invention was incomplete; it produced a single image, but that image could not be replicated. Only a month after the announcement of Daguerre’s unique system, William Henry Fox Talbot described how an image could be reproduced by recording a negative photographic image in the camera and using that to produce, in turn, multiple positives. This was the second important element of the art of photography. When Frederick Scott Archer’s collodion process replaced Talbot’s rough paper negatives with film, the system of photography, which can both capture images and reproduce them infinitely and precisely, was complete.
自然地，摄影的新发明立即应用于它最有用的任务：拍摄肖像。绘画也做出了同样的回应。摄影发展和成熟的年代，大约是1840年代到1870年代，正是绘画理论迅速从模仿转向更复杂表达的年代。由于摄影的发明，画家们摆脱了模仿现实的责任，能够更全面地探索他们的艺术结构。摄影术的发明与绘画史上的这些发展之间当然不存在简单的因果关系。例如，约瑟夫·特纳 (Joseph Turner) 正在制作达盖尔完善他的发明三十年前的“反摄影”风景。但他们的联系不仅仅是巧合。
Naturally, the new invention of photography was immediately applied to the task where it was most useful: the production of portraits. Painting responded in kind. The years of development and maturation of photography, roughly the 1840s to the 1870s, are just those years in which the theory of painting was quickly developing away from mimesis and toward a more sophisticated expression. Freed by the invention of photography from the duty to imitate reality, painters were able to explore more fully the structure of their art. There is certainly no simple cause-and-effect relationship between the invention of photography and these developments in the history of painting. Joseph Turner, for example, was producing “antiphotographic” landscapes thirty years before Daguerre perfected his invention. But their connection is more than coincidental.
图 1-7。发现艺术。_ _ 安迪·沃霍尔长达八小时的《帝国》（1964）由一幅图像组成：透过曼哈顿烟雾看到的帝国大厦。办公楼作为艺术品。（框架放大，沃霍尔企业。）
Figure 1-7. FOUND ART. Andy Warhol’s eight-hour-long Empire (1964) consists of one image: the Empire State Building viewed through Manhattan smog. The office building as art-object. (Frame enlargements, Warhol Enterprises.)
更直接地说，摄影图像的质量似乎对印象派画家（特别是莫奈和奥古斯特·雷诺阿）的思维产生了直接影响，他们致力于捕捉机械衍生图像的直接且看似偶然的质量。印象派画家从理想化的绘画观念转向直接的科学现实主义，他们创作的图像必须被理解为与摄影的逻辑对比。由于相机的存在，画家们有动力重新发现瞬间的即时性和光线的独特品质，这两个因素在静态摄影的美学公式中占据着重要地位。当莫奈将许多这样的时刻并排放置时，就像他在一天中不同时间绘制的一系列大教堂和干草堆的画作一样，他采取了下一个合乎逻辑的步骤：他的绘画“翻页书”是电影的有趣先驱。
More directly, the very quality of the photographic image seems to have had a direct effect on the thinking of painters like the Impressionists (Monet and Auguste Renoir, in particular), who worked to capture the immediate and seemingly accidental quality of the mechanically derived image. In moving away from the idea of a painting as an idealization and toward immediate scientific realism, the Impressionists produced images that must be understood as a logical contrast with photography. Because the camera now existed, painters were motivated to rediscover the immediacy of the moment and the peculiar quality of light, two factors that loom large in the esthetic formula of still photography. When Monet put a number of these moments side by side, as in his series of paintings of cathedrals and haystacks at different times of the day, he took the next logical step: his painterly “flip-books” are intriguing precursors of the movies.
十九世纪中叶的静态摄影师本身似乎有时也将运动——时间元素——视为他们艺术的实现。在肖像和风景确立了照片的纪实价值后不久，英国的奥斯卡·G·雷兰德（Oscar G. Rejlander）和亨利·皮奇·罗宾逊（Henry Peach Robinson）等实验家通过精心制作的舞台表演将这两种形式融合在一起，与当时流行剧院中常见的舞台表演不同。他们使用演员，并经常通过煞费苦心地将底片拼贴在一起来达到效果。当然，这些摄影戏剧首先是对画家想法的回应（它们强烈地让人想起拉斐尔前派的作品），但事后看来，我们我们可以从雷兰德和罗宾逊精心设计的图像中辨别出戏剧性元素的根源，一旦图片开始移动，这种元素就变得至关重要。如果雷兰德和罗宾逊是多愁善感的前拉斐尔派，那么 DW 格里菲斯也是。
Still photographers themselves in the mid-nineteenth century also seem on occasion to be looking toward motion—the time element—as the fulfillment of their art. Not long after the portrait and the landscape had established the documentary value of photographs, experimenters like Oscar G. Rejlander and Henry Peach Robinson in England merged the two forms by staging elaborate tableaux not unlike those common in the popular theaters of the day. They used actors and often achieved their effects by painstakingly piecing together collages of negatives. Certainly these photographic dramas are a response to painters’ ideas first (they are strongly reminiscent of pre-Raphaelite work), but with the benefit of hindsight we can discern in Rejlander’s and Robinson’s elaborate images the roots of the dramatic element that was to become paramount once pictures began to move. If Rejlander and Robinson were sentimental pre-Raphaelites, so, too, was D. W. Griffith.
图 1-8。《母亲和女儿》，威廉·休 (William Shew) 的银版照片，拍摄于 1850 年左右。尽管现在状况不佳，这幅肖像照仍然展现了达盖尔工艺所能达到的精细细节和色调范围。（达盖尔照相法，第六版，3 1/8” x 2 5/8”。Coflection，纽约现代艺术博物馆。Ludwig Glaeser 的礼物。复印印刷 © 1995，纽约现代艺术博物馆。）
Figure 1-8. “Mother and Daughter,” a daguerreotype by William Shew, circa 1850. Although now in poor condition, this portrait still shows the fine detail and range of tones of which Daguerre’s process was capable. (Daguerreotype, sixth-plate, 3 1/8″ by 2 5/8″. Coflection, The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Gift of Ludwig Glaeser. Copy print © 1995, The Museum of Modern Art, NewYork.)
十九世纪不断发展的摄影技术与成熟的绘画艺术之间存在着许多微妙的相互关系。二十世纪初，绘画美学的下一个重大发展与电影的兴起相对应。同样，我们无法做出精确的关联。这并不像马塞尔·杜尚去看《火车大劫案》时大喊“啊哈！” 第二天坐下来画《下楼梯的裸体》。但同样，巧合也不容忽视。
There are many instances of these subtle interrelationships between the developing technology of photography and the established arts of painting and drawing in the nineteenth century. The next major development in the esthetics of painting, in the early twentieth century, corresponded with the rise of the moving picture. Again, there is no way we can make a precise correlation. It’s not as if Marcel Duchamp went to see a showing of The Great Train Robbery, cried, “Aha!” and next day sat down to paint Nude Descending a Staircase. But again, the coincidences cannot be ignored.
从一个角度来看，立体主义和未来主义的运动可以被视为对摄影图像日益重要的直接反应。就好像艺术家们在说：既然摄影在这些事情上做得这么好，我们就应该把注意力转向别处。立体主义绘画刻意避开气氛和光线（印象派在这些领域与新兴摄影师直接竞争并取得了成功），以彻底且不可逆转地打破西方绘画的模仿传统。立体主义标志着所有艺术史上的一个重要转折点。艺术家摆脱了对现实世界现有模式的依赖，可以将注意力转向第一次与其主题分离的艺术作品的概念。
From one perspective, the movements of Cubism and Futurism can be seen as direct reactions to the increasing primacy of the photographic image. It’s as if artists were saying: since photography does these things so well, we shall turn our attention elsewhere. Cubist painting deliberately eschewed atmosphere and light (the areas in which the Impressionists competed directly—and successfully—with the rising photographers) in order to break radically and irrevocably with the mimetic tradition of Western painting. Cubism marked a significant turning point in the history of all the arts; the artist was freed from a dependence on the existing patterns of the real world and could turn attention to the concept of a work of art that was, for the first time, separate from its subject.
图 1-9。威廉·亨利·福克斯·塔尔伯特 (William Henry Fox Talbot) 的卡特琳湖(Talbottype，c. 1845)。塔尔博特版（或又称柯罗版）的粗糙纸负片在图像中产生的纹理并不总是受欢迎。后来的火棉胶工艺使用透明玻璃底片，避免了这种纹理。
Figure 1-9. William Henry Fox Talbot’s Loch Katrine (Talbottype, c. 1845). The rough paper negative of the Talbottype (or collotype, as it was also known) produced a texture in the image that was not always welcome. The later collodion process, using clear glass negatives, avoided this texture.
从另一个角度来看，立体主义与电影的发展是并行的。在试图在画布上捕捉多个视角时，毕加索、布拉克和其他人直接回应了电影的挑战，因为它是一部动态图片，允许——甚至鼓励——复杂的、不断变化的视角。从这个意义上说，《下楼梯的裸体》试图将电影的多重视角定格在画布上。传统艺术史声称对立体主义最重要的影响是非洲雕塑，这无疑是正确的，因为立体主义者可能比埃德温·S·波特或乔治·梅里爱的电影更熟悉这些雕塑，但毕加索和布拉克都知道新媒体；从结构上讲，它与电影的关系很有趣。
From another perspective, Cubism was moving parallel with the development of film. In trying to capture multiple planes of perspective on canvas, Picasso, Braque, and others were responding directly to the challenge of film that, because it was a moving picture, permitted—even encouraged—complex, ever-changing perspectives. In this sense, Nude Descending a Staircase is an attempt to freeze the multiple perspectives of the movies on canvas. Traditional art history claims that the most important influence on Cubism was African sculpture and this is no doubt true, since the Cubists were probably more familiar with those sculptures than with the films of Edwin S. Porter or Georges Méliès, but Picasso and Braque were aware of the new medium; structurally the relationship with film is intriguing.
例如，立体主义的重要元素之一是尝试在画布上实现视角之间相互关系的感觉。这在非洲雕塑中没有来源，但它很像电影中蒙太奇剪辑的辩证法。立体主义和蒙太奇都避开了独特的视角，探索了多重视角的可能性。
One of the important elements of Cubism, for example, was the attempt to achieve on canvas a sense of the interrelationships among perspectives. This doesn’t have its source in African sculpture, but it is very much like the dialectic of montage—editing—in film. Both Cubism and montage eschew the unique point of view and explore the possibilities of multiple perspective.
绘画与电影之间的理论关系一直延续至今。意大利未来主义运动对电影进行了明显的模仿。当代摄影超现实主义继续对相机美学的影响进行评论。但这两种艺术之间的联系从未像立体主义时期那样尖锐和清晰。绘画对电影挑战的主要反应是立体主义首先解放的概念主义，现在它已成为所有艺术的共同点。模仿的工作主要留给了记录艺术。表现艺术和人工制品已经进入了一个新的、更抽象的领域。电影对绘画艺术提出的强烈挑战固然是其模仿能力的作用，但也源于电影与绘画截然不同的一个因素：电影是移动的。
The theoretical relationship between painting and film continues to this day. The Italian Futurist movement produced obvious parodies of the motion picture; contemporary photographic hyperrealism continues to comment on the ramifications of the camera esthetic. But the connection between the two arts has never again been as sharp and clear as it was during the Cubist period. The primary response of painting to the challenge of film has been the conceptualism that Cubism first liberated and that is now common to all the arts. The work of mimesis has been left, in the main, to the recording arts. The arts of representation and artefact have moved on to a new, more abstract sphere. The strong challenge film presented to the pictorial arts was certainly a function of its mimetic capabilities, but it was also due to the one factor that made film radically different from painting: film moved.
1819 年，约翰·济慈 (John Keats) 在他的《希腊古瓮颂》中赞扬了绘画艺术瞬间冻结时间的神秘能力：
In 1819, John Keats had celebrated the pictorial art’s mystical ability to freeze time in an instant in his “Ode on a Grecian Urn”:
你仍然是宁静的未受蹂躏的新娘，
你养育了沉默和缓慢时间的孩子……
听到的旋律很甜美，但那些未曾听到的
更甜美……
Thou still unravish’d bride of quietness,
Thou foster child of silence and slow time…
Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard
Are sweeter…
啊，快乐，快乐，树枝！它不会落下
你的叶子，也不会告别春天
，快乐的旋律家，不知疲倦，
永远唱着永远新的歌；
爱情更加幸福！更幸福，更幸福的爱情！
永远温暖，依然值得享受，
永远气喘吁吁，永远年轻……
Ah, happy, happy, boughs! that cannot shed
Your leaves, nor ever bid the Spring adieu
And, happy melodist, unwearied,
For ever piping songs for ever new;
More happy love! more happy, happy love!
For ever warm and still to be enjoy’d,
For ever panting, and for ever young…
一幅静止的艺术作品捕捉到飞翔的生命的凝固瞬间，有一种神奇和令人陶醉的感觉。但济慈的诗中有一个有启发性的讽刺，因为几乎可以肯定，他所赞美的那种瓮有饰带状的插图，而饰带是静态绘画艺术讲述故事、叙述事件——存在的主要尝试之一。 ，简而言之，在时间和空间上。
There is something magical and intoxicating about the frozen moment of a still work of art that captures life in full flight. But there is an instructive irony in Keats’s poem, for it is almost certain that the sort of urn he was hymning had friezelike illustrations, and friezes are among the major attempts of the still pictorial arts to tell a story, to narrate events—to exist, in short, in time as well as space.
从这个意义上说，电影只是完成了绘画的命运。理查德·莱斯特 (Richard Lester) 在 1966 年《前往论坛途中发生的一件有趣的事》的片尾字幕中很好地阐述了这一点。这部电影改编自一部音乐剧，改编自普劳图斯的戏剧（因此具有古典联系），以一个镜头结尾：巴斯特·基顿饰演的埃罗尼斯再次自信地围绕罗马七山奔跑。图像逐渐变成动画饰带，片尾字幕将投射在其上。最终定格结局！济慈的快乐树枝、快乐风笛手和快乐、快乐的恋人同样在瓮表面上的最初化身，如果可以的话，它们也会移动。
In this sense, movies simply fulfill the destiny of painting. Richard Lester made this point nicely in the end credits of A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum in 1966. The film, based on a musical, based on a play by Plautus (thus the classical connection), ends with a shot of Buster Keaton as Erronius running confidently once again around the Seven Hills of Rome. The image gradually turns into an animated frieze against which the credits are projected. The ultimate freeze-frame ending! Keats’s happy boughs, happy piper, and happy, happy lovers likewise in their original incarnation on the surface of the urn would move if they could.
图 1-10。雷兰德和罗宾逊等摄影艺术家的合成照片在一定程度上是对 19 世纪媒介相对僵化的回应。这幅特别的作品是亨利·皮奇·罗宾逊的《消逝》（1858 年），是五张底片的拼贴画。该系统允许艺术家捕捉前景细节以及透过窗户的背光。复合技术是现代电影哑光处理的直接先驱。（国际摄影博物馆，乔治伊士曼之家。）
Figure 1-10. The composite photographs of photo-artists like Rejlander and Robinson were in part a response to the relative inflexibility of the medium in the nineteenth century. This particular composition, Henry Peach Robinson’s Fading Away (1858), is a collage of five negatives. The system allowed the artist to capture foreground details as well as the back light through the window. The composite technique was a direct precursor of modern cinematic matte processes. (International Museum of Photography, George Eastman House.)
电影与小说
Film and the Novel
电影的叙事潜力如此显着，以至于它与小说而不是与绘画、甚至与戏剧建立了最牢固的联系。电影和小说都讲述了带有丰富细节的长故事，并且都是从叙述者的角度来讲述的，叙述者经常在故事和观察者之间插入一种引起共鸣的讽刺。小说中可以讲述的任何内容都可以在电影中粗略地描绘或讲述（尽管豪尔赫·路易斯·博尔赫斯或刘易斯·卡罗尔的最疯狂的幻想可能需要大量特效）。但这两种艺术之间的差异，除了图像叙述和语言叙述之间明显而有力的对比之外，很快就显而易见了。
The narrative potential of film is so marked that it has developed its strongest bond not with painting, not even with drama, but with the novel. Both films and novels tell long stories with a wealth of detail and they do it from the perspective of a narrator, who often interposes a resonant level of irony between the story and the observer. Whatever can be told in print in a novel can be roughly pictured or told in film (although the wildest fantasies of a Jorge Luis Borges or a Lewis Carroll might require a lot of special effects). But the differences between the two arts, besides the obvious and powerful contrast between pictorial narration and linguistic narration, are quickly apparent.
首先，由于电影是实时运作的，所以它的局限性更大。小说只有在他们愿意的时候才结束。一般来说，电影仅限于莎士比亚所说的“我们舞台上短短的两个小时的交通”。多年来，通俗小说一直是商业电影的巨大素材库。事实上，从流行小说的经济角度来看，将材料回收制成电影是大多数出版商的首要考虑因素。差不多了 有时，流行小说（相对于精英散文艺术）似乎只是作为电影的初稿而存在。
First, because film operates in real time, it is more limited. Novels end only when they feel like it. Film is, in general, restricted to what Shakespeare called “the short two hours’ traffic of our stage.” Popular novels have been a vast reservoir of material for commercial films over the years. In fact, the economics of the popular novel are such now that recycling the material as a film is a prime consideration for most publishers. It almost seems, at times, as if the popular novel (as opposed to elite prose art) exists only as a first-draft trial for the film.
图 1-11。马塞尔·杜尚的《下楼梯的裸体》，没有。2.（1912 年，布面油画，58 英寸 x 35 英寸。费城艺术博物馆，路易斯和沃尔特·安纳伯格收藏。）
Figure 1-11. Marcel Duchamp’s Nude Descending a Staircase, no. 2. (1912, oil on canvas, 58″ by 35″. Philadelphia Museum of Art, Louise and Walter Annenberg Collection.)
图 1-12。立体主义的视觉惯例被许多前卫电影艺术家所利用。立体主义的理论影响力更大。英格玛·伯格曼 1966 年的电影《女神异闻录》是立体主义视角的一个雄辩的例子。女演员伊丽莎白·沃格勒（丽芙·乌尔曼，左）和她的护士（比比·安德森，右）的观点处于如此强烈的平衡（如此处所示），以至于在影片的高潮（另一个镜头）中，他们的脸部图像在屏幕上合并在一起。（图框放大）
Figure 1-12. The visual conventions of Cubism were utilized by a number of avant-garde film artists. The theory of Cubism has been even more influential. Ingmar Bergman’s 1966 film Persona was an eloquent example of Cubist perspective. The points of view of actress Elizabeth Vogler (Liv Ullmann, left) and her nurse (Bibi Andersson, right) are in such intense balance (as shown here) that at the climax of the film (in another shot) the images of their faces merge together on screen. (Frame enlargement)
但商业电影仍然无法及时再现小说的范围。例如，平均剧本长度为 125 至 150 页打字稿；平均小说的三到四倍。从书本到电影的过渡过程中，事件的细节几乎总是会丢失。只有电视剧才能克服这个缺陷。它带有一些与长篇小说所必需的相同的持续感。例如，在《战争与和平》的所有银幕版本中，我认为最成功的是 BBC 对 20 世纪 70 年代初期的连续剧。不一定是因为表演或导演比两小时或六小时的电影版本更好（尽管这是有争议的），而是因为只有长篇电视连续剧才能重现传奇故事的本质刺激——持续时间。
But commercial film still can’t reproduce the range of the novel in time. An average screenplay, for example, is 125 to 150 typescript pages in length; the average novel three or four times that. Almost invariably, details of incident are lost in the transition from book to film. Only the television serial can overcome this deficiency. It carries with it some of the same sense of duration necessary to the large novel. Of all the screen versions of War and Peace, for example, the most successful seems to me to have been the BBC’s twenty-part serialization of the early 1970s; not necessarily because the acting or direction was better than the two- or six-hour film versions (although that is arguable), but because only the long-form television serial could reproduce the essential thrill of the saga—duration.
电影的叙述比小说短；然而，它自然具有小说所没有的图像可能性。无法通过事件转移的东西可能会转化为图像。到这里，我们就看到了两种叙述形式之间最本质的区别。
Film is limited to a shorter narration than the novel; however, it naturally has pictorial possibilities the novel doesn’t have. What can’t be transferred by incident might be translated into image. And here we come to the most essential difference between the two forms of narration.
小说是作者讲述的。我们只看到和听到他希望我们看到和听到的内容。电影或多或少也是由作者讲述的，但我们看到和听到的比导演想要的要多得多。对于小说家来说，试图像电影中所传达的那样详细地描述一个场景是一项荒谬的任务。（小说家阿兰·罗伯-格里耶在《嫉妒》和《迷宫》等小说中就以这种方式进行了实验。）更重要的是，小说家所描述的一切都经过他的语言、偏见和观点的过滤。对于电影，我们有一定的选择自由，可以选择一个细节而不是另一个细节。
Novels are told by the author. We see and hear only what he wants us to see and hear. Films are more or less told by their authors, too, but we see and hear a great deal more than a director necessarily intends. It would be an absurd task for a novelist to try to describe a scene in as much detail as it is conveyed in cinema. (The novelist Alain Robbe-Grillet experimented in just this way in novels like Jealousy and In the Labyrinth.) More important, whatever the novelist describes is filtered through his language, his prejudices, and his point of view. With film we have a certain amount of freedom to choose, to select one detail rather than another.
小说的驱动张力是故事材料（情节、人物、背景、主题等）与语言叙述之间的关系；换句话说，故事和讲述者之间。另一方面，电影的驱动张力在于故事的材料和图像的客观本质之间。就好像电影的作者/导演与他正在拍摄的场景不断发生冲突。机会起着更大的作用，最终结果是观察者可以更积极地自由参与体验。页面上的文字总是相同的，但屏幕上的图像随着我们转移注意力而不断变化。从这个角度来看，电影是一种更丰富的体验。
The driving tension of the novel is the relationship between the materials of the story (plot, character, setting, theme, and so forth) and the narration of it in language; between the tale and the teller, in other words. The driving tension of film, on the other hand, is between the materials of the story and the objective nature of the image. It’s as if the author/director of a film were in continual conflict with the scene he is shooting. Chance plays a much larger part, and the end result is that the observer is free to participate in the experience much more actively. The words on the page are always the same, but the image on the screen changes continually as we redirect our attention. Film is, in this way, a much richer experience.
但它也更糟糕，因为叙述者的角色要弱得多。例如，只有一部主要电影试图复制对小说如此有用的第一人称叙述，即罗伯特·蒙哥马利的《湖中女士》（1946）。结果是一种狭窄、幽闭恐怖的体验：我们只看到了英雄所看到的。为了向我们展示英雄，蒙哥马利不得不诉诸一系列镜子技巧。电影可以近似小说叙述中的讽刺，但它永远无法复制它们。在《怯场》（1950）中，阿尔弗雷德·希区柯克（Alfred Hitchcock）用一个角色的谎言讲述了一段闪回；观众很生气。你所看到的一定是真实的，除非它有其他特征。
But it is poorer, as well, since the persona of the narrator is so much weaker. There has only been one major film, for example, that tried to duplicate the first-person narration so useful to the novel, Robert Montgomery’s Lady in the Lake (1946). The result was a cramped, claustrophobic experience: we saw only what the hero saw. In order to show us the hero, Montgomery had to resort to a battery of mirror tricks. Film can approximate the ironies that the novel develops in narration, but it can never duplicate them. In Stage Fright (1950) Alfred Hitchcock had a character lie narrating a flashback; audiences were angry. What you see must be true, unless it has been otherwise characterized.
自然地，小说通过扩大对这一领域的关注来应对电影的挑战：叙事的微妙而复杂的讽刺。与绘画一样，二十世纪的散文叙事也从模仿转向自我意识。在此过程中，它出现了分歧。十九世纪曾经是一种统一的体验、社会和文化表达的主要形式以及人们所选择的艺术 二十世纪新近识字的中产阶级分为两种形式：通俗小说（约翰·格里沙姆、斯蒂芬·金、丹妮尔·斯蒂尔等人），现在与电影的联系如此紧密，有时甚至以剧本的形式开始；以及精英小说（唐纳德·巴塞尔姆、弗雷德里克·布希、米兰·昆德拉），其中正在进行“艺术”前卫工作。
Naturally, then, the novel responded to the challenge of film by expanded attention to just this area: the subtle, complex ironies of narration. Like painting, prose narrative has in the twentieth century turned away from mimesis and toward self-consciousness. In the process it has bifurcated. What was once in the nineteenth century a unified experience, the main form of social and cultural expression, and the chosen art of the newly literate middle classes, in the twentieth century divided into two forms: the popular novel (John Grisham, Stephen King, Danielle Steele, et al.), which is now so closely connected with film that it sometimes begins life as a screenplay; and the elite novel (Donald Barthelme, Frederick Busch, Milan Kundera), where the “artistic” avant-garde work is being done.
图 1-13。1870年代和1880年代，法国艾蒂安·朱尔斯·马雷和美国埃德沃德·迈布里奇的实验为电影摄影机的发展铺平了道路。迈布里奇对人类和动物的运动特别感兴趣。这张名为“踢女人”的照片是用三台相机拍摄的，每台相机有十二个拍摄镜头，所有镜头都连接到电子时钟机械开关。
Figure 1-13. During the 1870s and 1880s, the experiments of Étienne Jules Marey in France and Eadweard Muybridge in America paved the way for the development of the motion picture camera. Muybridge was particularly interested in the movement of humans and animals. This plate, Woman Kicking, was shot with three cameras each with twelve taking lenses, all connected to an electrical clock mechanism switch.
图 1-14。在 20 世纪 60 年代和 1970 年代，一种现实主义的强烈抵制在古老的非录音艺术中发生。法国的“新浪漫主义”与电影有着密切的联系，就像美国的“超现实主义”或“照相写实主义”以摄影为审美基础一样。这是菲利普·珀尔斯坦 (Philip Pearlstein) 的《斜倚在躺椅上的女模特》。（1978 年，布面油画，48 英寸 x 60 英寸，由纽约 Frumkin/Adams 画廊提供。）
Figure 1-14. During the 1960s and 1970s a kind of realist backlash took place among the older, nonrecording arts. The French “nouveau roman” had close links with cinema, just as American “hyperrealism” or “photorealism” looked to photography for its esthetic base. Here, Philip Pearlstein’s Female Model Reclining on Deck Chair. (1978, oil on canvas, 48″ by 60″, Courtesy Frumkin/Adams Gallery, New York.)
自詹姆斯·乔伊斯以来，这部高雅艺术小说一直沿着与绘画平行的路线发展。像画家一样，小说家从电影的经验中学习分析他们的艺术并将其概念化。弗拉基米尔·纳博科夫、豪尔赫·路易斯·博尔赫斯、阿兰·罗伯-格里耶、唐纳德·巴塞尔姆以及其他许多人都在写小说（以及其他事情）的过程中写小说，就像许多二十世纪的画家为绘画而画画一样。抽象从对人类经验的关注发展到对有关该经验的想法的关注，最后发展到主要对人类的美学感兴趣。想法。剧作家兼小说家让·热内 (Jean Genet) 说：“我对想法的兴趣不在于想法的形式。”
This high art novel, since James Joyce, has developed along lines parallel to painting. Like painters, novelists learned from the experience of film to analyze their art and conceptualize it. Vladimir Nabokov, Jorge Luis Borges, Alain Robbe-Grillet, Donald Barthelme, and many others wrote novels about writing novels (as well as other things) just as many twentieth-century painters painted paintings about painting paintings. Abstraction progressed from a focus on human experience, to a concern for ideas about that experience, finally to an interest mainly in the esthetics of thought. Jean Genet, playwright and novelist, said: “Ideas don’t interest me so much as the shape of ideas.”
图 1-15。照片写实主义画家查克·克洛斯（Chuck Close）瘫痪后，转向了一种更具分析性的风格，研究“图像元素”——构成我们数字世界的图像的子粒子。您可以在插图中更清楚地看到像素。《自画像》（Self-portrait 1991，布面油画，254.0 x 213.4 厘米，纽约现代艺术博物馆，UBS 部分并承诺赠送，2002 年。© 2007 Chuck Close）。比较图 1-19（形而上学）。
Figure 1-15. After he became paralyzed, photorealist Chuck Close turned to a more analytical style, investigating the “picture elements”—the subparticles of images from which our digital world is made. You can see the pixels more clearly in the inset. Self (Self-portrait 1991, oil on canvas, 254.0 x 213.4 cm, The Museum of Modern Art, New York, Partial and promised gift of UBS, 2002. © 2007 Chuck Close). Compare Figure 1-19 (metaphysically).
电影在哪些方面改变了小说？自丹尼尔·笛福时代以来，小说的主要功能之一，就像绘画一样，是传达对其他地方和人的感觉。到沃尔特·斯科特爵士时代，这种游记服务已达到顶峰。此后，随着最初的剧照和电影摄影开始发挥这一功能，小说的风景和描述性特征下降了。此外，小说家已经学会用电影中常见的较小单位来讲述他们的故事。就像当代剧作家一样，他们现在更多地在短场景中思考，而不是在长剧中思考。
In what other respects has the novel been changed by film? Since the days of Daniel Defoe, one of the primary functions of the novel, as of painting, was to communicate a sense of other places and people. By the time of Sir Walter Scott, this travelogue service had reached its zenith. After that, as first still, then motion picture photography began to perform this function, the scenic and descriptive character of the novel declined. Moreover, novelists have learned to narrate their stories in the smaller units common to film. Like contemporary playwrights, they think now more often in short scenes than in longer acts.
最后，这部小说最伟大的资产之一是它操纵文字的能力。当然，电影也有台词，但通常不会如此丰富而且从来没有印刷页面的具体坚持。如果说受电影影响的绘画趋向于设计，那么小说则趋向于诗歌，因为它加倍关注自身并颂扬其材料：语言。
Finally, one of the novel’s greatest assets is its ability to manipulate words. Films have words, too, of course, but not usually in such profusion and never with the concrete insistence of the printed page. If painting under the influence of film has tended toward design, then the novel is approaching poetry as it redoubles its attention to itself and celebrates its material: language.
电影和戏剧
Film and Theater
从表面上看，戏剧电影似乎最接近舞台剧。当然，二十世纪初商业电影的根源就在那里。但电影在几个重要方面不同于舞台剧：它具有绘画艺术生动、精确的视觉潜力；而且它具有更强的叙事能力。
On the surface, theatrical film seems most closely comparable to stage drama. Certainly the roots of the commercial film in the early years of the twentieth century lie there. But film differs from stage drama in several significant respects: it has the vivid, precise visual potential of the pictorial arts; and it has a much greater narrative capability.
舞台戏剧和电影戏剧之间最显着的区别，就像散文叙事和电影叙事之间最显着的区别一样，是在观点上。我们随心所欲地看戏；我们只是按照电影制片人希望我们看的方式观看电影。在电影中，我们还有潜力看到更多。舞台演员用声音，电影演员用脸，这已成为不言而喻的道理。即使在最亲密的情况下，舞台剧的观众（注意我们使用的词——“观众”，听众——而不是“观众”）也很难理解除了最广泛的手势之外的所有手势。与此同时，由于配音，电影演员甚至不需要自己的声音；对话可以稍后添加。但脸部必须具有非凡的表现力，尤其是在特写镜头中放大一千倍时。如果电影演员完成了一个漂亮的“造型”，他通常会认为这一天过得很值。此外，当我们考虑到电影可以用“原材料”——非专业演员，甚至是不知道自己正在被拍摄的人——制作时，舞台表演和电影表演之间的对比就显得更大了。
The most salient difference between staged drama and filmed drama, as it is between prose narrative and film narrative, is in point of view. We watch a play as we will; we see a film only as the filmmaker wants us to see it. And in film we also have the potential to see a great deal more. It has become a truism that a stage actor acts with his voice, while a film actor uses his face. Even in the most intimate situation, an audience for a stage play (note the word we use—“audience,” listeners—not “spectators”) has difficulty comprehending all but the broadest gestures. Meanwhile, a film actor, thanks to dubbing, doesn’t even require a voice of his own; dialogue can be added later. But the face must be extraordinarily expressive, especially when it is magnified as much as a thousand times in closeups. A film actor will often consider a day well spent if he’s accomplished one good “look.” When we consider in addition that films can be made with “raw material”—nonprofessional actors, even people who aren’t aware they’re being filmed—the contrasts between stage acting and film acting appear even greater.
与表演风格的差异同样重要的是电影和舞台戏剧叙事之间的对比。在莎士比亚时代，舞台工作的构建单位是场景而不是表演。一部戏剧由二十或三十个场景组成，而不是三到五个更长的场景。到了十九世纪，这种情况发生了变化。随着戏剧从推力舞台转移到舞台拱门，随着现实主义成为一股重要力量，更长、更逼真的表演单元占据了优先地位。在半小时的表演中，观众可以放下怀疑，进入角色的生活；场景的较短单元使这变得更加困难。
Just as important as the difference in acting styles is the contrast between dramatic narration in film and on stage. In Shakespeare’s time, the unit of construction for stagework was the scene rather than the act. A play consisted of twenty or thirty scenes rather than three to five much longer acts. By the nineteenth century, this had changed. As theater moved from the thrust stage to the proscenium arch, and as realism became an important force, the longer, more verisimilitudinous unit of the act took precedence. During a half-hour act, audiences could suspend their disbelief and enter into the lives of the characters; the shorter unit of the scene made this more difficult.
电影的诞生正值这种舞台现实主义的鼎盛时期。正如绘画和小说放弃了模仿的功能一样电影如此，舞台亦如此。场景作为构建的基本单元回归。斯特林堡和其他人发展了对舞台空间的表现主义（有时几乎是立体主义）的使用。皮兰德娄详细分析了舞台艺术的结构，并在此过程中为未来一代剧作家抽象了舞台的经验。
Film grew up just at the time this sort of stage realism was at its height. And just as painting and the novel had relinquished the function of mimesis to film, so did the stage. The scene returned as the basic unit of construction. Strindberg and others developed an expressionistic (at times almost Cubist) use of the stage space. Pirandello analyzed the structure of stage art in detail, and in the process abstracted the experience of the stage for a generation of future playwrights.
图 1-16。奥黛丽·托特和罗伯特·蒙哥马利在《湖中女士》中。严格来说，电影中的“第一人称”叙述必须巧妙地使用镜子，才能看到叙述者/英雄。（现代艺术博物馆/电影剧照档案馆。）
Figure 1-16. Audrey Totter and Robert Montgomery in Lady in the Lake. “First-person” narration in film, strictly construed, must make ingenious use of mirrors if the narrator/hero is to be seen. (Museum of Moderm Art/Filim Stills Archive.)
到了二十年代末，前卫戏剧已经能够对新贵电影提出严峻的挑战。当电影能够展现真实的场景时，大卫·贝拉斯科风格的现实舞台布景就毫无意义了。当第一排看不到时，微妙的手势毫无意义，观众可以在拐角处看到像吉什和嘉宝这样沉默的女演员用她们的脸做出非凡而美妙的事情，而似乎没有移动任何肌肉。当声音和对话与银幕上的图像结合在一起时，电影就更接近舞台剧了。
By the late twenties, avant-garde theater was in a position to challenge the upstart film seriously. There was no point in realistic stage sets after the style of David Belasco when film could show real locations; no sense in subtlety of gesture when it couldn’t be seen past the first row, and audiences could go around the corner to see silent actresses like Gish and Garbo do extraordinary and wonderful things with their faces without seeming to move a muscle. When sound and dialogue joined the image on the screen, film was even more closely comparable to stage drama.
但戏剧比电影有一个优势，而且是一个很大的优势：戏剧是现场的。如果电影真的可以仅仅因为它是不连续的拍摄而实现许多在剧院中未知的效果，那么电影也确实可以实现许多在剧院中未知的效果。很明显，在电影中表演的人并没有与观众交流。
But theater has one advantage over film, and it is a great one: theater is live. If it is true that film can accomplish a great many effects unknown in the theater simply because it is shot discontinuously, it is also true that the people who perform in film are, quite obviously, not in communion with their audience.
两位截然不同的戏剧理论家以各自的方式利用了这一无可争议的事实。在二十世纪二三十年代末，贝尔托·布莱希特和安东尼·阿尔托（仍然是现代最有影响力的戏剧理论家）都发展了依赖于观众和演员之间持续互动的戏剧概念。阿尔托所谓的残酷剧院要求表演者和观察者之间建立比剧院以前更严格、更亲密的关系。阿尔托的目标是以直接的方式让观众深入参与，因为他们永远无法置身于电影院中。
In their own ways, two very different theorists of theater made use of this incontrovertible fact. In the late twenties and thirties, both Bertolt Brecht and Antonin Artaud (still the most influential theorists of drama in the modern period) developed concepts of theater that depended on the continuing interaction between audience and cast. Artaud’s so-called Theater of Cruelty required a more demanding and intimate relationship between performer and observer than had ever before existed in the theater. Artaud’s aim was to involve the audience deeply in a direct way, as they never could be in the cinema.
《剧院及其双重阿尔托》在他的宣言中写道：
In his manifesto The Theatre and Its Double Artaud wrote:
我们废除舞台和礼堂，代之以一个
没有任何隔断或障碍的场地，这将成为
行动的剧场。
观众和景观之间将重新建立直接的沟通[p.11]。93f]。
We abolish the stage and the auditorium and replace them by a single
site, without partition or barrier of any kind, which will become the the-
ater of the action. A direct communication will be re-established between
the spectator and the spectacle [p. 93f].
阿尔托构想了一种对观众的正面攻击，一种“全面”的戏剧，所有表达的力量都将在其中发挥作用。他重新定义了戏剧的语言：
Artaud conceived a kind of frontal assault on the spectator, a “total” theater in which all the forces of expression would be brought to bear. He redefined the language of the theater as consisting
占据舞台的一切事物，一切可以
在舞台上以物质方式表现和表达的事物，首先是针对感官的，
而不是像语言那样主要针对心灵
的……例如音乐、舞蹈、塑料艺术、哑剧、模仿、
手势、语调、建筑、灯光和风景 38-39]。
of everything that occupies the stage, everything that can be manifested
and expressed materially on a stage and that is addressed first of all to the
senses instead of being addressed primarily to the mind as is the language
of words… such as music, dance, plastic art, pantomime, mimicry,
gesticulation, intonation, architecture, lighting, and scenery [pp. 38–39].
在这里我们可以看到，阿尔托构想的新舞台语言受到了电影语言的影响，尽管它与新艺术日益占据的主导地位相抗衡。电影，因为它没有既定的规则，没有传统，没有院士，它逻辑地、迅速地发现了阿尔托提出的每一个组成部分的价值：造型艺术、音乐、舞蹈、哑剧等等。一门古老的艺术再次发现自己对新技术又爱又恨。但阿尔托从未忽视他的一个重要优势：
We can see here that the new language of the stage as conceived by Artaud is influenced by the language of film, even as it counters the rising dominance of the new art. Film, because it had no set rules, no traditions, no academicians, had logically and quickly discovered the value of each of the components Artaud suggests: plastic art, music, dance, pantomime, et cetera. Once again, one of the older arts finds itself in a love-hate relationship with the new technology. But Artaud never lost sight of his one significant advantage:
剧院是世界上唯一一个手势一旦做出就
永远不能以同样的方式做出两次的地方 [p. 11]。75]。
theater is the only place in the world where a gesture, once made, can
never be made the same way twice [p. 75].
布莱希特采取了相反的策略。他的史诗戏剧理论比阿尔托的残酷戏剧更复杂——有些人会说更复杂。布莱希特认识到与阿尔托相同的基本价值——戏剧表演的直接性和亲密性——认为要重新创造演员和观众之间的关系是辩证的。观众不再愿意停止怀疑。在电影院里这要容易得多。
Brecht took the opposite tack. His theory of Epic Theater is more complex—and some would say more sophisticated—than Artaud’s Theater of Cruelty. Recognizing the same basic value as Artaud—the immediacy and intimacy of the theatrical performance—Brecht thought to recreate the relationship between actor and audience as a dialectic. No longer would the audience willingly suspend disbelief. That is so much easier in a movie theater.
图 1-17。唐纳德·巴塞尔姆的“小说”不完全是小说，也不完全是诗歌。他经常尝试将旧版画和绘画与他的文本结合起来。这是他的故事《鸽子飞离宫殿》（Sadness、 Farrar、Straus 和 Giroux，1972 年）中的一页。尽管巴塞尔姆的故事很抽象，但它们很适合戏剧化，因为它们既具有视觉效果，又具有叙事现实。
Figure 1-17. Donald Barthelme’s “fictions” were not quite novels, not quite poems. He often experimented by integrating old lithographs and drawing with his texts. Here, a page from his story “Flight of Pigeons from the Palace” (Sadness, Farrar, Straus, & Giroux, 1972). Despite their abstraction, Barthelme’s stories lent themselves to dramatization because they had a visual as well as a narrative reality.
布莱希特写道，史诗剧场：
Epic Theater, Brecht wrote,
将旁观者变成观察者，但激发他的行动能力，迫使他做出决定……。[在旧的戏剧剧场中]观众置身其中，分享经验，人类被认为是理所当然的，他是不可改变的，[而在新的史诗剧场中]观众站在外面，学习；人类是探究的对象，他是可变的并且能够改变……。[布莱希特论戏剧， p. 11] 37]。
turns the spectator into an observer, but arouses his capacity for action, forces him to take decisions…. [In the old, dramatic theater] the spectator is in the thick of it, shares the experience, the human being is taken for granted, he is unalterable, [while in the new, Epic Theater] the spectator stands outside, studies; the human being is the object of the inquiry, he is alterable and able to alter…. [Brecht on Theatre, p. 37].
所有这一切都是通过布莱希特称为疏远效应（die Verfremdungseffekt）的装置来完成的，用布莱希特的话说，其目的是
All this is accomplished by a device Brecht labeled the Estrangement Effect (die Verfremdungseffekt), whose object, in Brecht’s words, was to
疏远每个事件背后的社会姿态。社交姿态是指人与人之间普遍存在的社会关系的模仿和手势表达。139]。
alienate the social gest underlying every incident. By social gest is meant the mimetic and gestural expression of the social relationships prevailing between people [p. 139].
这显然不仅仅是一个戏剧理论。布莱希特的史诗剧场及其Verfremdungseffekt可以应用于广泛的艺术领域，尤其是电影本身。事实上，布莱希特的思想在电影理论的发展中占有重要地位。
This is clearly more than just a theory of drama. Brecht’s Epic Theater and its Verfremdungseffekt can be applied to a wide range of arts, not least of which is film itself. And, indeed, Brecht’s ideas have a major place in the development of film theory.
布莱希特为戏剧所做的就是提高观众的参与度，但是以一种理智的方式，而阿尔托则明确拒绝理智的方法，转而支持戏剧作为“诱导恍惚的一种手段”。然而，这两种理论显然都是反模仿的。
What Brecht did for the theater was to heighten the spectator’s participation, but in an intellectual way, whereas Artaud had specifically rejected intellectual approaches in favor of theater as “a means of inducing trances.” Both theories, however, were distinctly antimimetic.
由于其结构上的相似性，戏剧和电影比其他艺术更频繁地互动。如果在法国，许多更著名的二十世纪小说家确实是电影制片人（阿兰·罗伯-格里耶、玛格丽特·杜拉斯），那么在英国、意大利、德国和美国（程度较小）则从事电影工作的人更有可能将自己的职业生涯分配到银幕和舞台上。舞台（连同舞蹈）是唯一在其自身背景下经常使用电影本身的艺术。这种关系富有成效。随着布莱希特和阿尔托的理论在过去四十年中日趋成熟，戏剧也沿着他们预测的方向发展。没有任何全新的戏剧理论能够取代它们。从阿尔托的作品中，当代戏剧对戏剧体验的仪式感和一直是戏剧基础的公共庆祝感重新产生了兴趣。
Because of their structural similarities, theater and film interact more often than do other arts. If in France it is true that many of the more celebrated twentieth-century novelists were filmmakers (Alain Robbe-Grillet, Marguerite Duras), in England, Italy, Germany, and the United States (to a lesser extent) people who work in film are more likely to split their careers between screen and stage. The stage (together with dance) is the only art that regularly uses film per se within its own context. The relationship has been fruitful. As the theories of Brecht and Artaud have matured over the past forty years, the theater has developed along the lines they forecast; no radically new theories of theater have superseded them. From Artaud’s work, contemporary theater gets its renewed interest in the ritual aspect of the dramatic experience and the sense of communal celebration that has always been basic to theater.
这在很大程度上是通过当代戏剧对场景调度而不是文本的高度重视来实现的。另一方面，当代戏剧也将口头语言视为能量的来源。英国剧作家特别发展了源自布莱希特的戏剧作为对话的概念。哈罗德·品特（Harold Pinter）、约翰·奥斯本（John Osborne）、爱德华·邦德（Edward Bond）和汤姆·斯托帕德（Tom Stoppard）等人在过去五十年里创造了一个口头表演戏剧，在亲密的舞台上取得了成功，这是电影中永远无法做到的。
Much of this is accomplished by the intense emphasis of contemporary dramatic theater on mise-en-scène as opposed to text. On the other hand, contemporary theater also looks toward the spoken word as a source of energy. British playwrights especially developed the concept of theater as conversation that has roots in Brecht. Harold Pinter, John Osborne, Edward Bond, and Tom Stoppard, among others, created in the past fifty years a theater of verbal performance that succeeded on an intimate stage as it never could have on film.
戏剧和故事片形式之间的密切相似性很可能对古老的艺术意味着灾难。艺术以前就已经“消亡”了：例如，在 17 世纪，叙事诗或史诗因小说的发明而被淘汰。但戏剧以新的活力应对了电影的挑战，两种艺术形式之间的相互作用被证明是二十世纪后期创造力的主要来源。
The close parallelism between the forms of theater and feature film could very well have meant disaster for the older art. Arts have “died” before: in the seventeenth century, the narrative or epic poem was superannuated by the invention of the novel, for example. But theater has responded to the challenge of film with a new vitality, and the interaction between the two forms of art proved to be a major source of creative energy in the late twentieth century.
图 1-18。“外观。 ” _ 约翰·韦恩 (John Wayne) 在唐·西格尔 (Don Siegel) 1976 年的西部片《射击者》(The Shootist)中饰演 JB Books ，即使在这张静态照片中，这张脸也能说明问题。
Figure 1-18. “THE LOOK.” John Wayne as J. B. Books in Don Siegel’s 1976 Western, The Shootist Even in this still photograph, the face speaks volumes.
电影和音乐
Film and Music
电影与音乐的关系更为复杂。在录音艺术发展之前，音乐在艺术界占有独特的地位。这是唯一一种以时间为核心的艺术。小说和戏剧确实存在于时间中，但观察者控制着小说的“时间”，就像节奏在表演艺术中一样重要，它们并没有受到严格控制。剧作家或导演可以指示停顿，但这些一般来说只是最原始的拍号。音乐作为最抽象的艺术，需要对时间的精确控制，并依赖于时间。
Film’s relationship with music is altogether more complex. Until the development of the recording arts, music held a unique position in the community of arts. It was the only art in which time played a central role. Novels and theater exist in time, it is true, but the observer controls the “time” of a novel and, as important as rhythms are in the performing arts, they are not strictly controlled. A playwright or director can indicate pauses, but these are generally speaking only the crudest of time signatures. Music, the most abstract of arts, demands precise control of time and depends on it.
如果旋律是音乐的叙事方面，节奏是独特的时间元素，那么和声可能是两者的综合。我们的乐谱系统表明了这种关系。从左到右读的三个音符形成一个旋律。当它们设置在拍号框架中时，节奏就会叠加在旋律上。然而，当我们垂直重新排列它们时，就会得到和谐的结果。
If melody is the narrative facet of music, and rhythm the unique, temporal element, then harmony may be the synthesis of the two. Our system of musical notation indicates this relationship. Three notes read from left to right form a melody. When they are set in the framework of a time signature, rhythms are overlaid on the melody. When we rearrange them vertically, however, harmony is the result.
绘画可以在画面内部和画面之间建立和谐和对位，但没有时间因素。偶尔有戏剧对位法的实验——尤金·尤内斯库的双重对话就是一个很好的例子——但只产生了轻微的效果。然而，音乐通过节奏中的“水平”旋律线与和声的“垂直”组之间的关系创造出许多有趣的艺术。
Painting can set up harmonies and counterpoint both within a picture and between pictures, but there is no time element. Drama occasionally experiments with counterpoint—Eugéne Ionesco’s doubled dialogues are a good example—but only for minor effects. Music, however, makes a lot of interesting art out of the relationship between “horizontal” lines of melody, set in rhythms, and “vertical” sets of harmonies.
（不，我不确定如何将说唱或嘻哈融入到这个等式中。虽然说唱起源于具有数百年历史且丰富的口语节奏艺术传统，而且它可能是当今最具创新性的艺术形式20 世纪 90 年代，它对旋律和和声的回避表明它是“音乐”，只是因为它在 CD 和 iTunes 上发行并出现在 MTV 上。也许说唱表明音乐的一个基本元素是节奏。也许我们应该考虑说唱，至少在某种意义上，作为抽象的最后一口气——具有讽刺意味的是，这是前卫抽象主义倾向的唯一真正流行的表达。或者也许将说唱视为诗歌的音乐化就足够了：“所有艺术都渴望达到这样的条件：音乐”——及其市场。）
(No, I’m not sure how to fit Rap, or Hip-Hop, into this equation. While Rap grows out of a centuries-old and fertile tradition of spoken rhythmic art, and while it was probably the most innovative artform of the 1990s, its eschewal of both melody and harmony suggests that it is “music” only because it is distributed on CDs and iTunes and appears on MTV. Maybe Rap makes the point that the one essential element of music is rhythm. Perhaps we should consider Rap, at least in one sense, as the last gasp of abstraction—ironically, the only truly popular expression of the avant-garde abstractionist tendency. Or maybe it’s enough to think of Rap as the musicalization of poetry: “All art aspires to the condition of music”—and to its market.)
抽象地讲，电影提供了与音乐相同的节奏、旋律和和声的可能性。电影媒介的机械性质允许严格控制时间线：现在可以精确控制叙事“旋律”。在画面中，事件和图像可以和谐地平衡。电影制作人很早就开始尝试新艺术的音乐潜力。事实上，自从雷内·克莱尔的《Entr'acte》（1924）和费尔南·莱热的《机械芭蕾》（1924-25）以来，抽象或“前卫”电影的大部分效果都依赖于音乐理论。甚至在声音出现之前，电影制片人就开始与音乐家密切合作。汉斯·里希特 (Hans Richter) 的《Vormittagsspuk》（早餐前的鬼魂， 1928 年）由欣德米特 (Hindemith) 现场演奏。沃尔特·鲁特曼 (Walter Ruttmann) 的《柏林——城市交响曲》 (1927) 也有现场交响乐谱。
Abstractly, film offers the same possibilities of rhythm, melody, and harmony as music. The mechanical nature of the film medium allows strict control of the time-line: narrative “melodies” can now be controlled precisely. In the frame, events and images can be counterpoised harmonically. Filmmakers began experimenting with the musical potential of the new art very early on. Ever since René Clair’s Entr’acte (1924) and Fernand Léger’s Ballet Mécanique (1924–25), in fact, abstract or “avant-garde” film has depended on musical theory for much of its effect. Even before sound, filmmakers had begun to work closely with musicians. Hans Richter’s Vormittagsspuk (Ghosts Before Breakfast, 1928) had a score by Hindemith, played live. Walter Ruttmann’s Berlin—Symphony of a City (1927) had a live symphonic score as well.
音乐很快就成为电影体验中不可或缺的一部分。无声电影通常是用现场音乐“表演”的。此外，无声时期的创新电影制作人已经发现了图像本身的音乐潜力。到了 20 世纪 30 年代末，谢尔盖·爱森斯坦 (Sergei Eisenstein) 为他的电影《亚历山大·涅夫斯基》(Alexander Nevsky)构建了一个精心设计的方案，将视觉图像与著名作曲家普罗科菲耶夫的配乐联系起来。在这部电影中，和其他许多电影一样，例如斯坦利·库布里克的《2001太空漫游》（1968），音乐常常起主导作用，决定图像。
Music had quickly become an integral part of the film experience; silent films were normally “performed” with live music. Moreover, the innovative filmmakers of the silent period were already discovering the musical potential of the image itself. By the late 1930s Sergei Eisenstein, for his film Alexander Nevsky, constructed an elaborate scheme to correlate the visual images with the score by the noted composer Prokofiev. In this film as in a number of others, such as Stanley Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), music often leads, determining images.
由于电影通常以每秒二十四帧的速度放映，因此电影制片人对节奏的控制比音乐家更精确。西方记谱法中最短的半八分音符将持续 1/32 秒，但它会以这种速度演奏现场音符是不可能的。1/24 秒单位是电影的最低公分母，实际上超过了西方音乐表演的最快节奏。音乐中最复杂的节奏，即印度塔尔节奏，接近电影节奏的基本单位作为上限。
Because film is projected normally at a rate of twenty-four frames per second, the filmmaker has even more precise control over rhythms than the musician. The shortest semihemidemiquaver that could be written in the Western system of notation would last 1/32 of a second—but it would be impossible to play live notes at that rate. The 1/24 of a second unit, which is the lowest common denominator of film, effectively exceeds the quickest rhythms of performed Western music. The most sophisticated rhythms in music, the Indian tals, approach the basic unit of film rhythm as an upper limit.
当然，我们忽略了机械或电子制作的音乐。甚至在录音系统成熟之前，自动钢琴就为音乐家提供了尝试人类无法演奏的节奏系统的机会。Conlon Nancarrow 的“自动钢琴研究”（最早可追溯至 1948 年）是对这些可能性的有趣探索。
We are ignoring, of course, music that is produced mechanically or electronically. Even before systems of sound recording had matured, the player piano offered an opportunity to musicians to experiment with rhythmic systems that were impossible for humans to perform. Conlon Nancarrow’s “Studies for Player Piano” (the earliest dating from 1948) were interesting explorations of these possibilities.
因此，电影利用了一系列以视觉术语表达的音乐概念：旋律、和声和节奏是电影艺术中长期确立的价值观。尽管电影本身对音乐产生了强大的经济影响，为音乐家提供了主要市场，但它对音乐并没有产生特别强烈的审美影响。然而，录音技术彻底改变了古老的艺术。新技术的影响分为两波。
Film thus utilizes a set of musical concepts expressed in visual terms: melody, harmony, and rhythm are long-established values in film art. Although film itself has had a strong economic impact on music, providing a major market for musicians, it has had no particularly strong esthetic effect on music. The techniques of sound recording, however, have revolutionized the older art. The influence of the new technology was felt in two waves.
1877 年留声机的发明从根本上改变了音乐的传播。不再需要观看表演，这种特权在几个世纪以来一直仅限于极少数精英。巴赫的《哥德堡变奏曲》是为一位富有的人、前俄罗斯驻萨克森选帝侯宫廷大使凯泽林伯爵创作的睡前音乐，由他的私人羽管键琴演奏家约翰·戈特利布·戈德堡演奏，现在可供数百万无法聆听的人演奏。负担不起二十四小时呼叫的私人音乐家。
The invention of the phonograph in 1877 radically altered the dissemination of music. No longer was it necessary to attend a performance, a privilege that was, over the centuries, limited to a very small elite. Bach’s Goldberg Variations, written as bedtime music for a single wealthy individual, Count Kaiserling, former Russian ambassador at the court of the Elector of Saxony, to be played by his personal harpsichordist, Johann Gottlieb Goldberg, were now accessible to millions of people who couldn’t afford private musicians on twenty-four-hour call.
唱片和后来的广播很快成为传播音乐的强大而普遍的媒体，与表演并行但取代了表演。这对音乐艺术的本质产生了深远的影响，就像活字印刷术和印刷机的发明对文学产生的影响一样深远。技术迅速革新了艺术。
Recordings and, later, radio broadcasts quickly became powerful pervasive media for the dissemination of music, parallel with performance but superseding it. This had just as profound an effect on the nature of the art of music as the invention of both movable type and the printing press had on literature. The technology quickly reformed the art.
正如活字印刷术的发明向大众开放了文学，录音也使音乐民主化。其历史意义不可低估。但音乐的机械再现也有消极的一面。民间音乐，即人们在没有专业音乐家的情况下为自己创造的艺术，受到了极大的削弱。最终，这只是为巨大的新传播渠道付出的一个小小的代价，事实上，录音帮助创造的新音乐素养后来又为流行音乐艺术带来了好处，这在二十世纪成为音乐世界的焦点，这是以前从未有过的。
Just as the invention of movable type had opened up literature to the masses, so recordings democratized music. The historical significance cannot be underestimated. But there was a negative aspect to the mechanical reproduction of music, too. Folk music, the art people created for themselves in the absence of professional musicians, was greatly attenuated. In the end, this was a small price to pay for the vast new channels of dissemination and, in fact, the new musical literacy that recordings helped to create later redounded to the benefit of the popular musical arts, which in the twentieth century became the focal point of the musical world as they never were in earlier times.
虽然留声机的发明对音乐产生了深远的社会学影响，但它对技术的影响却很小。这有很好的技术原因，与爱迪生系统的局限性有关，这将在下一章中讨论。因此，直到20世纪40年代末和50年代初，磁带开始取代留声机成为主要录音手段，电转录让位于电子方法时，音乐技术才受到录音艺术的影响。 。
While the invention of the phonograph had a profound sociological effect on music, it had a very minor technical effect. There were good technological reasons for this, having to do with the limitations of Edison’s system, which will be discussed in the next chapter. As a result, it was not until the late 1940s and early 1950s—when magnetic tape began to replace the phonograph record as the main means of recording, and electrical transcription yielded to electronic methods—that music technique came under the influence of the recording arts.
再次，其效果是革命性的。在磁带出现之前，音乐家们已经对电子乐器进行了多年的实验，但他们仍然受到性能的限制。磁带解放了他们，为编辑音乐提供了新的可能性。电影配乐是光学的而不是磁性的，比磁带早了二十年，但在电影的背景下，它一直被降级为配角；它从来都不是一个独立的媒介。
Again, the effect was revolutionary. Musicians had been experimenting with electronic instruments for years before the development of magnetic tape, but they were still bound by the limits of performance. Tape freed them, allowing the new possibility of editing music. The film soundtrack, which was optical rather than magnetic, had predated tape by twenty years, but in the context of film it had always been relegated to a supporting role; it was never an independent medium.
一旦磁带进入录音室，录音就不再仅仅是保存和传播表演的一种手段；它现在成为创造力的主要焦点。如今，录音已成为音乐创作中不可或缺的一部分，甚至流行音乐（更不用说前卫音乐和精英音乐）自五十年代初以来也已成为录音室的产物，而不是表演的产物。披头士乐队的佩珀军士的孤独之心俱乐部乐队（1967）是实用录音艺术发展的里程碑，但在表演中却无法复制。这种焦点转移的早期例子有很多，至少可以追溯到五十年代初莱斯·保罗和玛丽·福特的流行唱片，但披头士乐队的唱片通常被认为是唱片时代的到来主要创造性的音乐力量。
Once tape entered the recording studio, sound recording was no longer simply a means of preserving and disseminating a performance; it now became a main focus of creativity. Recording is now so much an integral part of the creation of music that even popular music (to say nothing of avant-garde and elite music) has become since the early fifties a creature of the recording studio rather than performance. The Beatles’ Sergeant Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967), a milestone in the development of the practical recording arts, was not reproducible in performance. There had been many earlier examples of this shift of focus, dating back at least as early as the popular records of Les Paul and Mary Ford in the early fifties, but the Beatles’ record is generally regarded as the coming of age of recording as one of the primary creative musical forces.
现在，这种平衡已经发生了根本性的变化，以至于流行音乐的“表演”（更不用说前卫表演了）经常整合录音，而很多音乐根本无法现场表演。如果视觉记录技术对戏剧产生了同样巨大的影响，那么今天标准的流行戏剧表演将由电影组成，而前卫戏剧将几乎完全由电影组成！
The balance has altered so radically now that “performances” of popular music (to say nothing of avant-garde performances) often integrate recordings, and much music simply can’t be performed at all live. If the techniques of visual recording had had as great an effect on theater, then a standard popular theatrical performance today would consist in large part of film, and avant-garde theater would consist almost entirely of film!
显然，录音与音乐艺术之间的关系非常复杂。我们在这里只描述了新辩证法的粗略轮廓。最重要的是，与图像记录技术不同，声音记录技术很快就与音乐艺术。电影从一开始就被视为一种独立于戏剧、绘画和小说的艺术。但即使在今天，录音仍然属于音乐范畴。
Clearly, the relationship between sound recording and the musical arts is very complex. We have described only the bare outlines of the new dialectic here. It may be most significant that, unlike the technique of image recording, the technique of sound recording was quickly integrated with the art of music. Film was seen from the very beginning as a separate art from theater and painting and the novel; but sound recording even today is still subsumed under the category of music.
图 1-19。艺术家的观点。_ _ _ 也许只有像朱利安·施纳贝尔这样的画家才能公正地描述让·多米尼克·鲍比的故事。让·多米尼克·鲍比是一位成功的杂志编辑，中风导致他几乎完全瘫痪：他可以通过左眼看东西，也可以眨左眼睑。在这种情况下，他鼓起勇气写回忆录。对于影片的第一部分，我们仅限于鲍比的“锁定”观点。当他学会沟通时，我们（和他）的视野拓宽了：这是艺术的一个很好的比喻。（《潜水钟与蝴蝶》， 2007 年。）
Figure 1-19. THE ARTIST’S VIEW. Perhaps only a painter like Julian Schnabel could do justice to the story of Jean-Dominique Bauby, a successful magazine editor who had a stroke that left him with near-complete paralysis: he can see through his left eye and can blink his left eyelid. In this condition he finds the courage to write a memoir. For the first part of the film we are confined to Bauby’s “locked-in” point of view. As he learns to communicate, our (and his) perspective broadens: a fine metaphor for art. (The Diving Bell and the Butterfly, 2007.)
这在一定程度上是 20 世纪 60 年代之前一直存在的记录方式（光盘）的结果。与电影不同，光盘可以简单地记录和复制其材料，而不能重新创建它。但磁带和数字技术的发展为录音增添了创造力。如果说有什么不同的话，那就是录音现在比图像录制更加灵活和复杂。录音被视为一门独立的艺术可能只是时间问题。如果广播在电视发明后继续进步，这会发生得更早，但巧合的是，正如录音在 1950 年左右作为一门艺术出现时，广播艺术正在被电视淹没。二十多年后，录音通过多轨系统（从 20 世纪 60 年代开始）和数字技术（从 20 世纪 80 年代开始）找到了新的发展途径。
Partially, this is the result of the mode of recording—discs—that pertained until the 1960s. Unlike film, discs could simply record and reproduce their material, not re-create it. But the development of tape and digital technology added an element of creativity to sound recording. If anything, sound recording is now more flexible and sophisticated than image recording. It may be only a matter of time before sound recording is seen as a separate art. If radio had continued to progress after the invention of television, this would have happened sooner, but coincidentally, just as sound recording was emerging as an art in its own right around 1950, radio art was being submerged by television. It was more than twenty years before recording found new avenues of development with multitrack systems (beginning in the 1960s) and digital techniques (beginning in the 1980s).
值得注意的是，作为电影不可或缺的组成部分的录音在那些年里也陷入了衰退，直到 20 世纪 80 年代才恢复了活力。理想情况下，声音在电影方程式中应该与图像同等，而不是像现在那样屈从。简而言之，电影才刚刚开始回应音乐艺术的影响。
Significantly, sound recording as an integral component of cinema also languished during those years and only recovered its vigor in the 1980s. Ideally, sound should be the equal of image in the cinematic equation, not subservient, as it is now. In short, film has only begun to respond to the influence of the art of music.
电影与环境艺术
Film and the Environmental Arts
如果说有一类艺术相对不受电影和录音艺术的影响，那就是建筑。与小说、绘画和音乐不同，环境艺术并没有直接回应新的话语模式。事实上，我们可以看出戏剧与建筑之间的关系比电影与建筑之间的关系更为富有成效。剧院作为建筑的功能不仅对其内部产生的艺术产生直接影响：建筑结构本身也已成为表演的一部分。这种现象至少可以追溯到 17 世纪初的面具，其精致的“奇怪装置”——尤其是建筑师伊尼戈·琼斯的装置——占据了重要地位。二十世纪后期，环境戏剧运动及其并发理论认为观众应该亲身参与作品的空间及其叙述，导致戏剧和戏剧建筑更加紧密的结合。
If there is one category of art that has been relatively immune to the influence of film and the recording arts, it is architecture. Unlike the novel, painting, and music, the environmental arts have not responded directly to the new mode of discourse. In fact, we can discern a more fruitful relationship between drama and architecture than between film and architecture. Not only has the function of the theater as a building had a direct effect on the art produced inside it: architectural constructions themselves have become a part of performance. This phenomenon dates back at least as far as the Masques of the early seventeenth century, whose elaborate “strange devices”—especially those of the architect Inigo Jones—held pride of place. In the late twentieth century the movement toward environmental theater, with its concurrent theory that the audience should participate physically in the space of a production as well as in its narration, led to an even more intimate union of drama and theatrical architecture.
但是，正如布莱希特和阿尔托所理解的，电影艺术的致命弱点恰恰就在这里：我们无法从身体上进入图像的世界。电影图像可以包围我们，在心理上压倒我们，但我们在结构上仍然是分离的。即使是所谓的虚拟现实媒体也会提出这样的问题：你仍然无法触摸或感受到它们创造的环境。我们无法与电影互动。与此同时，建筑比任何其他艺术都更坚持并需要互动。它的功能是服务于实际目标，其形式也由此而来。
But, as Brecht and Artaud understood, the Achilles heel of film art lies precisely here: we cannot enter into the world of the image physically. Images of film can surround us, overwhelm us psychologically, but we are still structurally separate. Even so-called Virtual Reality media beg the question: you still can’t touch or feel the environment they create. We cannot interact with film. Meanwhile, architecture—more than any other art—insists on and requires interaction. Its function is to serve practical aims, and its form follows from that.
到目前为止，电影和环境艺术之间的关系仍然是隐喻的而不是直接的。电影可以为我们提供建筑的记录（就像它可以为我们提供任何其他艺术的记录一样），但这很难构成辩证关系。电影蒙太奇理论可能对建筑理论产生了一些轻微的影响，但可以肯定地说，这种影响充其量是微乎其微的。同样，尽管我们强烈地认为电影是一种“构建”的作品，但主导它的是构建的隐喻，而不是建筑设计的实际工艺。
Until now, the relationship between film and the environmental arts has remained metaphorical rather than direct. Film can give us a record of architecture (as it can give us a record of any of the other arts), but this hardly constitutes a dialectical relationship. The theory of film montage may have had some slight effect on architectural theory, but it’s safe to say this influence was minimal, at best. Likewise, although our sense of film as a “constructed” work is strong, it is the metaphor of construction rather than the actual craft of building design that governs it.
尽管过去确实如此，但未来可能会出现一些意外。“波普”建筑——拉斯维加斯的审美观——比那些曾经独占人们注意力的具有正式艺术意图的精英建筑更接近于电影院的结构。建筑评论家和历史学家。作为文化的社会和政治表达，建筑可能比乍一看更接近电影。六十年代末（特别是在《我对她了解的两三件事》， 1966 年）中，让-吕克·戈达尔首次探索了这些公认的脆弱联系。
But while this has been true in the past, the future may hold some surprises. “Pop” architecture—the Las Vegas esthetic—came closer to comparing with the structure of cinema than does the kind of elite architecture with formal artistic intentions that once occupied exclusively the attention of architectural critics and historians. As a social and political expression of the culture, architecture may be more closely parallel with film than it seems at first glance. In the late sixties (especially in 2 or 3 Things That I Know About Her, 1966) Jean-Luc Godard first explored these admittedly tenuous connections.
图 1-20。莱热芭蕾舞团 Mécariique (1924-25)的电影片段。每组四帧将在屏幕上持续 1/6 秒。效果将是有节奏的双重曝光。
Figure 1-20. Strips of film from Léger’s Ballet Mécariique (1924–25). Each group of four frames would last 1/6 second on screen. The effect would be of a rhythmic double exposure.
越来越多的“设计师建筑师”将媒体融入到他们的建筑中。这种方法的影响可能是相当大的。由于建筑是一门环境艺术而不仅仅是一个建筑系统，客观的视觉成分很可能很容易受到摄影和电影制作的影响。托马斯·威尔弗雷德 (Thomas Wilfred) 具有里程碑意义的“lumia”灯光雕塑，以及 20 世纪 60 年代末摇滚音乐表演中常见的“灯光秀”，也指出了电影技术在环境情境中的有趣应用。
Increasingly, “designer architects” integrate media in their constructions. The ramifications of this approach could be considerable. Insofar as architecture is an art of environment rather than simply a system of construction, the objective visual component might very well be susceptible to photographic and cinematographic production. Thomas Wilfred’s landmark “lumia” light sculptures, as well as the “light shows” common as accompaniment to rock music performances in the late 1960s, also pointed to interesting applications of cinematic techniques to environmental situations.
20 世纪 90 年代初，微软公司富有的创始人比尔·盖茨 (Bill Gates) 在华盛顿州雷德蒙德的公司总部附近为自己建造了一座大宅。这座宁静的宅邸配备了许多大型墙壁屏幕，旨在以电子方式展示盖茨单独获得的电子发行权的伟大艺术品。结果？一种虚拟的世外桃源，软件大亨对新闻大亨威廉·伦道夫·赫斯特位于太平洋海岸高速公路 700 英里处的豪宅的回应。
In the early 1990s, Bill Gates, wealthy founder of the Microsoft corporation, built a large home for himself near his company’s headquarters in Redmond, Washington. This sedate mansion was equipped with numerous large wall screens meant to display—electronically—great artworks for which Gates, separately, had acquired electronic distribution rights. The result? A kind of virtual Xanadu, the software mogul’s answer to the press mogul William Randolph Hearst’s mansion 700 miles down the Pacific Coast Highway.
虽然很难看出摄影和建筑的结合除了简单的错视效果之外还能产生什么效果，但这种对视觉环境人工性的日益关注已经被我们所谓的“声音建筑”的当代发展所预示。 ”。正如建筑师一直关注我们所经历的物理环境（通常是通过视觉传递给我们）一样，现在听觉环境也引起了他们的注意。
While it’s hard to see how the integration of photography and architecture could lead to anything more than simple trompe-l’oeil effects, this growing concern with the artificiality of the visual environment has been foreshadowed by contemporary developments in what we might call “sound architecture.” Just as architects have always been concerned with the physical environment we experience, usually as it is transmitted to us visually, so now the aural environment is drawing their attention.
20 世纪 60 年代和 1970 年代的电梯、购物中心和办公楼中的音乐声是听觉环境的第一个例子。Syntonic Research, Inc. 在 20 世纪 70 年代初期制作的“环境”系列电子构建或修改的录音提供了更详细的例子。它们通过计算机设计重建了海浪、雨声和鸟鸣等自然声音，提供了第一个心理情感听觉背景。在社会上，无处不在的广播和许多类型的电视发挥着类似的功能：它们作为听觉和视觉上的背景，让我们在日常生活中度过。
The Muzak of 1960s and 1970s elevators, shopping centers, and office buildings was the first example of an aural environment. The “Environment” series of electronically constructed or modified recordings produced by Syntonic Research, Inc., in the early 1970s offered more elaborate examples. Computer-designed reconstructions of natural sounds such as ocean waves, rain, and birdsong, they provided the first psychologically affective aural backgrounds. Socially, the omnipresence of radio and many types of television perform a similar function: they serve as backgrounds, aurally and visually, against which we play out our everyday lives.
尽管 Muzak 的公共体验在 20 世纪 80 年代和 90 年代不断下降，但几乎无处不在的随身听 (Walkman) 的私人体验取代了它的位置，并被更加无处不在的 iPod 或 MP3 播放器所取代。现在，我们创建了自己的个性化便携式声音环境，以便随身携带。如果说随身听是通往私人虚拟现实的第一步，那么手机就是第二步。美国已经售出了足够多的此类非常私人的设备，可以想象，很快就会有一个时期，绝对没有人会倾听现实世界的声音。 *这种可能性为以下难题赋予了新的含义：“如果一棵树倒在森林里，而那里没有人听到它，它会发出声音吗？” 它提出了一些关于电子社会的严重问题，我们将在第七章中更详细地讨论这些问题。
While the public experience of Muzak was in decline throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the private experience of the near-ubiquitous Walkman took its place, which was overtaken by the even more ubiquitous iPod or MP3 player in the oughts. We now create our own individual, portable sound environments to carry with us wherever we go. If the Walkman was the first step to private virtual realities, the cellular phone was the second. Enough of these very private devices have been sold in the U.S. that it is conceivable that there could come a time soon when absolutely no one will be listening to the real world. * This possibility gives new meaning to the conundrum that asks, “If a tree falls in the forest, and there is no one there to hear it, does it make a sound?” and it raises some serious questions about the electronic society, which we will discuss in more detail in Chapter 7.
目前，此类文化元素的艺术水平很低：声音环境与其说是当代生活的特征，不如说是一个问题。但最终这个问题将被面对，建筑师，负责我们的人造世界的影响，将像视觉一样深入地参与听觉环境，并且两者的记录将理所当然地与物理、我们环境的具体设计。
At present, the art of such cultural elements is of a very low grade: sound environments are more a problem than a feature of contemporary life. But eventually that problem will be confronted and architects, charged with responsibility for the effect of our artificial world, will become as deeply involved in the aural environment as the visual, and recordings of both will become integrated as a matter of course with the physical, concrete design of our environment.
艺术的结构
The Structure of Art
因此，电影、录音和录像对几乎所有其他古老艺术的性质和发展产生了深远的影响，并在很大程度上受到它们的塑造。虽然艺术的范围很广，但电影和录音艺术的领域甚至更广。电影、唱片和磁带都是媒介：即沟通的机构或渠道。虽然艺术可能是它们的主要用途，但它显然不是唯一的用途。电影也是一种重要的科学工具，开辟了新的知识领域。自七千多年前文字发明以来，它提供了第一种重要的通用通信手段。
Film, sound recording, and video, then, have had profound effects on the nature and development of nearly all the other, older arts and have in turn to a considerable extent been shaped by them. But while the spectrum of arts is wide, the domain of film and the recording arts is even wider. Film, records, and tapes are media: that is, agencies or channels of communication. While art may be the main use to which they are put, it is clearly not the only use. Film is also an important scientific tool that has opened up new areas of knowledge. It provides the first significant general means of communication since the invention of writing more than seven thousand years ago.
作为一种媒介，电影需要被视为一种非常类似于语言的现象。它没有成文的语法，没有列举的词汇，甚至没有非常具体的使用规则，所以它很明显不是像书面英语或口语英语那样的语言系统；但它确实具有许多与语言相同的交流功能。如果我们能够以一定程度的逻辑精确性描述电影的运作方式，那将非常有用。在第五章中，我们将讨论半个多世纪以来，描述理性甚至科学的电影结构的愿望如何成为电影理论家的主要动机之一。
As a medium, film needs to be considered as a phenomenon very much like language. It has no codified grammar, it has no enumerated vocabulary, it doesn’t even have very specific rules of usage, so it is very clearly not a language system like written or spoken English; but it nevertheless does perform many of the same functions of communication as language does. It would then be very useful if we could describe the way film operates with a degree of logical precision. In Chapter 5 we will discuss how the desire to describe a rational—even scientific—structure for film has been one of the main motivations of film theorists for more than half a century.
自 20 世纪 60 年代以来，符号学提出了一种有趣的方法来对电影和其他记录艺术的类语言现象进行逻辑描述。语言学家费迪南德·索绪尔在二十世纪初为符号学奠定了基础。索绪尔的简单而优雅的想法是将语言视为众多交流代码系统之一。那么，语言学就变成了符号系统更普遍的研究领域之一——“符号学”（或“符号学”）。
Since the 1960s, semiotics has presented an interesting approach to the logical description of the languagelike phenomenon of film and the other recording arts. The linguist Ferdinand de Saussure laid the groundwork for semiotics in the early years of the twentieth century. Saussure’s simple, yet elegant, idea was to view language as simply one of a number of systems of codes of communication. Linguistics, then, becomes simply one area of the more general study of systems of signs—“semiotics” (or “semiology”).
电影可能没有语法，但它确实有“代码”系统。严格来说，它没有词汇，但它有符号系统。它还使用许多其他通信系统的符号和代码系统。例如，任何音乐代码都可以在电影音乐中体现。大多数绘画代码和大多数叙事代码也可以在电影中呈现。前面对电影与其他艺术之间关系的讨论可以通过描述那些可以转化为电影的其他艺术中存在的代码来量化，而不是那些不能转化为电影的艺术。请记住弗罗斯特：“诗歌是在翻译中丢失的东西。” 因此，一门艺术的天才可能就是那些在其他艺术中不起作用的代码。
Film may not have grammar, but it does have systems of “codes.” It does not, strictly speaking, have a vocabulary, but it does have a system of signs. It also uses the systems of signs and codes of a number of other communication systems. Any musical code, for instance, can be represented in the music of film. Most painterly codes, and most narrative codes, can also be represented in film. Much of the preceding discussion of the relationship between film and the other arts could be quantified by describing the codes that exist in those other arts that can be translated into film as opposed to those that cannot. Remember Frost: “Poetry is what gets lost in translation.” So the genius of an art may be just those codes that don’t work well in any other art.
然而，虽然符号学的代码系统在使更精确地描述电影如何发挥作用方面取得了很大的进展，但它的局限性在于它或多或少地坚持我们将电影像语言一样简化为基本的离散单元，这些单元可以被量化。与语言学一样，符号学并不特别适合描述其学科的完整的、形而上学的效果。它很好地描述了电影的语言或交流系统。但它并不容易描述电影的艺术活动。从文学批评中借用的一个术语在这方面可能有用：“比喻”。
Yet while the code system of semiotics goes a long way toward making possible a more precise description of how film does what it does, it is limited in that it more or less insists that we reduce film, like language, to basic discrete units that can be quantified. Like linguistics, semiotics is not especially well adapted to describing the complete, metaphysical effect of its subject. It describes the language, or system of communication, of film very well. But it does not easily describe the artistic activity of film. A term borrowed from literary criticism may be useful in this respect: “trope.”
一般来说，在文学批评中，“比喻”一词被用来表示“修辞手法”：即短语的“转折”，其中语言被弯曲，使其揭示的不仅仅是字面意义。代码和符号的概念描述了艺术“语言”的要素；比喻的概念对于描述这些代码和符号用来产生新的、意想不到的含义的通常非常不寻常和不合逻辑的方式是必要的。我们现在关心的是艺术的积极方面。“Trope”源自希腊语tropos（源自拉丁语tropus），最初的意思是“转动”、“方式”或“方式”，因此即使从词源上看，这个词也暗示着一种活动而不是静态的描述。
Generally, in literary criticism the term “trope” is used to mean “figure of speech”: that is, a “turn” of phrase in which language is bent so that it reveals more than literal meanings. The concepts of code and sign describe the elements of the “language” of an art; the concept of trope is necessary to describe the often very unusual and illogical way those codes and signs are used to produce new, unexpected meanings. We are concerned now with the active aspect of art. “Trope,” from the Greek tropos (via Latin tropus) originally meant “turn,” “way,” or “manner,” so even etymologically the word suggests an activity rather than a static description.
例如，节奏、旋律和和声是音乐的基本准则。在每个代码中都有精心设计的子代码集。切分节拍（例如爵士乐习语中必不可少的节拍）可以被视为子代码。但塞隆尼斯·蒙克音乐中令人兴奋的、独特的切分音只是比喻。没有办法对它们进行科学量化；而这正是塞隆尼斯·蒙克的天才所在。
Rhythm, melody, and harmony, for example, are essential codes of music. Within each of these codes there are elaborate sets of subcodes. A syncopated beat, such as that essential to the idiom of jazz, can be considered as a subcode. But the exciting, idiosyncratic syncopations of Thelonious Monk’s music are tropes. There is no way to quantify them scientifically; and that, precisely, is the genius of Thelonious Monk.
同样，在绘画中，形式、色彩、线条通常被视为基本规范。硬边和软边是子码。但安格尔画作中精确、精致的线条，或奥古斯特·雷诺阿研究中微妙的柔和边缘，都是特殊的比喻。
Likewise, in painting, form, color, and line are generally regarded as the basic codes. Hard edges and soft edges are subcodes. But the precise, exquisite lines of a painting by Ingres, or the subtle soft edges of a study by Auguste Renoir, are idiosyncratic tropes.
在舞台剧中，手势是艺术的核心，是其基本准则之一。献上戴着戒指的手来换取虔诚之吻是一个特定的子代码。但劳伦斯·奥利维尔在《理查三世》中表现这一姿态的方式非常独特：一种比喻。
In stage drama, gesture is central to the art, one of its basic codes. The offering of a ringed hand for the kiss of devotion is a specific subcode. But the way Laurence Olivier performs this gesture in Richard III is very peculiarly his own: a trope.
艺术的系统通常可以用符号学术语描述为代码的集合。然而，艺术的独特活动在于它的比喻。胶片可以用来记录大多数其他艺术。它还可以翻译叙事、环境、绘画、音乐和戏剧艺术中几乎所有常见的代码和比喻。最后，它有一套自己的代码和比喻系统，是录音艺术所独有的。
The system of an art can generally be described in semiotic terms as a collection of codes. The unique activity of an art, however, lies in its tropes. Film can be used to record most of the other arts. It can also translate nearly all the codes and tropes common to narrative, environmental, pictorial, musical, and dramatic arts. Finally, it has a system of codes and tropes all its own, unique to the recording arts.
它自己的代码和比喻源于其复杂的技术——艺术和媒体世界的一种新现象。为了理解电影与所有其他艺术的不同之处（我们研究的第二阶段），有必要仔细研究该技术：这是第二章的主题。
Its own codes and tropes stem from its complex technology—a new phenomenon in the world of art and media. For an understanding of how film is unlike all the other arts—the second stage of our investigation—it is necessary to take a close look at that technology: this is the subject of Chapter 2.
诗歌是你无法翻译的。艺术是你无法定义的。电影是你无法解释的。但无论如何我们都会尝试。
Poetry is what you can’t translate. Art is what you can’t define. Film is what you can’t explain. But we’re going to try, anyway.
2
技术：图像和声音
2
Technology: Image and Sound
IMAGE TECHNOLOGY; SOUND TECHNOLOGY
NEGATIVES, PRINTS, AND GENERATIONS; ASPECT RATIO;
GRAIN, GAUGE, AND SPEED; COLOR, CONTRAST, AND TONE
EDITING; MIXING AND LOOPING; SPECIAL EFFECTS;
OPTICALS, THE LAB, AND THE POST HOUSE
“这不只是比特和字节的问题吗？化学和奇怪的机械装置到底是怎么回事？这一切不都是在电脑里发生的吗？”
“Isn’t it all just a matter of bits and bytes? What’s all this about chemistry, and weird mechanical devices? Doesn’t it all happen in the computer?”
艺术与科技
Art and Technology
每一种艺术不仅受到社会政治、哲学和经济的影响，而且还受到其技术的影响。这种关系并不总是很明确：有时技术的发展会导致艺术美学的变化；有时技术的发展会导致艺术审美的变化；有时审美欲望需要新技术；技术本身的发展往往是意识形态和经济因素综合作用的结果。但在艺术冲动能够通过某种技术表达出来之前，人工制品是不存在的。
Every art is shaped not only by the politics, philosophy, and economics of society, but also by its technology. The relationship isn’t always clear: sometimes technological development leads to a change in the esthetics of the art; sometimes esthetic desires call for a new technology; often the development of the technology itself is the result of a combination of ideological and economic factors. But until artistic impulses can be expressed through some kind of technology, there is no artefact.
通常，这些关系是广泛的：如果没有印刷机，小说就不可能诞生，但最近印刷技术的快速发展（在第六章中讨论）对小说的审美发展几乎没有影响。其三百年历史中所发生的审美变化源于其他历史因素——主要是形式的社会用途。
Usually the relationships are broad: the novel never could have come into being without the printing press, but the recent rapid increases in the technology of printing (discussed in Chapter 6) have had little effect on the esthetic development of the novel. What esthetic changes have occurred in its three-hundred-year history stem from other historical factors—mainly the social uses of the form.
当新的灯光技术允许将舞台剧搬到室内并隐藏在舞台拱门后面时，舞台剧发生了根本性的改变，但二十世纪对推力舞台的回归主要不是由于技术的发展，而是由于意识形态因素。巴赫用他那个时代的羽管键琴演奏的声音与巴赫用现代“平均律键盘”演奏的声音截然不同，但巴赫仍然是巴赫。油画颜料的发明为画家提供了一种美妙的媒介多功能性，但如果油画从未被发明，画家无论如何都会画画。
Stage drama was radically altered when new lighting techniques allowed it to be brought indoors and sheltered behind the proscenium arch, but the twentieth-century reversion to the thrust stage was mainly due not to developments in technology but to ideological factors. Bach played on the harpsichord of his own day sounds quite different from Bach performed on the modern “well-tempered clavier,” but Bach is still Bach. The invention of oil paint provided painters with a medium of wonderful versatility, but if oil paint had never been invented, painters would have painted anyway.
图 2-1。这幅达芬奇的画作暗示了可视化与发明、艺术与技术之间的联系。
Figure 2-1. This da Vinci drawing suggests the bond between visualization and invention, art and technology.
简而言之，尽管艺术与技术之间存在着一种交流，这种交流不仅仅是像列奥纳多·达·芬奇这样偶尔出现的天才将这两个领域的优秀作品结合起来，这种交流掩盖了现代人认为这两个领域是对立的观点，但人们可以研究学习绘画的历史，而无需了解油画与丙烯酸有何不同，文学学生当然可以成功地掌握这种形式的基本历史，而无需研究排字机或胶印机的操作。
In short, although there has been a communion between art and technology that consists of more than an occasional genius like Leonardo da Vinci combining good work in both fields, a communion that belies the modern view of the two fields as antagonistic, nevertheless one can study the history of painting without ever having gained any knowledge of how oils differ from acrylics, and students of literature can certainly succeed in mastering the basic history of the form without having studied the operation of the Linotype or the offset press.
电影则不然。工业时代的伟大艺术贡献，记录艺术——电影、录音和摄影——完全依赖于复杂、巧妙和日益尖端的技术。这些是动力艺术：没有电源就无法拍摄电影或录音，即使它只是一个手摇曲柄。如果不检查它们所依赖的基础技术和科学，你就无法完全理解这些艺术中正在发生的事情。
This is not the case with film. The great artistic contribution of the industrial age, the recording arts—film, sound recording, and photography—depend completely on complex, ingenious, and ever more sophisticated technologies. These are the powered arts: you can’t make a film or recording without a power source, even if it’s only a hand-crank. And you can’t fully understand what is happening in these arts without examining the underlying technologies and the science on which they depend.
由于我们已经深入数字时代，接下来的一些内容可能看起来很古怪或过时。这不只是位和字节的问题吗？化学和奇怪的机械装置到底是怎么回事？这一切不都是在电脑里发生的吗？真的; 越来越多了。但数字世界中很少有技术不是源自其分析。
Some of what follows may seem quaint or superannuated now that we are deep into the digital age. Isn’t it all just a matter of bits and bytes? What’s all this about chemistry, and weird mechanical devices? Doesn’t it all happen in the computer? True; more and more it does. But there are very few techniques in the digital world that aren’t derived from their ana-
图 2-2。听觉和视觉记录系统。_ _ _ 为了记录和再现声音和图像，记录技术必须将听觉和视觉信息转化为物理或电子“语言系统”。
Figure 2-2. AURAL AND VISUAL RECORDING SYSTEMS. In order to record and reproduce sounds and images, recording technology must translate aural and visual information into physical or electronic “language-systems.”
可变面积音轨 (A) 是一种模拟系统，可将声音的频率（音调）和振幅（音量）转换为规则的光图案。最响亮的声音由最宽的光带表示。可变面积的配乐是波力学的优雅可视化。（参见第 6 章。）
The variable-area soundtrack (A), an analog system, translates the frequency (pitch) and amplitude (volume) of sounds into regular patterns of light. The loudest sound is represented by the widest light band. The variable-area soundtrack is an elegant visualization of wave mechanics. (See Chapter 6.)
黑胶唱片凹槽 (B) 将音频信息转换为类似的物理波形。33 1/3 rpm 磁盘的这一部分大约为 5 厘米 x 2 厘米。图中的每个凹槽部分携带大约 1/4 秒的音乐（在本例中为 Duke Ellington），并且由于这是一张立体声唱片，因此每个凹槽携带两个通道的信息，凹槽的每一侧各一个。
Vinyl record grooves (B) translate audio information into analogous physical waveforms. This section of a 33 1/3 rpm disk is approximately 5 cm by 2 cm. Each groove section pictured carries about 1/4-second of music (in this case, Duke Ellington), and since this is a stereo record, each groove carries two channels of information, one on each side of the groove.
磁性录音带 (C) 以电磁方式编码信息；因此，这里看不到信号，而在上面的 A 和 B 中却可以看到该信号。可见的线条只是磨损的迹象。所示的专业卷到卷磁带部分以每秒 7 1/2 英寸的正常速度携带略多于 1/20 秒的信息。在正常的立体声录音中，这个 1/4 英寸宽的磁带可能带有四个并行通道（每个方向两个）。
Magnetic audiotape (C) encodes information electromagnetically; as a result, the signal cannot be seen here as it can in A and B above. The visible lines are simply signs of wear. The section of professional reel-to-reel tape shown carries slightly more than 1/20 second of information at a normal speed of 7 1/2 inches per second. In normal stereo recording this 1/4-inch-wide tape might carry four parallel channels (two in each direction).
当代数字音频光盘 (D) 的这个 10 毫米部分代表了 208 秒的立体声音乐 (Susannah McCorkle)，编码为基材中的微小凹坑。DVD 或蓝光光盘看起来没有太大不同，但会编码数据量是 DVD 的 7 倍或 BD 的 38 倍。
This 10-mm section of a contemporary digital audio compact disc (D) represents 208 seconds of stereo music (Susannah McCorkle), encoded as microscopic pits in the substrate.A DVD or Blu-ray disc wouldn’t look much different but would encode seven times (DVD) or 38 times (BD) as much data.
视觉信息比听觉信息复杂得多，因此更难以编码。由于要表示的信息要多得多，因此视觉编码是面向位的并且通常是二进制的。换句话说，信息被分解为离散的量子（“位”），每个信息位可以有两个值之一：“是”或“否”、“黑”或“白”。
Visual information is far more complex than aural information and therefore more difficult to encode. Because there is vastly more information to represent, visual encoding is bit-oriented and often binary. In other words, the information is broken into discrete quanta (“bits”) and each bit of information can have either of two values: “yes” or “no,” “black” or “white.”
三种常见视觉编码系统中最灵活的是摄影。图 E 是标准 8” x 10” 黑白印刷品的一部分的放大图，高 15 毫米。颗粒清晰可见。请记住，为了再现您所看到的照片，打印机使用了半色调网屏。
The most flexible of the three common systems of visual encoding is photography. Figure E is an enlargement of a section of standard 8” x 10” black-and-white print, 15 mm high. The grain is clearly visible. Remember that in order to reproduce the photograph as you see it, a printer’s halftone screen has been imposed.
图F显示了书中复制的同一张照片的相同部分。半色调网屏将照相颗粒中存在的可变信息分析为黑白点图案。在本例中，屏幕频率为每英寸 133 线。请注意，右侧黑色区域中的白色标记（照片中的缺陷）在半色调再现中几乎消失了。
Figure F shows the same section of the same photograph as it was reproduced in a book. The halftone screen analyzes the variable information present in the photographic grain into black-and-white dot patterns. In this case, the screen frequency was 133 lines per inch. Notice that the white mark in the black area to the right (an imperfection in the photograph) has nearly disappeared in the halftone reproduction.
图G显示了彩色电视屏幕的一部分。NTSC 标准的美国电视屏幕由 210,000 个这样的信息位组成：红、绿、蓝点以每英寸 30 到 90 行的图案排列，比 E 中的半色调屏幕要粗糙得多。
Figure G shows a section of color television screen. An NTSC standard American television screen was composed of 210,000 of these bits of information: red, green, and blue dots arranged in patterns of 30 to 90 lines per inch—much cruder than the halftone screen in E.
图 H 显示了 LCD HDTV 屏幕的类似部分。每个像素有六个子像素。由于宽高比发生了变化，水平分辨率仅增加了 25%。
Figure H shows a comparable section of an LCD HDTV screen. There are six subpixels to each pixel. Because the aspect ratio has changed, the increase in horizontal resolution is only 25 percent.
E. 照相颗粒。放大倍数：4.5×
E. Photographic grain. Magnification: 4.5×
F. 半色调网屏。放大倍数：6.4×
F. Halftone screen. Magnification: 6.4×
G. CRT 屏幕。放大倍数：10×
G. CRT screen. Magnification: 10×
H. 高清电视屏幕。放大倍数：10×
H. HDTV screen. Magnification: 10×
图 2-3。这个版本的暗箱将入射光反射到盒子顶部的屏幕上，以便艺术家可以追踪图像。如果针孔足够小，就会投影出图像。光学原理如图2-9所示。（国际摄影博物馆，乔治伊士曼之家。）
Figure 2-3. This version of the camera obscura reflected the incoming light to a screen at the top of the box so that an artist could trace the image. If the pinhole is sufficiently small, an image will be projected. The optical principle is described in Figure 2-9. (International Museum of Photography, George Eastman House.)
记录前辈。正如爱德华·阿尔比（Edward Albee）在他的戏剧《动物园的故事》（1958）中简洁地表述的那样：
log predecessors. As Edward Albee put it neatly in his play The Zoo Story (1958):
我要告诉你的是，有时需要走很远的距离才能正确地返回一小段距离……。
What I am going to tell you has something to do with how sometimes it’s necessary to go a long distance out of the way in order to come back a short distance correctly….
对二十世纪的模拟世界的深入了解使得二十一世纪的数字媒体领域更加容易理解。
A good understanding of the analog world of the twentieth century makes the digital mediasphere of the twenty-first more comprehensible.
图像技术
Image Technology
十九世纪初摄影术的发明标志着一场与古腾堡革命一样重要的历史转变。在那之前和之后，驱使我们模仿自然的基本艺术冲动本质上是相同的，但是记录和再现声音和图像的新技术能力为我们提供了一系列令人兴奋的新选择。
The invention of photography in the early nineteenth century marks an historical shift as important as the Gutenberg revolution. The basic artistic impulses that drive us to mimic nature were essentially the same both before and after that time, but the new technical capacity to record and reproduce sounds and images presents us with an exciting new set of choices.
以前我们受到自身身体能力的限制：音乐家通过吹奏、弹奏或唱歌来创造声音；画家捕捉真实的图像完全依靠自己的眼睛来感知。这小说家和诗人虽然没有实际从事他们的艺术，但他们自己的观察力在描述事件或人物方面仍然受到限制。录音技术为我们提供了捕捉声音、图像和事件的表现并将其直接传输给观察者的机会，而无需艺术家的才华介入。一个新的沟通渠道已经开通，其重要性与书面语言同等。
Previously we were limited by our own physical abilities: the musician created sounds by blowing or strumming or singing; the painter who captured real images depended entirely on his own eye to perceive them; the novelist and the poet, although not physically engaged in their art, were nevertheless limited in describing events or characters by their own powers of observation. Recording technology offered us the opportunity of capturing a representation of sounds, images, and events and transmitting them directly to the observer without the necessary interposition of the artist’s talents. A new channel of communication had been opened, equal in importance to written language.
图 2-4。透明相机由一个镜头装置组成，使艺术家能够在同一个“框架”中查看主题和绘图纸，从而简单地勾勒出投影在纸上的图像。（国际摄影博物馆，乔治伊士曼之家。）
Figure 2-4. The camera lucida consisted of a lens arrangement that enabled the artist to view subject and drawing paper in the same “frame” and thus simply outline the image that appeared to be projected on the paper. (International Museum of Photography, George Eastman House.)
尽管相机直到十九世纪初才投入实际使用，但创造这种直接记录现实的神奇工具的努力可以追溯到更早的时候。暗箱（图 2-3）是照相机的鼻祖，其历史可以追溯到文艺复兴时期。达芬奇描述了这一原理，并且首次出版的关于这项发明实用性的描述可以追溯到 1558 年，乔瓦尼·巴蒂斯塔·德拉·波塔 (Giovanni Battista della Porta) 在这一年出版了他的著作《自然魔法》(Natural Magic)。甚至有文献可以追溯到十世纪的阿拉伯天文学家阿尔·哈森 (Al Hazen)。暗箱（字面意思是“暗室”）基于一个简单的光学规则，但它包含了现代摄影相机的所有基本元素，除了一个元素：胶片（记录投影图像的介质）。
Although the camera did not come into practical use until the early nineteenth century, efforts to create such a magical tool, which would record reality directly, dated from much earlier. The camera obscura (Figure 2-3), the grandfather of the photographic camera, dates from the Renaissance. Da Vinci had described the principle, and the first published account of the usefulness of the invention dates from 1558, the year in which Giovanni Battista della Porta published his book Natural Magic. There are even references dating back as far as the tenth-century Arabic astronomer Al Hazen. The camera obscura (literally “dark room”) is based on a simple optical rule, but it includes all the elements of the basic contemporary photographic camera except one: film, the medium on which the projected image is recorded.
图 2-5。摄影系统。_ _ Talbottype、Collotype 和现代摄影的负片-正片系统（底部）允许无限复制图像。早期银版照相法（上）的直接正片系统可以像现代数码相机一样创建单一的标志性图像。
Figure 2-5. PHOTOGRAPHIC SYSTEMS. The negative-positive system (bottom) of the Talbottype, Collotype, and modern photography permits infinite reproduction of the image. The direct positive system of the early Daguerreotype (top) creates a single, iconic image, as does a modern digital camera.
人们通常认为路易斯·达盖尔 (Louis Daguerre) 在 1839 年首次实际开发了这种介质，但他的同事约瑟夫·尼埃普斯 (Joseph Nièpce) 在 1833 年去世之前已经做了很多有价值的工作，并且正如博蒙特·纽霍尔 (Beaumont Newhall) 指出的那样，他可能被认为是第一个“成功的实验” 1827 年，威廉·亨利·福克斯·塔尔博特（William Henry Fox Talbot）同时沿着类似的路线进行工作：摄影是从他的负片记录和正片复制系统发展而来的。达盖尔的记录照相底片是正片，因此不可复制（除非被拍照本身），已经走到了死胡同；银版摄影标志着一系列技术发展的结束，而不是一个技术发展的开始。但福克斯·塔尔博特的否定允许无限复制。纸质底片很快就被柔性火棉胶底片所取代，这不仅标志着图像质量的显着提高，而且因为它具有柔性，也为电影录制开辟了一条发展路线。
Louis Daguerre is usually credited with the first practical development of such a medium in 1839, but his colleague Joseph Nièpce had done much valuable work before he died in 1833, and may be credited, as Beaumont Newhall has noted, with the first “successful experiment to fix the image of nature” in 1827. William Henry Fox Talbot was working simultaneously along similar lines: photography has developed from his system of negative recording and positive reproduction. Daguerre, whose recording photographic plate was positive and therefore not reproducible (except through being photographed itself), had reached a deadend; the daguerreotype marked the end of a line of technological development, not the beginning of one. But Fox Talbot’s negative permitted infinite reproductions. The paper negative was soon replaced by the flexible collodion film negative, which not only marked a distinct improvement in the quality of the image but also—because it was flexible—suggested a line of development for the recording of motion pictures.
图 2-6。西洋镜。_ _ _ 圆筒旋转；通过对面的槽可以看到鼓内部的图像，从而产生运动的错觉。（国际摄影博物馆，乔治伊士曼之家。）
Figure 2-6. THE ZOETROPE. The cylinder was spun; the images on the inside of the drum were viewed through the slots opposite them, creating the illusion of motion. (International Museum of Photography, George Eastman House.)
与静态相机一样，电影摄影机也并非没有前身。能够将图像投影到屏幕上的魔灯可以追溯到 17 世纪，并在 1850 年代迅速适应摄影用途。1830 年代所谓的魔盘和更复杂的西洋镜（图2-6）以一种非常原始的方式使运动幻觉的产生成为可能，后者于 1834 年由威廉·霍纳 (William Horner) 申请了专利（尽管西洋镜的前身可能追溯到古代）。1870 年代，在加利福尼亚工作的埃德沃德·迈布里奇 (Eadweard Muybridge) 和在法国工作的艾蒂安·朱尔斯·马雷 (Étienne Jules Marey) 开始尝试拍摄运动记录。埃米尔·雷诺 (Émile Reynaud) 的 Praxinscope (1877) 是第一个在屏幕上投影连续图像的实用设备。1889 年，乔治·伊士曼 (George Eastman) 为他为胶卷相机开发的柔性摄影胶片申请了专利，电影摄影的最后一个基本要素就位了。
Like the still camera, the motion-picture camera was not without its antecedents. The Magic Lantern, capable of projecting an image onto a screen, dates from the seventeenth century and was quickly adapted to photographic use in the 1850s. The production of the illusion of motion was made possible in a very crude way by the so-called Magic Discs of the 1830s and the more sophisticated Zoetrope (Figure 2-6), patented in 1834 by William Horner (although precursors of the Zoetrope may date to antiquity). In the 1870s Eadweard Muybridge, working in California, and Étienne Jules Marey, in France, began their experiments in making photographic records of movement. Émile Reynaud’s Praxinoscope (1877) was the first practicable device for projecting successive images on a screen. In 1889 George Eastman applied for a patent on his flexible photographic film, developed for the roll camera, and the last basic element of cinematography was in place.
到 1895 年，所有这些元素都结合在一起，电影诞生了。
By 1895 all these elements had been combined, and movies were born.
声音技术
Sound Technology
录音技术发展更加迅速。爱迪生的留声机可以追溯到 1877 年，它对声音的作用就像相机/投影仪系统对图像的作用一样。在许多方面，它是比电影摄影更非凡的发明，因为它没有前身可言。捕捉和再现静态图片的愿望早于动态图片的发展很多年，但并不存在所谓的“动态图片”。“静止”的声音，因此录音的发展必然是同时发生的。
The technology of sound recording developed more rapidly. Edison’s phonograph, which does for sounds what the camera/projector system does for images, dates from 1877. In many ways it is a more extraordinary invention than cinematography, since it has no antecedents to speak of. The desire to capture and reproduce still pictures predated the development of moving pictures by many years, but there is no such thing as a “still” sound, so the development of sound recording, of necessity, took place all at once.
图 2-7。爱迪生的电影放映机是一种私人观看机器。胶片以围绕机器底部的滚轮的连续循环形成：在下一次放映之前无需倒带！（现代艺术博物馆/英国金融服务管理局。）
Figure 2-7. Edison’s Kinetoscope was a private viewing machine. The film was formed in a continuous loop running around rollers in the base of the machine: no need to rewind before the next showing! (MOMA/FSA.)
与留声机同等重要的是贝尔的电话（1876 年），尽管在录音艺术史上不常被提及。它预示着声音和图像的定期传输，其技术为我们提供了广播和电视，但更重要的是，贝尔的发明还展示了如何制作电信号来服务于录音的目的。*
Equally as important as the phonograph, although not often mentioned in histories of the recording arts, is Bell’s telephone (1876). It presages the regular transmission of sounds and images whose technology provided us with radio and television but, more important, Bell’s invention also shows how electrical signals can be made to serve the purposes of sound recording.*
爱迪生最初的留声机是一项完全物理机械的发明，这赋予了它简单的优点，但也严重延迟了该领域的技术进步。纯机械留声机，就像达盖尔的正面照片一样，在技术上是一个死胡同。直到 20 年代中期，贝尔的声音电传输技术才与机械留声机技术相结合。在几乎就在同一时间，录音与图像记录相结合，产生了我们今天所知道的电影。
Edison’s original phonograph was an entirely physical-mechanical invention, which gave it the virtue of simplicity but also seriously delayed technological progress in the field. The purely mechanical phonograph, like Daguerre’s positive photograph, was technically a deadend. It was not until the mid-1920s that Bell’s techniques for the electrical transmission of sound were united with the technology of the mechanical phonograph. At almost precisely the same time, sound recordings were united with image recordings to produce the cinema as we know it today.
图 2-8。大约 1895 年，女士们先生们在第 28 街和百老汇交汇处的活动电影放映厅里自娱自乐。前景中突出的是一位谦虚的发明家的半身像。（现代艺术博物馆/英国金融服务管理局。）
Figure 2-8. Ladies and gentlemen amusing themselves at the Kinetoscope parlor at 28th Street and Broadway, circa 1895. That’s a bust of the modest inventor prominent in the foreground. (MOMA/FSA.)
有趣的是，如果爱迪生没有发明机械留声机，猜测是否会有无声电影时期：在这种情况下，爱迪生（或另一位发明家）很可能会转向贝尔的电话作为留声机的模型录音的电子系统会更早地发展起来，很可能及时为第一批电影制片人服务。
It is interesting to conjecture whether there would have been any period of silent cinema at all had Edison not invented a mechanical phonograph: in that case it’s quite possible that Edison (or another inventor) would have turned to Bell’s telephone as a model for the phonograph and the electrical system of recording sound would have developed much earlier, more than likely in time to be of service to the first filmmakers.
值得注意的是，托马斯·爱迪生本人将他的电影放映机设想为留声机的附属品。正如他在 1894 年所说：
It is worth noting that Thomas Edison himself conceived of his Kinetograph as an adjunct to the phonograph. As he put it in 1894:
1887 年，我想到可以设计一种仪器，它对眼睛的作用就像留声机对耳朵的作用一样，并且通过将两者结合起来，所有运动和声音都可以同时记录和再现。*
In the year 1887, the idea occurred to me that it was possible to devise an instrument which should do for the eye what the phonograph does for the ear, and that by a combination of the two all motion and sound could be recorded and reproduced simultaneously.*
爱迪生的英国助手威廉·肯尼迪·劳里·迪克森（William Kennedy Laurie Dickson）完成了大部分开发工作，他将爱迪生的第一个电影放映机概念描述为与他成功的留声机在结构和概念上平行的：
William Kennedy Laurie Dickson, an English assistant to Edison who did much of the development work, describes Edison’s first conception of the Kinetograph as parallel in structure and conception with his successful phonograph:
爱迪生的想法……是将留声机滚筒或唱片与类似或更大的鼓结合在同一轴上，该鼓上覆盖有针尖显微照片，当然这些照片必须与留声机唱片同步。
Edison’s idea … was to combine the phonograph cylinder or record with a similar or larger drum on the same shaft, which drum was to be covered with pin-point microphotographs which of course must synchronize with the phonograph record.
当然，这种配置并没有成功，但提出了声音和图像的理想结合。事实上，在迪克森转向新的穿孔伊士曼连续胶卷之后，他仍然认为电影必然与录音相结合。1889 年 10 月 6 日，他第一次向爱迪生展示了自己的成功，这是一部“有声电影”。迪克森称该设备为“Kinetophone”。爱迪生刚刚出国旅行回来。迪克森把他领进放映室并启动了机器。他出现在小屏幕上，向前走去，举起帽子，微笑着，直接对观众说道：
This configuration, of course, did not succeed, but the ideal union of sound and image was suggested. Indeed, after Dickson had turned to the new perforated Eastman continuous roll film, he continued to think of the moving pictures as necessarily joined with the sound record; his first demonstration of his success to Edison on October 6, 1889, was a “talkie.” Dickson called this device a “Kinetophone.” Edison had just returned from a trip abroad. Dickson ushered him into the projecting room and started the machine. He appeared on the small screen, walked forward, raised his hat, smiled, and spoke directly to his audience:
“早上好，爱迪生先生，很高兴见到你回来。希望您喜欢 Kinetophone。为了显示同步性，我会举起手数到十。”
“Good morning, Mr. Edison, glad to see you back. Hope you like the Kinetophone. To show the synchronization I will lift my hand and count up to ten.”
这些话虽然不太为人所知，但肯定可以与贝尔的电话“先生”相提并论。华生，过来，我想见你”和莫尔斯的电报“上帝做了什么？”
These words, less well known, should certainly rank with Bell’s telephonic “Mr. Watson, come here, I want to see you” and Morse’s telegraphic “What hath God wrought?”
由于爱迪生的机械录音系统所带来的技术问题（主要是同步），声音和图像的有效结合直到三十年后才出现，但再现声音和图像一致的愿望从电影史的早期就存在。
Because of the technical problems posed by Edison’s mechanical recording system—mainly synchronization—the effective marriage of sound and image did not occur until thirty years later, but the desire to reproduce sound and image in concert existed from the earliest days of film history.
到了 1900 年，基于新技术的艺术的所有基本工具都已被发明：画家可以选择静态相机；音乐家是留声机的替代品；小说家和戏剧界人士正在思考电影令人兴奋的可能性。这些记录中的每一个都可以大量复制，因此可以传播给很多人。
By 1900, all the basic tools of the new technology-based arts had been invented: the painter had the alternative of the still camera; the musician the alternative of the phonograph; and novelists and theater folk were contemplating the exciting possibilities of motion pictures. Each of these records could be reproduced in large quantities and therefore reach large numbers of people.
尽管广播技术还需要几年的时间，但电话和电报已经证明了长距离即时通信的可行方法。事实上，随着电缆光纤技术的不断发展，我们现在意识到，有线传输比无线电波广播具有很多优势，其中最重要的是可寻址性。此外，尽管无线电频谱已经饱和，但正如蜂窝电话网络和本地无线网络的发展所表明的那样，无线电波广播仍有很大的生命力。从现在开始广播和有线传输必须被视为同一行业的一部分。这两种技术之间的竞争将继续上演许多商业版面的戏剧。
Although the technology of broadcasting was still a few years in the future, workable methods of instantaneous communication over long distances had been demonstrated by the telephone and the telegraph; in fact, we are now realizing, as cable fiber optic technology continues to develop, that wired transmission offers quite a few advantages over radio-wave broadcasting, not least of which is addressability. Moreover, despite the saturation of the radio spectrum, there is much life left in radio-wave broadcasting, as the development of cellular phone networks and local wireless networks has shown. From now on broadcast and wired transmission must be considered as part of the same industry. The competition between the two technologies will continue to provide much business-page drama.
该流程图显示了电影制作过程的各个阶段：
This flowchart indicates the various stages of the process of film:
图表E。无论工作流程是模拟的还是数字的，过程基本相同。
DIAGRAM E. The process is basically the same whether the workflow is analog or digital.
在这些阶段的任何一个阶段都可以引入变量，以便艺术家更好地控制整个过程。图表的每个区域内都有大量因素，每个因素都对成品产生明显的影响，并且这些因素彼此相互作用以及区域之间相互作用，从而创造出令人兴奋的复杂技术。事实上，对电影制作活动及其产品的欣赏很大程度上取决于对电影制作人必须克服的技术挑战的理解。
At any one of these stages variables can be introduced to give an artist more control over the process. Within each area of the chart there is a large number of factors, each of which has a discernible effect on the finished product, and these factors interact with each other, and between areas, to create an excitingly complex technology. Indeed, no small part of the appreciation of the activity of filmmaking as well as the product lies in an understanding of the technical challenges that filmmakers must surmount.
镜头
The Lens
最早的相机是暗箱，它由一个一侧有针孔的不透光盒子组成。现代相机，无论是静态还是动态图像，都遵循相同的原理：盒子的加工更加精确；光敏柔性薄膜——或电子传感器矩阵——已经取代了绘图纸，成为图像落在其上的“屏幕”；但针孔却发生了很大的变化。这种原始的光学设备已经发展成为一个技术非常复杂的系统。我们最终通过镜头的玻璃眼睛来观看照片或电影，这在很大程度上取决于镜头的玻璃眼睛，因此它必须被视为摄影艺术的核心。
The earliest of cameras, the camera obscura, consisted of a light-tight box with a pinhole in one side. Contemporary cameras, both still and motion picture, operate on the same principle: the box is more precisely machined; photosensitive, flexible film—or a matrix of electronic sensors—has replaced the drawing paper as the “screen” upon which the image falls; but great changes have taken place in the pinhole. That crude optical device has evolved into a system of great technical sophistication. So much depends upon the glass eye of the lens through which we all eventually view a photograph or a film that it must be regarded as the heart of photographic art.
图 2-9。镜头。_ 如果没有镜头来聚焦来自拍摄对象的光线，则不会产生图像（左）：来自所有点的所有光线都会照射到感光板或胶片的所有部分。凸透镜（中心）使来自每个单点的光线弯曲，使其会聚在其后面一定距离的“焦平面”上。创建的图像从右到左、从上到下反转。（然后可以转动透明负片以在印刷品中创建正确的左右方向。）如果针孔足够小，它就会像凸透镜一样提供粗略的焦点。这是导致暗箱发明的基本原理。（见图2-3。）凹透镜（右）使光线发散，使观察者感知到看起来比实际物体小的“视”或“虚”图像。附图下面的图示意性地表明了原理。
Figure 2-9. LENSES. If there is no lens to focus the rays of light coming from the subject, no image will be produced (left): all rays from all points will strike all parts of the photosensitive plate or film. The convex lens (center) bends the rays from each single point so that they converge on the “focus plane” a certain distance behind it. The image created is reversed right to left and top to bottom. (A transparent negative can then be turned to create the proper left-right orientation in the print.) A pinhole, if it is small enough, will act like a convex lens to give a rough focus. This is the elementary principle which led to the invention of the Camera Obscura. (See Figure 2-3.) The concave lens (right) causes the rays to diverge in such a way that an observer perceives an “apparent,” or “virtual,” image which seems smaller than the actual object. The diagrams below the drawings schematically indicate the principles.
这是光学技术的基本思想：由于光在不同介质中以不同的速度传播，因此光线从一种介质传递到另一种介质时会发生弯曲。由玻璃或其他透明材料制成的透镜可以聚焦这些光线。虽然人眼的晶状体是不断变化的，每次我们无意识地从一个物体重新聚焦到另一个物体时，其形状都会发生变化，但摄影镜头只能执行其精心设计的特定任务。
Here is the basic idea of the technology of optics: Because light travels at different speeds in different mediums, light rays bend when they pass from one medium to another. Lenses made out of glass or other transparent materials can then focus those rays. While the lens of the human eye is continuously variable, changing in shape each time we unconsciously refocus from one object to another, photographic lenses can only perform the specific tasks for which they are painstakingly designed.
摄影师可以使用三种基本类型的镜头。这三大类镜头通常根据焦距进行分类：从胶片或传感器平面到镜头表面的距离。虽然镜头通常是专门针对其必须拍摄的主题而选择的，但每个镜头都有各种辅助特性，这些特性已成为摄影师宝贵的审美工具。对于使用 35 毫米胶片的相机，“普通”镜头的焦距大约在 35 到 50 毫米之间。这种镜头是摄影师最常见的选择，因为它变形最小，因此最接近地模仿人眼感知现实的方式。
A photographer has three basic types of lenses available to him. These three general categories of lenses are usually classified according to their focal length: the distance from the plane of the film or sensor to the surface of the lens. Although a lens is usually chosen specifically for the subject it must photograph, there are various ancillary characteristics to each lens that have become valuable esthetic tools for the photographer. For cameras that use 35 mm film, the “normal” lens has a focal length roughly between 35 and 50 mm. This lens is the most common choice for the photographer because it distorts least and therefore most closely mimics the way the human eye perceives reality.
图 2-10。广角、 “普通”和长焦镜头。几乎所有现代摄影镜头都比图 2-9所示的简单镜头更复杂。大多数都是由元素集组成，例如本图底部所示的元素。28 毫米、50 毫米和 135 毫米镜头是 35 毫米胶片摄影（无论是电影还是静态照片）中常见的广角、“普通”和“长焦”镜头。三个镜头中的每一个都从相同的距离和视角看到相同的四列排列。顶部的框架是每个镜头产生的场景的各种图像的精确可视化。广角镜头的图像看起来是从更远的距离拍摄的；长焦图像被大大放大。请注意广角图像中的轻微线性失真和长焦图像中的“平坦”质量。在 35 毫米胶片摄影中，50 毫米镜头被认为是“正常”镜头，因为它最接近肉眼感知场景的方式。（比较图3-61。）
Figure 2-10. WIDE-ANGLE, “NORMAL,” AND TELEPHOTO LENSES. Nearly all modern photographic lenses are more complicated than the simple lenses shown in Figure 2-9. Most are composed of sets of elements, such as those which are schematized at the bottom of this diagram. The 28 mm, 50 mm, and 135 mm lenses are common wide-angle, “normal,” and “telephoto” lenses in 35 mm film photography, whether motion picture or still. Each of the three lenses is seeing the same arrangement of four columns from the same distance and perspective. The frames at the top are exact visualizations of the various images of the scene each lens produces. The wide-angle lens image appears to be taken from a greater distance; the telephoto image is greatly magnified. Notice the slight linear distortion in the wide-angle image and the “flat” quality of the telephoto image. In 35 mm film photography, the 50 mm lens is considered “normal” because it best approximates the way the naked eye perceives a scene. (Compare Figure 3-61.)
广角镜头，顾名思义，拍摄的视角很宽。发现自己处于狭窄位置的摄影师可能会使用此镜头来拍摄尽可能多的拍摄对象。然而，广角镜头还有一个额外的效果，那就是极大地强调我们的深度感知，并且经常扭曲线性感知。鱼眼镜头是一种超广角镜头，拍摄视角接近 180°，线性和深度感知都会相应失真。一般来说，对于 35 毫米摄影，任何焦距短于 35 毫米的镜头都被视为广角镜头。
The wide-angle lens, as its name indicates, photographs a wide angle of view. A photographer finding himself in a cramped location might use this lens in order to photograph as much of the subject as possible. However, the wide-angle lens has the added effect of greatly emphasizing our perception of depth and often distorting linear perception. The fish-eye lens, an extremely wide-angle lens, photographs an angle of view approaching 180°, with corresponding distortion of both linear and depth perception. Generally, for 35 mm photography, any lens shorter than 35 mm in focal length is considered a wide-angle lens.
图 2-11。《迷魂记》中的塔楼场景成为了希区柯克生活和工作的终极象征，它实现了技术与心理学的结合。相机在镜头缩小的同时进行跟踪，从而在不改变画面范围的情况下扭曲我们对深度的感知。（框架放大。）
Figure 2-11. Providing an ultimate emblem for Hitchcock’s life and work, the tower scene from Vertigo forged a union of technology and psychology. The camera tracks in at the same time that the lens zooms out to distort our perception of depth without changing the range of the frame. (Frame enlargements.)
长焦镜头或长镜头的作用就像望远镜一样，可以放大远处的物体，这当然是它最明显的用途。尽管长镜头不会扭曲线性感知，但有时确实具有抑制深度感知的有用效果。它的视角相对较窄。通常，任何长度超过60毫米的镜头都被视为长焦镜头，有效上限约为1200毫米。如果需要更大的放大倍数，只需将相机连接到标准望远镜或显微镜上即可。
The telephoto or long lens acts like a telescope to magnify distant objects, and this, of course, is its most obvious use. Although the long lens does not distort linear perception, it does have the sometimes useful effect of suppressing depth perception. It has a relatively narrow angle of view. Normally, any lens longer than 60 mm is considered a telephoto lens, the effective upper limit being about 1200 mm. If greater magnification were desired, the camera would simply be attached to a standard telescope or microscope.
应该指出的是，这些镜头并不是像 18 世纪那样简单的玻璃片，而是在数学上复杂的元素组合，旨在以最少的畸变让最多的光线进入相机。
It should be noted that these lenses are not simple pieces of glass, as they were in the eighteenth century, but rather mathematically sophisticated combinations of elements designed to admit the most amount of light to the camera with the least amount of distortion.
自 20 世纪 60 年代开始普遍使用以来，这些元件和元件组可调节的变焦镜头已经相当受欢迎。变焦镜头具有从广角到长焦的可变焦距，这使得摄影师可以在拍摄之间快速改变焦距，更重要的是，在电影摄影上，还可以在拍摄过程中改变焦距。该设备为镜头词汇添加了一套全新的效果。普通变焦镜头（焦距范围为 10 至 100 毫米）自然会随着焦距的变化而影响拍摄视野的大小（因为较长的镜头比较短的镜头具有更窄的视角），而这效果允许变焦镜头与跟踪镜头竞争（见图3-61）。
Since the 1960s, when they came into general use, zoom lenses, in which these elements and groups of elements are adjustable, have gained considerable popularity. The zoom lens has a variable focal length, ranging from wide-angle to telephoto, which allows a photographer to change focal lengths quickly between shots and, more important cinematographically, also to change focal lengths during a shot. This device has added a whole new set of effects to the vocabulary of the shot. Normal zoom lenses (which can have a focal length range from 10 to 100 mm) naturally affect the size of the field photographed as focal length is shifted (since longer lenses have a narrower angle of view than do shorter lenses), and this effect permits the zoom shot to compete with the tracking shot (see Figure 3-61).
图 2-12。广角畸变。_ _ 让-吕克·戈达尔的《狂人皮埃罗》( Pierrot le fou ) (1965) 中的安娜·卡里娜 (Anna Karina)。
Figure 2-12. WIDE-ANGLE DISTORTION. Anna Karina in Jean-Luc Godard’s Pierrot le fou (1965).
得益于计算机辅助设计和制造技术以及光学化学的进步，摄影镜头现在已成为一种具有相当灵活性的工具。我们已经达到了可以单独控制镜头以前相互关联的大部分效果的程度。
Thanks to computer-aided design and manufacturing techniques and advances in the chemistry of optics, the photographic lens is now an instrument of considerable flexibility; we have reached a point where it has become possible to control individually most of the formerly interrelated effects of a lens.
镜头技术中只有一个主要问题有待解决。广角镜头和长焦镜头不仅在视角（以及放大倍率）方面有所不同，而且对深度感知的影响也有所不同。目前还没有人能够构造出一种可以单独控制这两个变量的镜头。
Only one major problem in lens technology remains to be solved. Wide-angle and telephoto lenses differ not only in angle of view (and therefore magnification) but also in their effect on depth perception. No one has yet been able to construct a lens in which these two variables can be controlled separately.
阿尔弗雷德·希区柯克花了数十年的时间研究这个问题，最终在《迷魂记》（1958）著名的塔楼镜头中通过使用精心控制的变焦以及轨道和模型结合起来解决了这个问题。希区柯克将模型楼梯井侧放。带变焦镜头的摄像机安装在从楼梯间“向下”看的轨道上。拍摄开始时，摄像机位于跑道的远端，变焦镜头设置为适中的长焦焦距。当摄像机向楼梯间移动时，变焦向后调整，最终达到广角设置。轨道和变焦经过仔细协调，使图像的框架看起来不会改变。（当轨道移入图像中心时，变焦会移出以纠正缩小的视野。）屏幕上传达的效果是镜头以正常深度开始这种感觉很快就被夸大了，模仿了眩晕的心理感觉。希区柯克的几秒钟拍摄成本为 19,000 美元。
Alfred Hitchcock spent decades working on this problem before he finally solved it in the famous tower shot from Vertigo (1958) by using a carefully controlled zoom combined with a track and models. Hitchcock laid the model stairwell on its side. The camera with zoom lens was mounted on a track looking “down” the stairwell. The shot began with the camera at the far end of the track and the zoom lens set at a moderate telephoto focal length. As the camera tracked in toward the stairwell, the zoom was adjusted backwards, eventually winding up at a wide-angle setting. The track and zoom were carefully coordinated so that the frame of the image appeared not to change. (As the track moved in on the center of the image, the zoom moved out to correct for the narrowing field.) The effect relayed on the screen was that the shot began with normal depth perception which then became quickly exaggerated, mimicking the psychological feeling of vertigo. Hitchcock’s shot cost $19,000 for a few seconds of film time.
图 2-13。长焦畸变。_ _ 罗伯特·奥尔特曼的《水牛比尔与印第安人》(1976)中的一个镜头。比尔的队伍距离摄像机至少有半英里。保罗·纽曼带头冲锋。
Figure 2-13. TELEPHOTO DISTORTION. A shot from Robert Altman’s Buffalo Bill and the Indians (1976). Bill’s posse is at least a half mile from the camera. Paul Newman leads the charge.
史蒂文·斯皮尔伯格在《大白鲨》 （1975）中使用了类似的组合跟踪和缩放来增加恐惧感。也许这种不寻常技术最有趣的应用是《好家伙》（1990）中的餐馆场景。导演马丁·斯科塞斯在罗伯特·德尼罗和雷·利奥塔之间的紧张场景中运用了这一点，以增强观众的恐惧感。现在，跟踪缩放已经成为一种常见的工具。
Steven Spielberg used a similar combined track-and-zoom in Jaws (1975) to add to the sense of apprehension. Perhaps the most interesting application of this unusual technique was in the diner scene from Goodfellas (1990). Director Martin Scorsese used it through the tense scene between Robert De Niro and Ray Liotta to heighten the audience’s sense of dread. Now, the track-zoom has become a commonplace tool.
总结一下：镜头越短，视角越宽（视野越大），深度感越夸张，线性畸变越大；镜头越长，视角越窄，景深感越浅。
To summarize: the shorter the lens, the wider the angle of view (the larger the field of view), the more exaggerated the perception of depth, the greater the linear distortion; the longer the lens, the narrower the angle of view, the shallower the depth perception.
标准镜头有两种可变方式：摄影师调整镜头的焦点（通过改变其元件之间的关系），并控制进入镜头的光量。
Standard lenses are variable in two ways: photographers adjust the focus of the lens (by varying the relationship between its elements), and they control the amount of light entering the lens.
可通过三种方法来改变进入相机并照射到胶片上的光量：
There are three ways to vary the amount of light that enters the camera and strikes the film:
图 2-14。戈达尔的《相机之眼》（Camera-Eye，1967）中的这张放大画面清晰地展示了拍摄过程中快速变焦的效果。模糊的线条瞄准图像的中心。大多数变焦的速度都不够快，无法像这样模糊各个帧。（图框放大）
Figure 2-14. This frame enlargement from Godard’s “Camera-Eye” (1967) clearly shows the effect of rapid zooming during the shot. The blurred lines aim toward the center of the image. Most zooms do not occur quickly enough to blur individual frames like this. (Frame enlargement)
摄影师可以在光线路径中插入吸光材料（滤镜就是这样做的，通常安装在镜头前面），
the photographer can interpose light-absorbing material in the path of the light rays (filters do this and are generally attached in front of the lens),
他可以改变曝光时间（快门控制这个），
he can change exposure time (the shutter controls this),
或者他可以改变光圈，即光线通过的孔的大小（光圈控制这方面）。
or he can change the aperture, the size of the hole through which the light passes (the diaphragm controls this aspect).
滤光片通常用于改变进入相机的光的质量，而不是其数量，因此是该方程中的次要因素。光圈和曝光时间是主要因素，彼此密切相关且与对焦密切相关。
Filters are generally used to alter the quality of the light entering the camera, not its quantity, and are therefore a minor factor in this equation. Aperture and exposure time are the main factors, closely related to each other and to focus.
隔膜的工作原理与人眼的虹膜完全相同。由于胶片的敏感度范围比眼睛的视网膜更有限，因此能够控制照射胶片的光量至关重要。光圈的大小以光圈值来衡量，该数字是通过将特定镜头的焦距除以其有效光圈而得出的（换句话说，镜头的长度与其宽度的比率，“缩小”为隔膜）。这个机械公式的结果是一系列标准数字，乍一看似乎是任意的：
The diaphragm works exactly like the iris of the human eye. Since film has a range of sensitivity more limited than the retina of the eye it is crucial to be able to control the amount of light striking the film. The size of the aperture is measured in f-stops, numbers derived by dividing the focal length of a particular lens by its effective aperture (in other words, the ratio of the length of a lens to its width, as “stopped down” by the diaphragm). The result of this mechanical formula is a series of standard numbers which at first seems arbitrary:
图 2-15。隔膜。_ _ _ 光圈是摄影系统中最简单的元件之一，也是最重要的元件之一，它由极薄的弹簧加载金属叶片构成（通常有五到六个），这些金属叶片彼此重叠，使得光圈可精确调节。
Figure 2-15. THE DIAPHRAGM. One of the simplest elements of the photographic system, as well as one of the most important, the diaphragm is constructed of wafer-thin, spring-loaded metal leaves—usually five or six in number—which overlap each other so that the size of the aperture can be accurately adjusted.
选择这些数字是因为该系列中每个连续的光圈值将吸收其前一个光圈值的一半的光量；也就是说，f1 光圈的“大”是 f1.4 光圈的两倍，而 f2.8 的进光量是 f5.6 的四倍。这些数字已四舍五入至小数点后一位；乘法因子约为 1.4，即 2 的平方根。
These numbers were chosen because each successive f-stop in this series will admit half the amount of light of its predecessor; that is, an f1 aperture is twice as “large” as an f1.4 aperture, and f2.8 admits four times as much light as f5.6. The numbers have been rounded off to a single decimal place; the multiplication factor is approximately 1.4, the square root of 2.
镜头的速度以其最宽的有效光圈来衡量。那么，长 50 毫米、宽 50 毫米的镜头将被评为 f1 镜头；也就是说，这是一款非常“快速”的镜头，在最大光圈时，其可容纳的光线是 f1.4 镜头的两倍，是 f2 镜头的四倍。当斯坦利·库布里克决定在几根十八世纪蜡烛的光下拍摄《巴里·林登》 （1975）的大部分内容时，他有必要适应电影使用蔡司公司为美国宇航局开发的用于太空摄影的特殊镜头。该镜头的额定值为 f0.9，而当时电影摄影中普遍使用的最快镜头为 f1.2。这两个数字之间的微小差异 (0.3) 具有欺骗性，事实上，库布里克的 NASA 镜头的进光量几乎是标准 f1.2 镜头的两倍。
The speed of a lens is rated at its widest effective aperture. A lens 50 mm long that was also 50 mm wide would, then, be rated as an f1 lens; that is, a very “fast” lens that at its widest opening would admit twice as much light as an f1.4 lens and four times as much light as an f2 lens. When Stanley Kubrick decided that he wanted to shoot much of Barry Lyndon (1975) by the light of a few eighteenth-century candles, it was necessary that he adapt to movie use a special lens the Zeiss company had developed for NASA for space photography. The lens was rated at f0.9, while the fastest lenses then in general use in cinematography were f1.2s. The small difference between the two numbers (0.3) is deceiving for, in fact, Kubrick’s NASA lens admitted nearly twice as much light as the standard f1.2 lens.
图 2-16。十根蜡烛为库布里克的《巴里·林登》 （1975）中的这一场景提供了所有光线。默里·梅尔文和玛丽莎·贝伦森。（框架放大。）
Figure 2-16. Ten candles provided all the light for this scene from Kubrick’s Barry Lyndon (1975). Murray Melvin and Marisa Berenson. (Frame enlargement.)
自从这些超快镜头的开发以来，电影制片人已经拥有了强大的新工具，尽管只有知识渊博的电影观众可能会注意到可能的新效果。大光圈镜头在经济上也很重要，因为灯光是电影制作中最耗时且最昂贵的部分之一。现代业余摄像师希望他们的摄像机无论光线如何都能录制出不错的图像，而且大多数人都是这样做的。只有专业人士才知道这是多么了不起的技术壮举。配备 CCD 或 CMOS 图像传感器的现代摄像机*在放大镜头传输的光线方面非常有效，它可以用作夜视镜，比人眼的效率高得多。
Since the development of these ultrafast lenses, filmmakers have had powerful new tools at their command, although only knowledgeable filmgoers might notice the new effects that are possible. Fast lenses are also important economically, since lighting is one of the most time-consuming and therefore expensive parts of filmmaking. Modern amateur videographers expect their camcorders to record a decent image no matter what the light, and most do; only the professionals know how remarkable a technical feat this is. A contemporary camcorder with a CCD or CMOS image sensor* is so effective at amplifying the light the lens transmits that it can serve as a night-vision scope, far more efficient than the human eye.
f 数的概念具有误导性，不仅因为所得的一系列数字不能生动地表明各种光圈之间的差异，而且还因为 f 数作为物理尺寸的比率，不一定是准确的进入相机的实际光量指数。为了纠正这个问题，开发了“T-number”的概念。T 值是对实际照射到胶片上的光量的精确测量。
The concept of the f-number is misleading, not only because the series of numbers that results doesn’t vividly indicate the differences among various apertures, but also because, being a ratio of physical sizes, the f-number is not necessarily an accurate index of the actual amount of light entering the camera. To correct for this, the concept of “T-number” was developed. The T-number is a precise measurement of the amount of light actually striking the film.
透镜元件的表面反射少量的光，元件本身吸收少量的光；在复杂的多元素
The surfaces of lens elements reflect small amounts of light, the elements themselves absorb small quantities; in complex multi-element
图 2-17。焦点和景深。_ _ _ 镜头以这样一种方式弯曲光线，使得镜头前面只有一个平面真正准确地聚焦。这五张图中的虚线代表真实的焦平面。然而，从心理上来说，焦平面前后一定距离范围内的对焦效果会令人满意。这种“景深”在这里由阴影区域表示。
Figure 2-17. FOCUS AND DEPTH OF FIELD. Lenses bend light rays in such a way that only one plane in front of the lens is truly and accurately in focus. The dotted line in these five drawings represents that true focus plane. However, psychologically, a certain range of distances in front and in back of the focus plane will appear satisfactorily in focus. This “depth of field” is represented here by the shaded areas.
在 A 中，精确焦平面上的物点在镜头后面的胶片平面上产生最窄的“模糊圈”。在 B 中，景深范围远端的物点产生最大的可接受弥散圈。对于超出此点的物体，模糊圈会使眼睛和大脑将图像解读为“失焦”。在 C 中，接近景深边界的物点产生类似的可接受的弥散圆。距离镜头较近的物体会产生散焦圈。
In A, an object point on the precise focus plane produces the narrowest “circle of confusion” on the film plane behind the lens. In B, an object point at the far end of the range of depth of field produces the largest acceptable circle of confusion. For objects beyond this point, the circle of confusion is such that the eye and brain read the image as being “out of focus.” In C, an object point at the near boundary of depth of field produces a similarly acceptable circle of confusion. Objects nearer to the lens than this will produce an out-of-focus circle of confusion.
D 和 E 说明了光圈大小（或光圈设置）对景深的影响。D 中较窄的光圈可产生更大的景深，而 E 中较大的光圈会限制景深。在这两个插图中，景深范围的近端和远端的点产生相等的、可接受的弥散圆。
D and E illustrate the effect of aperture size (or diaphragm setting) on depth of field. The narrower aperture in D yields a greater depth of field, while the larger aperture in E limits the depth of field. In both illustrations, points at the near and far end of the depth of field range produce equal, acceptable circles of confusion.
在所有五张图中，出于说明目的，景深都略有减小。特定镜头和光圈的景深的计算是一个简单的几何问题。一般来说，景深延伸至无穷大。近距离比远距离更重要。镜头（尤其是变焦镜头）这些差异加起来可以是相当大的。但 f 数（也称为焦比或相对孔径）仍然提供了穿过镜头的光量的有用相对测量值。
In all five drawings depth of field has been slightly reduced for illustrative purposes. The calculation of the depth of field of a particular lens and aperture is a simple matter of geometry. Generally, depth of field extends toward infinity. It is much more critical in the near range than the far range. lenses (especially zoom lenses) these differences can add up to a considerable amount. But the f-number (also called the focal ratio or relative aperture) still provides a useful relative measure of the amount of light passing through the lens.
图 2-18。焦点浅。_ _ 在库布里克的《光荣之路》（1957 年）中的这张照片中，人物焦点清晰，背景模糊。（现代艺术博物馆/金融服务局。）
Figure 2-18. SHALLOW FOCUS. Characters are sharply in focus, background is blurred in this shot from Kubrick’s Paths of Glory (1957). (MOMA/FSA.)
改变光圈的尺寸——“缩小光圈”——因为它有效地改变了镜头的直径，同时也改变了景深：镜头孔径的直径越小，聚焦的精度就越高。结果是可用的光线越多，景深就越大。短语“景深”用于表示镜头前方能够令人满意地对焦的距离范围。如果我们要以科学的精度测量景深，那么镜头只能在相机前面的一个平面（即焦平面）上真正对焦。但摄影师感兴趣的不是科学现实，而是心理现实，并且焦平面前后总有一系列距离看起来是清晰的。
Changing the size of the diaphragm—“stopping down”—because it effectively changes the diameter of the lens also changes the depth of field: the smaller the diameter of the lens opening, the greater the precision of focus. The result is that the more light there is available, the greater the depth of field. The phrase “depth of field” is used to indicate the range of distances in front of the lens that will appear satisfactorily in focus. If we were to measure depth of field with scientific accuracy, a lens would only truly be in focus for one single plane in front of the camera, the focus plane. But a photographer is interested not in scientific reality but in psychological reality, and there is always a range of distances both in front of and behind the focus plane that will appear to be in focus.
图 2-19。深度聚焦。_ _ 格雷格·托兰 (Gregg Toland) 为奥森·威尔斯 (Orson Welles) 的《公民凯恩》(Citizen Kane ，1941)拍摄的更为非凡的深焦照片之一。焦点从近前景的冰雕延伸到后面桌子后面堆放的家具。（现代艺术博物馆/英国金融服务管理局。）
Figure 2-19. DEEP FOCUS. One of the more extraordinary deep-focus shots photographed by Gregg Toland for Orson Welles’s Citizen Kane (1941). The focus reaches from the ice sculptures in the near foreground to the furniture piled up behind the table at the rear. (MOMA/FSA.)
这里我们还应该注意到，各种类型的镜头具有不同的景深特性：广角镜头的景深非常深，而长焦镜头的景深则相当浅。还要记住，随着每个特定镜头的光圈缩小，光圈变窄，有效景深也会增加。
We should also note at this point that various types of lenses have various depth-of-field characteristics: a wide-angle lens has a very deep depth of field, while a telephoto lens has a rather shallow depth of field. Remember, too, that as each particular lens is stopped down, as the aperture is narrowed, the effective depth of field increases.
因此，电影制片人和摄影师面临着一系列有关镜头的选择。力求在整个动作范围内保持清晰对焦的摄影风格称为深焦摄影。虽然有很多例外，但深焦通常与电影中的现实主义理论密切相关，而浅焦摄影则将景深的限制作为一种有用的艺术工具，更常被表现主义电影制片人使用，因为它提供了另一种可用于引导观众注意力的技术。导演可以在拍摄过程中改变焦点，以保持焦点远离或靠近摄像机的拍摄对象（在这种情况下，术语称为跟焦）或者引导观看者将注意力从一个主题转移到另一个主题（这称为机架焦点）。
Filmmakers and photographers are thus presented with a set of choices regarding lenses. The style of photography that strives for sharp focus over the whole range of action is called deep focus photography. While there are a number of exceptions, deep focus is generally closely associated with theories of realism in film while shallow-focus photography, which welcomes the limitations of depth of field as a useful artistic tool, is more often utilized by expressionist filmmakers, since it offers still another technique that can be used to direct the viewer’s attention. A director can change focus during a shot either to maintain focus on a subject moving away from or toward the camera (in which case the term is follow focus) or to direct the viewer to shift attention from one subject to another (which is called rack focus).
图 2-20。可变快门。_ _ _ _ 在静态摄影中，快门只是一个弹簧加载的金属板或织物屏幕。然而，在电影摄影中，曝光时间受到每秒 24 帧标准速度的限制。可变快门允许在曝光时间上有一定的余地。尽管它始终以相同的 24 fps 速度旋转，但“孔”的大小以及曝光时间可以通过调整重叠板来改变。
Figure 2-20. THE VARIABLE SHUTTER. In still photography, the shutter is simply a spring-loaded metal plate or fabric screen. In motion-picture photography, however, the time of exposure is limited by the 24-frame-per-second standard speed. The variable shutter allows some leeway in exposure time. Although it revolves always at the same 24 fps speed, the size of the “hole” and therefore the time of the exposure can be varied by adjusting the overlapping plates.
相机
The Camera
相机为接受和控制光线的镜头以及记录光线的胶片提供了机械环境。这种机械设备的核心是快门，它为摄影师提供了第二种控制照射胶片的光量的方法。在这里，我们第一次发现静态摄影和电影摄影之间的显着差异。对于静态摄影师来说，快门速度总是与光圈大小密切相关。如果他们想要拍摄快速动作，静态摄影师可能会首先决定使用较快的快门速度来“冻结”动作，并补偿短曝光通过将光圈打开到较低的光圈值（这将具有缩小景深的效果）。然而，如果他们想要深焦的效果，静态摄影师就会缩小光圈（“缩小光圈”），这将需要更长的曝光时间（这反过来意味着画面内的任何快速动作都可能变得模糊） 。快门速度以几分之一秒为单位进行测量，在静态摄影中快门速度与相应的光圈密切相关。例如，以下链接的快门速度和光圈对将允许相同量的光线进入相机：
The camera provides a mechanical environment for the lens, which accepts and controls light, and the film, which records light. The heart of this mechanical device is the shutter, which provides the second means available to the photographer for controlling the amount of light that strikes the film. Here, for the first time, we find a significant difference between still and movie photography. For still photographers, shutter speed is invariably closely linked with aperture size. If they want to photograph fast action, still photographers will probably decide first to use a fast shutter speed to “freeze” the action, and will compensate for the short exposure time by opening up the aperture to a lower f-stop (which will have the effect of narrowing the depth of field). If, however, they desire the effect of deep focus, still photographers will narrow the aperture (“stop down”), which will then require a longer exposure time (which will in turn mean that any rapid action within the frame might be blurred). Shutter speeds are measured in fractions of a second and in still photography are closely linked with corresponding apertures. For instance, the following linked pairs of shutter speeds and apertures will allow the same amount of light to enter the camera:
图 2-21。马耳他十字机制。_ _ _ _ _ 传动轴以恒定速度旋转。在循环 (A) 开始时，销钉与马耳他十字齿轮啮合，该齿轮通过轴连接到驱动胶片的链轮。只要销钉与马耳他十字 (ABC) 啮合，薄膜就会移动。在整个周期的大部分时间里，销钉没有接合，并且肩部将十字（和薄膜）保持稳定（D）。该图描述了整个周期中的交叉运动和薄膜运动。
Figure 2-21. THE MALTESE CROSS MECHANISM. The drive shaft rotates at constant speed. At the beginning of the cycle (A), the pin engages the Maltese cross gear which is connected by a shaft to the sprockets which drive the film. So long as the pin is engaged in the Maltese cross (ABC), the film is moving. Through most of the cycle, the pin is not engaged and the shoulder holds the cross (and the film) steady (D). The graph describes cross and film movement throughout the full cycle.
图 2-22。反射相机。_ _ _ _ 送料轴和收线轴安装在单独的料盒中，可以轻松快速地更换。送料链轮和收线链轮连续运转。该机器的间歇运动由凸轮安装的爪机构提供，而不是图 2-21所示的更复杂的马耳他十字系统。反光相机的核心是镜面快门。这种巧妙的装置与光路成 45° 角倾斜，使摄影师能够通过取景器看到与胶片“看到”完全相同的场景。当快门打开时，所有光线都会照射到胶片上。当快门关闭时，所有光线都被重新引导到取景器中。无论是在静态还是动态专业摄影中，反光相机几乎完全取代了带有独立取景器的早期系统。（另请参见图 2-67。）
Figure 2-22. THE REFLEX CAMERA. The feed and take-up reels are housed in a separate magazine, which can be changed easily and quickly. The feed and take-up sprockets run continuously. Intermittent motion in this machine is provided by a cam-mounted claw mechanism rather than the more complicated Maltese cross system illustrated in Figure 2-21. The heart of the reflex camera is the mirrored shutter. Tilted at a 45° angle to the light path, this ingenious device permits the camera operator to see precisely the same scene through the viewfinder that the film “sees.” When the shutter is open, all light strikes the film. When the shutter is closed, all light is redirected into the viewfinder. The reflex camera has almost entirely replaced earlier systems with separate viewfinders, both in still and motion picture professional photography. (See also Figure 2-67.)
然而，在电影摄影中，快门速度由同步相机和投影仪速度所需的商定标准每秒二十四帧决定。因此，电影摄影师在快门速度的选择上受到严格限制，尽管他们可以通过使用可变快门将曝光时间控制在狭窄的范围内，可变快门控制的不是快门打开的时间，而是控制开口的大小。显然，电影摄影的有效上限是 1/24 秒。由于胶片必须以该速度通过放映机，因此在正常的电影摄影中无法增加超过该限制的曝光时间。这意味着电影摄影师可以有效地被剥夺了静态摄影最有用的工具之一：普通电影中没有“定时曝光”。
In motion picture photography, however, the speed of the shutter is determined by the agreed-upon standard twenty-four frames per second necessary to synchronize camera and projector speed. Cinematographers, therefore, are strictly limited in their choice of shutter speeds, although they can control exposure time within narrow limits by using a variable shutter, which controls not the time the shutter is open, but rather the size of the opening. Clearly, the effective upper limit in cinematography is 1/24 second. Since the film must travel through the projector at that speed, there is no way in normal cinematography of increasing exposure time beyond that limit. This means that cinematographers are effectively deprived of one of the most useful tools of still photography: there are no “time exposures” in normal movies.
图 2-23。延时摄影。_ _ 由于胶片可以压缩（和扩展）时间，因此作为一种科学工具，它的用途类似于显微镜和望远镜。（由 Archive Films 提供。帧放大。）
Figure 2-23. TIME-LAPSE PHOTOGRAPHY. Because film can compress (and expand) time, as a scientific tool it serves purposes similar to the microscope and telescope. (Courtesy Archive Films. Frame enlargements.)
焦距、线性畸变、深度透视畸变、视角、焦距、光圈、景深和曝光时间：这些是电影和静态摄影的基本因素。
Focal length, linear distortion, distortion of depth perspective, angle of view, focus, aperture, depth of field, and exposure time: these are the basic factors of photography, both movie and still.
大量变量相互关联，每个变量都有不止一种影响。例如，当摄影师想要深焦时，他会减小光圈的大小，但这意味着进入相机的光线会减少，因此他必须添加人造光来充分照亮拍摄对象，但这可能会产生不良效果副作用，因此，为了补偿，他会增加曝光时间，但这意味着如果相机或拍摄对象在移动，将更难以获得清晰锐利的图像，因此他可能会决定改用广角镜头为了在画面中包含更多区域，但这可能意味着他将失去他最初想要实现的构图。在摄影中，许多决定必须有意识地做出，而人眼和大脑会立即无意识地做出决定。
A large number of variables are linked together, and each of them has more than one effect. The result is, for example, that when a photographer wants deep focus he decreases the size of the aperture, but that means that less light will enter the camera so that he must add artificial light to illuminate the subject sufficiently, but that might produce undesirable side effects, so, to compensate, he will increase exposure time, but this means that it will be more difficult to obtain a clear, sharp image if either the camera or the subject is moving, so he may decide to switch to a widerangle lens in order to include more area in the frame, but this might mean that he will lose the composition he was trying to achieve in the first place. In photography, many decisions have to be made consciously that the human eye and brain make instantly and unconsciously.
在电影中，相机涉及静态摄影中不存在的两个变量：相机移动胶片，并且相机本身也移动。胶片的传输似乎是一件简单的事情，但这是电影变得可行之前需要解决的众多问题中的最后一个。通过相机正确移动胶片的机构称为“下拉机构”或“间歇运动机构”。问题在于，胶片与录像带不同，不能以恒定的速度连续通过摄像机。胶片是一系列静态图片，每秒 24 张，间歇运动机制必须将胶片移动到曝光一帧的位置，将其稳定地保持在该位置近 1/24 秒，然后移动下一帧就位。它必须每秒执行二十四次，并且必须与实际曝光胶片的旋转快门严格同步地完成这项机械任务。
In movies, the camera becomes involved in two variables that do not exist in still photography: the camera moves the film, and it itself moves. The transport of the film might seem to be a simple matter, yet this was the last of the multiple problems to be solved before motion pictures became feasible. The mechanism that moves the film properly through the camera is known as the “pull-down mechanism” or “intermittent motion mechanism.” The problem is that film, unlike videotape, cannot run continuously through the camera at a constant speed. Films are series of still pictures, twenty-four per second, and the intermittent motion mechanism must move the film into position for the exposure of a frame, hold it in position rock steady for almost 1/24 second, then move the next frame into position. It must do this twenty-four times each second, and it must accomplish this mechanical task in strict synchronization with the revolving shutter that actually exposes the film.
图 2-24。慢动作有时在叙事电影中也很有用。米开朗基罗·安东尼奥尼 (Michelangelo Antonioni) 的《扎布里斯基角》( Zabriskie Point , 1969)的高潮部分以极慢动作拍摄的这一帧捕捉到了爆炸幻想中的一些讽刺性、抒情性的自由。（视觉和声音。框架放大。）
Figure 2-24. Slow motion is occasionally useful in narrative films, as well. This frame from the sequence in extreme slow motion that climaxes Michelangelo Antonioni’s Zabriskie Point (1969) captures some of the ironic, lyrical freedom of the explosion fantasy. (Sight and Sound. Frame enlargement.)
在美国，托马斯·阿马特 (Thomas Armat) 通常被认为于 1895 年发明了第一个可用的下拉机构。在欧洲，其他发明家（尤其是卢米埃尔兄弟）也开发了类似的设备。下拉机构实际上是电影的核心，因为它通过相机或投影仪泵送胶片。这个记录和投影一系列静止图像的系统成功的关键在于英格玛伯格曼所说的人类视觉的某种“缺陷”：“视觉暂留”。图像消失后，大脑会在短时间内保留图像，因此有可能构建一种机器，能够足够快地投射一系列静止图像，以便它们在心理上融合并保持运动的错觉。早在十世纪，阿尔·哈森 (Al Hazen) 就在他的《光学元素》一书中研究了这一现象。彼得·马克·罗杰 (Peter Mark Roget) 和迈克尔·法拉第 (Michael Faraday) 等 19 世纪科学家早在 1820 年代就对该理论进行了有价值的工作。在二十世纪初，格式塔心理学家进一步完善了这个概念，并将其命名为“现象”。
In the U.S., Thomas Armat is usually credited with inventing the first workable pull-down mechanism in 1895. In Europe, other inventors—notably the Lumière brothers—developed similar devices. The pull-down mechanism is literally the heart of cinema, since it pumps film through the camera or projector. The key to the success of this system of recording and projecting a series of still images that give the appearance of continuous movement lies in what Ingmar Bergman called a certain “defect” in human sight: “persistence of vision.” The brain holds an image for a short period of time after it has disappeared, so it is possible to construct a machine that can project a series of still images quickly enough so that they merge psychologically and the illusion of motion is maintained. Al Hazen had investigated this phenomenon in his book Optical Elements, as early as the tenth century. Nineteenth-century scientists such as Peter Mark Roget and Michael Faraday did valuable work on the theory as early as the 1820s. During the early years of the twentieth century Gestalt psychologists further refined this concept, giving it the name “Phiphenomenon.”
事实上，每秒至少十二或十五张图片的速度是必要的，每秒大约四十张图片的速度更有效。早期的实验者（WKL Dickson 就是其中之一）以极快的速度进行实验接近每秒四十八帧，以消除较慢速度下常见的“闪烁”效应。然而，人们很快就发现，通过使用双叶片投影快门可以避免闪烁，并且自电影早期以来就一直普遍使用。其效果是，虽然影片以每秒二十四帧的速度拍摄，但每帧的投影都被中断一次，产生每秒四十八“帧”的频率，从而消除了闪烁。每帧实际上被投影两次。
As it happens, a speed of at least twelve or fifteen pictures per second is necessary, and a rate of about forty pictures per second is much more effective. Early experimenters—W. K. L. Dickson for one—shot at speeds approaching forty-eight frames per second to eliminate the “flicker” effect common at slower speeds. It quickly became evident, however, that the flicker could be avoided by the use of a double-bladed projection shutter, and this has been in common use since the early days of film. The effect is that, while the film is shot at twenty-four frames per second, it is shown in such a way that the projection of each frame is interrupted once, producing a frequency of forty-eight “frames” per second and thus eliminating flicker. Each frame is actually projected twice.
在无声时期，特别是在相机和投影仪都是手动的最早的几年里，可变速度很常见：摄影师和放映员因此对动作的速度都有一定程度的控制。平均静音速度在每秒十六到十八帧之间，多年来逐渐增加到每秒二十到二十二帧。直到 1927 年，每秒 24 帧才成为一成不变的标准（尽管现在它还没有完全普及：欧洲电视电影以每秒 25 帧拍摄，以便与欧洲电视系统同步，其频率为 20 帧）。 -每秒五帧）。当无声电影以“音速”放映时（就像现在常见的那样），其效果是使加速的动作看起来比原来更加滑稽。
During the silent period—especially during the earliest years when both cameras and projectors were hand-cranked—variable speeds were common: both the cameraman and the projectionist thus had a degree of control over the speed of the action. The average silent speed was between sixteen and eighteen frames per second, gradually increasing over the years to twenty and twenty-two frames per second. Twenty-four frames per second did not become an immutable standard until 1927 (although even now it is not entirely universal: European television films are shot at twenty-five frames per second in order to synchronize with the European television system, whose frequency is twenty-five frames per second). When silent films are projected at “sound speed,” as they often are nowadays, the effect is to make the speeded-up action appear even more comical than it was originally.
频率的影响不可低估。因为我们成长过程中充斥着 24 fps 至 30 fps 范围（或 48 fps 至 60 fps 投影）的电影和电视图像，所以我们学会接受这种电影质量作为标准，而实际上它已经足够了。提高图像质量最有效的方法之一是提高频率，您可以通过参观 Showscan 或 IMAX 安装向自己证明这一点。这两种用于专业、博物馆和主题公园表演的专有技术都使用更高的频率。
The effect of frequency is not to be underestimated. Because we grow up inundated with motion-picture and television images in the 24 fps to 30 fps range (or 48 fps to 60 fps projected), we learn to accept this movingpicture quality as standard, when it is in fact just adequate. One of the most effective ways to increase image quality is to increase frequency, which you can prove to yourself by visiting a Showscan or IMAX installation. Both of these proprietary technologies for specialty, museum, and theme park shows use higher frequencies.
阿马特发明的设备的巧妙之处在于，它交替移动胶片并保持其稳定曝光，从而使胶片保持静止的时间与运动的时间之间存在很高的比率。显然，从摄影角度来看，画面运动的时间是浪费时间。操作顺序如图2-21所示。考虑到画面的微小、胶片的脆弱以及微小的链轮孔所承受的巨大力量，电影摄影机和放映机确实是令人畏惧的机械装置。马耳他十字齿轮本身就是十九世纪机械技术的雄辩象征。
The genius of the device Armat invented is that it alternately moves the film and holds it steady for exposure in such a way that there is a high ratio between the amount of time the film is held still and the amount of time it is in motion. Obviously, the time during which the frame is in motion is wasted time, photographically. The sequence of operations is described in Figure 2-21. Considering the smallness of the frame, the fragility of the film, and the tremendous forces to which the tiny sprocket holes are subjected, the motion picture camera and projector are formidable mechanisms indeed. The Maltese cross gear itself is an eloquent emblem of nineteenth-century mechanical technology.
图 2-25。平移、倾斜和滚动。_ 迄今为止，平移是这三种基本动作中最常见的。滚动是最不常见的，因为它会让人迷失方向并且不能提供任何新信息。
Figure 2-25. PAN, TILT, AND ROLL. The pan is by far the most common of these three elementary movements. The roll, since it disorients and doesn’t provide any new information, is least common.
摄像机的速度引入了另一组对电影制作人有用的变量，电影正是在这个领域找到了最重要的科学应用。通过改变相机的速度（假设投影仪速度保持恒定），我们可以利用慢动作、快动作和延时（极快动作）摄影的宝贵技术。
The speed of the camera introduces another set of variables that can be useful to filmmakers, and it is in this area that cinema finds its most important scientific applications. By varying the speed of the camera (assuming the projector speed remains constant), we can make use of the invaluable techniques of slow motion, fast motion, and time-lapse (extreme fast motion) photography.
那么，胶片是一种可以应用于时间的工具，就像望远镜和显微镜应用于空间一样，揭示人眼看不见的自然现象。慢动作、快动作和延时摄影使我们能够理解发生得太快或太慢的事件，就像显微镜一样望远镜揭示的现象要么太小，要么太远，我们无法察觉。作为一种科学工具，电影摄影具有重要的意义，不仅因为它使我们能够分析大范围的时间现象，而且还因为它作为现实的客观记录。人类学、民族志、心理学、社会学、自然研究、动物学——甚至植物学——都因电影摄影的发明而发生了革命性的变化。此外，可以制作对我们眼睛感知的非常有限的频率范围（称为“颜色”）之外的光谱区域敏感的胶片。红外线和其他类似类型的摄影揭示了迄今为止超出我们感知能力的“视觉”数据。
Film, then, is a tool that can be applied to time in the same ways that the telescope and the microscope are applied to space, revealing natural phenomena that are invisible to the human eye. Slow motion, fast motion, and time-lapse photography make comprehensible events that happen either too quickly or too slowly for us to perceive them, just as the microscope and the telescope reveal phenomena that are either too small or too far away for us to perceive them. As a scientific tool, cinematography has had great significance, not only because it allows us to analyze a large range of time phenomena but also as an objective record of reality. The sciences of anthropology, ethnography, psychology, sociology, natural studies, zoology—even botany—have been revolutionized by the invention of cinematography. Moreover, filmstocks can be made that are sensitive to areas of the spectrum outside that very limited range of frequencies, known as “colors,” that our eyes perceive. Infrared and other similar types of photography reveal “visual” data that have hitherto been beyond our powers of perception.
图 2-26。英格玛·伯格曼 (Ingmar Bergman) 与笨重的米切尔 (Mitchell) 摄影机在《狼时时刻》 (Hour of the Wolf , 1966)片场，丽芙·乌尔曼 (Liv Ullmann) 在左边。
Figure 2-26. Ingmar Bergman with bulky Mitchell camera on the set of Hour of the Wolf (1966), Liv Ullmann to the left.
术语“慢动作”和“快动作”是相当不言自明的；尽管如此，对于我们准确讨论相机中发生的事情可能会有用。如果我们可以调整下拉机制的速度，例如每秒拍摄 240 帧，而不是标准的 24 帧，那么每秒的记录时间将延长超过 10 秒的预计时间，从而揭示运动细节这在实时中是难以察觉的。相反，如果相机每秒拍摄三帧，则预计时间“发生”的速度将比实际时间快八倍。“延时拍摄”一词仅指极快的运动摄影，其中相机间歇地而不是连续地运行，例如以每分钟一帧的速度运行。延时摄影在自然科学中特别有用，可以揭示其他实验室技术无法显示的向光性等现象的细节。
The terms “slow motion” and “fast motion” are fairly self-explanatory; nevertheless, it maybe useful for us to discuss exactly what happens in the camera. If we can adjust the speed of the pull-down mechanism so that, for example, it shoots 240 frames per second instead of the standard 24, then each second of recording time will stretch out over ten seconds of projected time, revealing details of motion that would be imperceptible in real time. Conversely, if the camera takes, say, three frames per second, projected time will “happen” eight times more quickly than real time. The term “time lapse” is used simply to refer to extremely fast motion photography in which the camera operates intermittently rather than continuously—at a rate of one frame every minute, for example. Time-lapse photography is especially useful in the natural sciences, revealing details about phenomena like phototropism, for example, that no other laboratory technique could show.
图 2-27。斯坦利·库布里克“手持”一台小型 Arriflex：《发条橙》（1971）中的强奸场景。马尔科姆·麦克道威尔戴着鼻子。
Figure 2-27. Stanley Kubrick “hand-holding” a small Arriflex: the rape scene from A Clockwork Orange (1971). Malcolm McDowell wears the nose.
无需多次观看主要出于科学目的而制作的慢动作和快动作电影，就会发现电影摄影机的可变速度不仅揭示了科学真理，还揭示了诗意真理。如果说慢动作的爱情场景已成为当代电影中最陈词滥调的陈词滥调，而快动作早期无声电影的喜剧价值已成为不言而喻的事实，那么极端慢动作中的爆炸（例如，最后的序列）也是事实。安东尼奥尼的《扎布里斯基点》， 1969）成为对材料的交响曲庆祝花的延时序列将一天的时间压缩为三十秒的屏幕时间，展现出令人惊叹的自然编排，花朵伸展并寻找赋予生命的阳光。
It doesn’t take many viewings of slow- and fast-motion films made with primarily scientific purposes in mind before it becomes obvious that the variable speed of the motion picture camera reveals poetic truths as well as scientific ones. If the slow-motion love scene has become one of the hoariest clichés of contemporary cinema while the comedic value of fast-motion early silent movies has become a truism, it is also true that explosions in extreme slow motion (for example, the final sequence of Antonioni’s Zabriskie Point, 1969) become symphonic celebrations of the material world, and time-lapse sequences of flowers in which a day’s time is compressed into thirty seconds of screen time reveal a natural choreography that is stunning, as the flower stretches and searches for the life-giving rays of the sun.
图 2-28。茶台。_ _ 弹簧抑制相机的运动。安全带提供悬臂平衡。
Figure 2-28. THE STEADICAM. Springs damp the motion of the camera. The harness provides cantilevered balance.
摄影机本身和胶片一样在移动，正是在这个领域，电影发现了一些最私密的真相，因为电影制片人喜欢控制观众的视角，这是电影和舞台之间最显着的区别。
The camera itself moves, as well as the film, and it is in this area that cinema has discovered some of its most private truths, for the control over the viewer’s perspective that a filmmaker enjoys is the most salient differences between film and stage.
相机运动有两种基本类型：相机可以围绕相机中相交的三个假想轴之一旋转；或者它可以将自己从空间中的一点移动到另一点。这两种类型的运动中的每一种都意味着相机和拍摄对象之间本质上不同的关系。
There are two basic types of camera movement: the camera can revolve around one of the three imaginary axes that intersect in the camera; or it can move itself from one point to another in space. Each of these two types of motion implies an essentially different relationship between camera and subject.
在平移和倾斜中，摄像机随着拍摄对象移动（或变化）而跟随拍摄对象；在滚动中，拍摄对象不会改变，但其在画面中的方向会改变；在轨道（也称为“移动车”）和起重机镜头中，摄像机沿着垂直或水平线（或某种矢量）移动，拍摄对象可以是静止的或移动的。由于这些各种各样的运动及其各种组合对拍摄对象和摄像机（以及观众）之间的关系具有如此重要的影响，因此摄像机运动作为电影意义的决定因素具有重要意义。
In pans and tilts, the camera follows the subject as the subject moves (or changes); in rolls, the subject doesn’t change but its orientation within the frame is altered; in tracks (also known as “dollies”) and crane shots, the camera moves along a vertical or horizontal line (or a vector of some sort) and the subject may be either stationary or mobile. Because these assorted movements and their various combinations have such an important effect on the relationship between the subject and the camera (and therefore the viewer), camera movement has great significance as a determinant of the meaning of film.
图 2-29。KYCAM 。_ _ _ 摄像机和绞盘由四根电线悬挂，可远程控制。（加勒特·布朗提供。）
Figure 2-29. THE SKYCAM. Suspended by four wires, the camera and the winches are controlled remotely. (Courtesy Garrett Brown.)
使相机移动成为可能的机械装置在设计上都相当简单：三脚架摇摄/倾斜云台是精心加工的板和滚珠轴承；跟踪（或移动）镜头只需通过铺设轨道（非常像铁轨）来控制相机在其安装座上的移动，或使用橡胶轮胎的小车来完成，这样可以提供更多的自由度；允许电影摄影师平稳地升高和降低摄像机的摄像机起重机只不过是电话公司巡线员用来到达杆顶的“樱桃采摘器”的配重版本。（见图3-62。）
The mechanical devices that make camera movement possible are all fairly simple in design: the tripod panning/tilting head is a matter of carefully machined plates and ball-bearings; tracking (or traveling) shots are accomplished simply by either laying down tracks (very much like railroad tracks) to control the movement of the camera on its mount, or using a rubber-tired dolly, which allows a bit more freedom; the camera crane that allows a cinematographer to raise and lower the camera smoothly is merely a counterweighted version of the “cherrypickers” that telephone company linesmen use to reach the tops of poles. (See Figure 3-62.)
因此，该领域的技术进步很少。有两个脱颖而出。首先，在 20 世纪 50 年代末，Arriflex 公司开发了一款 35 毫米电影摄影机，与已成为好莱坞电影摄影师青睐的标准米切尔庞然大物相比，它的重量要轻得多，尺寸要小得多。Arriflex 可以手持，这为相机移动提供了新的自由度和流畅性。该相机现在没有机械支撑，因此成为更加个人化的仪器。六十年代初期的法国新浪潮以创造手持摄影机运动的新词汇而闻名，而轻型摄影机使六十年代发明的电影风格纪录片成为可能，至今仍然很常见。事实上，最能体现 20 世纪 90 年代的电影陈词滥调之一就是许多电视广告中所采用的快速剪辑、紧张不安、手持夸张的手法。事物变化越多，它们就越保持不变。
As a result, technical advances in this area have been few. Two stand out. First, in the late 1950s, the Arriflex company developed a 35 mm movie camera that was considerably lighter in weight and smaller in dimension than the standard Mitchell behemoths that had become the favored instruments of Hollywood cinematographers. The Arriflex could be hand-held, and this allowed new freedom and fluidity in camera movement. The camera was now free of mechanical supports and consequently a more personal instrument. The French New Wave, in the early sixties, was noted for the creation of a new vocabulary of hand-held camera movements, and the lightweight camera made possible the style of cinémavérité documentary invented during the sixties and still common today. Indeed, one of the cinematographic clichés that most identified the 1990s was the quick-cut, jittery, hand-held exaggeration exploited in so many television commercials. The more things change, the more they remain the same.
近十五年来，手持拍摄虽然便宜且流行，但也很明显。不稳定的摄影工作成为六十年代的陈词滥调。然后，在七十年代初，一位名叫加勒特·布朗的摄影师开发了该系统称为“斯坦尼康”，与 Cinema Products, Inc. 的工程师合作。从那时起，这种拍摄方法得到了广泛的欢迎，并显着简化了电影制作过程。就经济实用性而言，它与超快镜头并列，因为铺设轨道是电影制作中第二耗时的活动（斯坦尼康消除了对它们的需要）。
For nearly fifteen years, hand-held shots, while inexpensive and popular, were also obvious. Shaky camera work became a cliché of the sixties. Then, in the early seventies, a cameraman named Garrett Brown developed the system called “Steadicam” working in conjunction with engineers from Cinema Products, Inc. Since then, this method of filming has gained wide popularity and has significantly streamlined the filmmaking process. In terms of economic utility, it ranks right up there with ultrafast lenses, since laying tracks is the second most timeconsuming activity in film production (and the Steadicam eliminates the need for them).
图 2-30。拍摄简单的汽车场景可能是一项耗时的任务。在《Not a Pretty Picture》 （1976 年）中的这一场景中，车上安装了灯光、摄像机、反光板、扩散器和其他用具。导演玛莎·柯立芝在右边。（比较图2-61中简单的演播室背投布置。）（摄影：Jack Feder。）下面是电影中的场景。
Figure 2-30. Shooting a simple automobile scene can be a timeconsuming task. Lights, camera, reflectors, diffusers, and other paraphernalia are all mounted on the car for this scene from Not a Pretty Picture (1976). Director Martha Coolidge is at right. (Compare the simple studio rear projection arrangement in Figure 2-61.) (Photo:Jack Feder.) Below, the scene in the film.
在斯坦尼康系统中，背心用于将摄像机的重量重新分配到摄像机操作员的臀部。弹簧臂可以抑制相机的运动，从而提供与更复杂（且昂贵）的跟踪和移动拍摄相媲美的图像稳定性。最后，视频监视器将摄像师从目镜中解放出来，进一步增强了对手持行走拍摄的控制。斯坦尼康操作员是电影界无名的艺术英雄之一。大多数人都是训练有素的运动员；他们所做的工作是举重和芭蕾舞的完美结合。讽刺的是，他们做得越好，你就越不会注意到。
In the Steadicam system, a vest is used to redistribute the weight of the camera to the hips of the camera operator. A spring-loaded arm damps the motion of the camera, providing an image steadiness comparable to much more elaborate (and expensive) tracking and dolly shots. Finally, a video monitor frees the camera operator from the eyepiece, further increasing control of the hand-held walking shot. Steadicam operators are among the unsung artistic heroes of the film profession. Most are trained athletes; the work they do is a prodigious combination of weightlifting and ballet. Ironically, the better they do it, the less you notice.
图 2-31。卢马起重机。_ _ _ _ 操作员通过伺服机构控制起重机和摄像机的运动，同时通过电视监视器观察摄像机拍摄的图像。起重机能够非常精确地改变方向。连接到相机的变焦电机也可以远程控制。（照片：P. 布拉德。）
Figure 2-31. THE LOUMA CRANE. The operator controls the movement of crane and camera via servo-mechanisms while observing the image the camera is taking by television monitor. The crane is capable of very precise changes in direction. A zoom motor attached to the camera can also be remote-controlled. (Photo: P. Brard.)
当放置在标准起重机上时，即使是轻型相机也是笨重的设备。七十年代中期，法国电影制片人让·马里·拉瓦卢 (Jean-Marie Lavalou) 和阿兰·马塞隆 (Alain Masseron) 建造了一种他们称之为“Louma”的装置。本质上是一个轻型起重机，非常类似于麦克风吊杆，它可以充分利用轻型摄像机的优势。Louma 由伺服电机精确控制，使摄像机能够移动到以前不可能的位置，并通过将场景的视频图像从取景器传输到电影摄影师的位置，将其从摄像机操作员的手中解放出来。如果需要的话，就在一个狭窄的房间外面，或者在几英里之外。
Even a lightweight camera is a bulky device when placed on a standard crane. In the mid-seventies, French filmmakers Jean-Marie Lavalou and Alain Masseron constructed a device they called a “Louma.” Essentially a lightweight crane very much like a microphone boom, it allows full advantage to be taken of lightweight cameras. The Louma, precisely controlled by servo-motors, enabled the camera to be moved into positions that were impossible before and freed it from the presence of the camera operator by transmitting a video image of the scene from the viewfinder to the cinematographer’s location, which can be simply outside a cramped room, or miles away, if necessary.
肯沃西通气管等设备可以对相机进行更精细的控制。正如 Louma 将相机从操作员的体积中解放出来一样，通气管也将镜头从相机的体积中解放出来。现在有许多设备遵循 Louma 和 Kenworthy 原则。德国电影摄影师 Horst Burbulla 完善了 Louma与他的 Technocrane 的想法。他添加了一个电子水平头、一个可调节的可移动配重架和一个更精确的伸缩梁。Technocrane 及其后续产品现在主导着演播室电视节目，例如游戏节目，并广泛用于故事片中。Louma 和 Technocrane 仍然依赖移动卡车。尽管他们很灵活，但他们还是脚踏实地。还有一个步骤需要采取——这代表着相机自由度的巨大飞跃。加勒特·布朗 (Garrett Brown) 并不满足于将相机从轨道和推车中解放出来，他在 20 世纪 80 年代中期开发了他的“Skycam”系统。
Devices such as the Kenworthy snorkel permitted even more minute control of the camera. As the Louma freed the camera from the bulk of the operator, so the snorkel freed the lens from the bulk of the camera. There are now a number of devices that follow the Louma and Kenworthy principles. Horst Burbulla, a German cinematographer, perfected the Louma idea with his Technocrane. He added an electronic levelling head, an adjustable movable weight carriage and a more precise telescoping beam. The Technocrane and its successors now dominate studio television shows, such as game shows, and are widely used in feature films. The Louma and the Technocrane still depended on a dolly truck. Despite their flexibility they were grounded. There was one more step to take—one that represents a quantum leap for the freedom of the camera. Not satisfied with having liberated the camera from tracks and dollies, Garrett Brown developed his “Skycam” system in the mid-1980s.
图 2-32。技术起重机。_ _ Horst Barbulla 凭借这款现在常见的工具获得了 2004 年技术奥斯卡奖，该工具依赖于电子水平头、可调节的可移动配重架和轻型精密伸缩梁。
Figure 2-32. THE TECHNOCRANE. Horst Barbulla received a technical Oscar in 2004 for this now common tool which depends upon an electronic levelling head, adjustable moveable weight carriage, and a lightweight precision telescoping beam.
事后看来，Skycam 显然是斯坦尼康和 Louma 的后代。该系统通过电线和滑轮将轻型摄像机悬挂在设置或位置四个角的四个柱子上。操作员坐在偏离位置，观看监视器上的动作，并通过计算机程序与电缆系统通信的控制器来控制摄像机的移动。与之前的斯坦尼康一样，Skycam 通常在最不明显的时候最有效。但有时，特别是在报道体育赛事时，Skycam 可以提供其他方式无法实现的令人兴奋的图像。彼得·潘从来没有过得这么好过。
With hindsight, the Skycam is an obvious offspring of the Steadicam and the Louma. The system suspends a lightweight camera via wires and pulleys from four posts erected at the four corners of the set or location. The operator sits off-set, viewing the action on a monitor and controlling the movement of the camera through controls that communicate with the cable system via computer programs. Like the Steadicam before it, the Skycam is often most effective when it is least obvious. But on occasion, especially covering sports events, the Skycam provides exhilarating images that are otherwise impossible. Peter Pan never had it so good.
Louma、Kenworthy、Technocrane、Skycam 和其他类似的摄像机移动设备标志着电影制作的巨大飞跃。我们如此关注相机及其开发能力，以至于我们往往忽略了帮助我们以新的、有趣的方式移动相机的更平凡的技术——毕竟，我们谈论的是“移动”的图片！（在我看来，在过去的三十年里，加勒特·布朗对电影艺术和技术的影响比任何明星导演都更为深远。）
The Louma, the Kenworthy, the Technocrane, the Skycam, and other camera-movement devices like them mark a quantum leap in filmmaking. We pay so much attention to the camera and its developing capabilities that we tend to ignore the more mundane technologies that help us move the camera in new and interesting ways—after all, we are talking about “moving” pictures! (For my money, Garrett Brown has had a more profound effect on the art and technique of film during the last thirty years than any star director.)
图 2-33。内窥镜光纤电影摄影的一个早期例子：子宫中的人类胎儿。摘自《不可思议的机器》（1975 年，PBS）。
Figure 2-33. An early example of endoscopic fiberoptic cinematography: a human fetus in the womb. From The Incredible Machine (1975, PBS).
随着这些设备的出现，大多数必要机械尺寸对电影摄影造成的限制都被消除了，摄影机接近了自由浮动、完全可控的人工眼的理想状态。光纤技术的完善将这种自由度延伸到了微观层面；1967 年，电影《神奇之旅》通过特效手段创造出穿越人体各个通道的旅行，这在科幻小说中，到了七十年代中期，可以在纪录片《不可思议的机器》中“现场”拍摄。
With the advent of these devices, most of the constraints imposed on cinematography by the size of the necessary machinery have been eliminated, and the camera approaches the ideal condition of a free-floating, perfectly controllable artificial eye. The perfection of fiber optics technology extended this freedom to the microscopic level; the travels through the various channels of the human body that were science fiction when they were created by means of special effects in 1967 for the film Fantastic Voyage could, by the mid-seventies, be filmed “on location” for the documentary The Incredible Machine.
随着“胶片”变得越来越数字化，相机仪器的重量和尺寸进一步减小，允许更冒险的尝试。《Le Peuple migrateur》（《有翼的迁徙》， Jacques Perrin，2001）利用超轻型飞机和动力悬挂式滑翔机捕捉到了迄今为止从未见过的鸟类飞行景象。这是一部雄心勃勃的作品，覆盖了几大洲。
As “film” becomes increasingly digital, the weight and size of the camera instrument decrease further allowing even more adventurous forays. Le Peuple migrateur (Winged Migration, Jacques Perrin, 2001) utilized ultralight aircraft and powered hang-gliders to capture a hitherto never seen view of birds in flight. It was an enormously ambitious production covering several continents.
在2008 年《自然》杂志的《猛禽力量》中，罗布·麦金太尔 (Rob MacIntyre) 设计了一种相机、电池和发射器组合，重量轻、体积小，可以绑在猎鹰的背上，拍摄这种动物在 25 G 的攻击“弯腰”和赋予“鸟瞰图”一词新的含义。
For Raptor Force, a 2008 episode of Nature, Rob MacIntyre devised a camera-battery-transmitter package light and small enough to be strapped to the back of a falcon, delivering incredible footage of this animal in its 25-G attack “stoop” and giving new meaning to the phrase “bird’s-eye view.”
随着好莱坞在人工特效上花费更多的时间和金钱，电影摄影中真正令人兴奋、具有挑战性和创造性的工作正在自然电影的现实世界中完成。
As Hollywood spends more time and money on artificial special effects, the really exciting, challenging, and creative work in cinematography is being done in the real world of nature films.
图 2-34。雅克·佩兰的有翼迁徙：飞行中的超轻型塘鹅和北方塘鹅。（框架放大。）
Figure 2-34. Jacques Perrin’s Winged Migration: the ultralight and Northern Gannets in flight. (Frame enlargements.)
电影胶片
The Filmstock
所有化学摄影的基本原理是某些物质（主要是银盐）具有感光性：也就是说，它们在暴露于光线时会发生化学变化。如果这种化学变化是可见的，并且可以固定或冻结，那么视觉体验的可重复记录就有可能。*
The fundamental principle on which all chemical photography is based is that some substances (mainly silver salts) are photosensitive: that is, they change chemically when exposed to light. If that chemical alteration is visible and can be fixed or frozen, then a reproducible record of visual experience is possible.*
银版照片是在金属板上制作的，需要长时间曝光（以分钟为单位）才能捕获图像。在电影成为可能之前，摄影技术的两项发展是必要的：携带照相乳剂的柔性底座，以及足够敏感或“快”的乳剂，以便可以在大约 1/20 秒的时间内正确曝光。 。现在，标准、流行的乳剂的速度为 1/1000 秒，这在正常条件下已经超过了足够的曝光时间。
Daguerreotypes were made on metal plates and required long periods of exposure, measured in minutes, in order to capture an image. Two developments in the technology of photography were necessary before motion pictures became possible: a flexible base to carry the photographic emulsion, and an emulsion sensitive or “fast” enough so that it could be properly exposed within a time period something like 1/20 second. The speed of standard, popular emulsions is now such that 1/1000 second is more than adequate exposure time under normal conditions.
然而，并非所有图像固定都是化学照相。电视图像是电子产生的（尽管光敏和磷光化学物质也发挥了作用），激光、喷墨和热升华打印机（所有这些现在在消费者和专业摄影中都发挥着重要作用）中使用的系统也与传统的有很大不同化学银盐摄影。
Not all image-fixing is chemically photographic, however. Television images are electronically produced (although photosensitive and phosphorescent chemicals play a part) and systems used in laser, ink-jet, and dyesublimation printers (all of which now play a major role in both consumer and professional photography) are also quite different from traditional chemical silver-salt photography.
图 2-35。猛禽部队。_ _ 罗布·麦金泰尔的相机包（左，镜头在他的手指上方可见）和猎鹰接近猎物时的名副其实的鸟瞰图（右）。（框架放大。）
Figure 2-35. RAPTOR FORCE. Rob MacIntyre’s camera package (left, the lens visible just above his finger) and a veritable bird’s-eye-view, as the falcon closes in on her prey (right). (Frame enlargements.)
索尼于 1989 年推出了第一台全电子快照相机 Mavica。他们领先市场几年；数码相机直到九十年代末才得到消费者的认可。随着彩色激光和喷墨打印机价格下降并进入家庭，照片爱好者能够制作自己的纸质照片，暗室家庭照片工作室被计算机软件取代。像 Adobe Photoshop 这样的程序比最先进的照相馆提供了更大的灵活性，而且价格比任何地下室暗室都便宜。光化学现已进入第二个世纪，正在被取代。事实上，作为一种消费技术，它已经创下了一百多年的历史记录，最终可能只有数字计算机才能超越。机械蜡唱片或黑胶唱片在消费技术记录中位居第二，在 20 世纪 80 年代被 CD 取代之前，它的寿命几乎与它一样长。
Sony introduced the first all-electronic snapshot camera, the Mavica, in 1989. They were a few years ahead of the market; digital cameras did not find consumer acceptance until the late nineties. As color laser and ink-jet printers dropped in price and moved into the home, the photo buff was able to make his own paper prints, and the darkroom home photo workshop was replaced by computer software. Programs like Adobe Photoshop offers more flexibility than the most advanced photo labs at a cheaper price than any basement darkroom. Photo-chemistry, now well into its second century, is being replaced. Indeed, as a consumer technology it has enjoyed a record run of more than one hundred years that may be surpassed eventually only by digital computers. The mechanical wax or vinyl record, second in the consumer technology record book, lasted almost as long before it was replaced by CDs in the 1980s.
底片、印刷品和世代
Negatives, Prints, and Generations
由于化学摄影所基于的盐在暴露于光时会变暗，因此系统中引入了一个奇怪且有用的怪癖。当照片被冲洗并通过化学浴永久固定图像时，照片中接受最多光线的区域将显得最暗。结果是一幅负片图像，其中色调相反：亮是暗，暗是亮。通过接触式印刷负片或将其投影到类似的胶片或相纸上，可以轻松获得该负片图像的正片。这使得图像的复制成为可能。此外，当投影负片时，图像可以放大、缩小或以其他方式改变——这是一个显着的优势。反转处理允许在“相机原件”（胶片中的胶片）上形成直接的、可投影的正像。拍摄时的相机。负片（或反转正片）也可以直接从反转打印中打印。
Since the salts on which chemical photography is based darken when exposed to light, a curious and useful quirk is introduced into the system. Those areas of the photograph that receive most light will appear darkest when the photograph is developed and put through the chemical baths that fix the image permanently. The result is a negative image in which tones are reversed: light is dark and dark is light. A positive print of this negative image can easily be obtained by either contact printing the negative or projecting it on similar filmstock or photographic paper. This makes possible the replication of the image. In addition, when the negative is projected the image can be enlarged, reduced, or otherwise altered—a significant advantage. Reversal processing permits the development of a direct, projectable positive image on the “camera original”—the filmstock in the camera when the shot is made. Negatives (or reversal positives) can also be printed directly from a reversal print.
相机原版被认为是第一代；它的印刷版将是第二代；反过来，它的负片或反转副本是第三代。随着每一步的进行，质量都会下降。由于电影的原始底片通常被认为太有价值，无法用于制作大片发行所需的多达两千张印刷品，因此您在剧院看到的印刷品通常与原件相差几代：
The camera original is considered to be first generation; a print of it would be second generation; a negative or reversal copy of that, in turn, is third generation. With each successive step, quality is lost. Since the original negative of a film is usually considered too valuable to use in producing as many as two thousand prints that might be required for a major release of a feature, the print you see in a theater is often several generations removed from the original:
当基于电影的后期制作成为常态并且需要复杂的实验室工作时，可能会增加几代。“CRI”库存（颜色反转中间体）是专门为桥接中间正阶段而开发的，减少了实践中的代数。当不需要大量印刷品和实验室工作时，反转库存提供了一个非常有用的替代方案。在 20 世纪 70 年代，当电影仍然是电视新闻的首选媒介，并且在全电子新闻编辑室变得司空见惯之前，电视新闻记者在下午 4 点拍摄的反转股票可能会在下午 5 点冲洗并直接进入电影链条仍湿，用于 6 点广播。业余电影摄影师几乎总是使用反转片，例如 Kodachrome 或 Ektachrome。
When film-based post-production was the norm and complicated laboratory work was required, then several more generations might have been added. “CRI” stock (color reversal intermediate), developed especially to bridge the intermediate positive stage, lessened the number of generations in practice. When large numbers of prints and laboratory work were not needed, reversal stocks provided a very useful alternative. In the 1970s, when film was still the medium of choice for television news, and before the all-electronic newsroom became commonplace, the reversal stock that a television newsman shot at 4 pm, might have been developed at 5 and gone directly into the film chain, still wet, for broadcasting at 6. Amateur cinematographers almost always used reversal films such as Kodachrome or Ektachrome.
这是电影制片人可用的胶片基本选择的大致轮廓。在实践中，多样性要大得多。伊士曼柯达公司在美国专业胶片市场仍然保持着近乎垄断的地位（即使其消费胶片业务几乎被数码摄影消灭）。
This is a broad outline of the basic choices of filmstock available to the filmmaker. In practice, the variety is much greater. The Eastman Kodak company still maintains a near monopoly in the professional filmstock market in the U.S. (even if its consumer film business has been nearly wiped out by digital photography).
柯达在胶卷市场的地位在某些方面与20世纪80年代初微型计算机革命之前IBM在计算机行业的处境相似。乔治·伊士曼 (George Eastman) 发明了第一个灵活、透明的胶卷，1889 年。与鼎盛时期的 IBM 一样，伊士曼公司在很大程度上定义了绝大多数客户必须使用的语言和系统。电影是一门艺术，更是一门产业。即使经过二十年的数字化转型，柯达每年来自专业胶片的收入仍可与美国电影业的票房收入相媲美。
Kodak’s position in the film market is in some ways similar to the situation of IBM in the computer industry before the microcomputer revolution of the early 1980s. It was George Eastman who developed the first flexible, transparent roll filmstock, in 1889. Like IBM in its heyday, Eastman’s company largely defined the languages and systems that must be used by the great majority of their customers. Film is an art, but it is also an industry. Even after twenty years of the digital shift Kodak’s revenues from professional filmstock each year rival the box-office revenues of the American film industry.
虽然经济和后勤决策仍然在胶片材料和工艺的选择中发挥着重要作用，但这些选择还涉及其他更美观的决策。胶片的美学变量包括：规格、颗粒、对比度、色调和颜色。与这些变量密切相关的因素，尤其是前两个变量（尽管它实际上并不是所用胶片的函数）是长宽比，即投影时胶片的帧尺寸。
While economic and logistical decisions still play a large part in the choice of filmstock and process, there are other, more esthetic, decisions that are involved in these choices. The esthetic variables of filmstock include: gauge, grain, contrast, tone, and color. Intimately involved with these variables, especially the first two—although it is not truly a function of the filmstock used—is the aspect ratio, or frame size of the film when projected.
纵横比
Aspect Ratio
投影图像的高度与其宽度之间的比率（长宽比）取决于相机（和投影仪）光圈的大小和形状，以及正如我们将看到的，取决于所使用的镜头类型。但它不仅仅是光圈的函数。在电影历史的早期，四比三（宽与高）的任意长宽比开始流行，并最终由美国电影艺术与科学学院标准化（因此现在被称为“学院光圈”或“学院比例”）。该比率通常表示为 1.33:1 或简称为 1.33 比率，虽然它无疑是最常见的，但实际上从来不是唯一使用的比率。
The ratio between the height of the projected image and its width—the aspect ratio—is dependent on the size and shape of the aperture of the camera (and of the projector) and, as we shall see, on the types of lenses used. But it is not solely a function of the aperture. Early in the history of film, an arbitrary aspect ratio of four to three (width to height) became popular and was eventually standardized by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (so that it is now known as the “Academy aperture” or “Academy ratio”). This ratio, more often expressed as 1.33:1 or simply as the 1.33 ratio, while it was undeniably the most common, was never really the sole ratio in use.
电影制作人（DW Griffith 在此方面尤其出名）经常遮盖部分画面以暂时改变图像的形状。当声音开发出来并且必须在胶片边缘为配乐留出空间时，方形比例一度很常见。几年后，学院缩小了实际使用的潜在框架内的空间量，以重新获得1.33的比例，并且这个标准逐渐产生了神秘感，尽管它是任意决定的结果（并且浪费了很多的电影）。
Filmmakers—D. W. Griffith is especially noted for this—often masked off part of the frame to change the shape of the image temporarily. When sound was developed and room had to be made on the edge of the filmstock for the soundtrack, the square ratio was common for a while. A few years later the Academy shrank the amount of space within the potential frame that was actually used in order to regain the 1.33 ratio, and this standard gradually developed a mystique, even though it was the result of an arbitrary decision (and wasted a lot of film).
一些电影教科书将 1.33 比率与古典艺术和建筑的黄金分割联系起来，这是一个真正神秘的数字，它表达了自然界中随处可见的比率，通常是在最奇怪的地方（例如，在向日葵种子的排列中，或蜗牛壳的形状）。黄金分割表示为公式 a/b = b/(a + b)，其中 a 是矩形短边的长度，b 是长方形的长度的较长。虽然它是一个无理数，但可以通过将高度与宽度的比率表示为 1:1.618 来近似近似黄金分割。这与当今使用的最流行的欧洲宽屏比例非常接近，但与学院光圈的 1.33 比例肯定相去甚远。尽管学院的比例是任意的，*真正占据主导地位的时间只有二十年左右（直到 1953 年宽银幕格式（如 CinemaScope）开始流行），正是在这段时间，电视框架在其型号上实现了标准化；而这反过来又继续影响着电影的构图。然而，宽屏高清电视的宽高比为 16:9（或 1.777:1），更接近黄金分割。
Some film textbooks connect the 1.33 ratio with the Golden Section of classical art and architecture, a truly mystical number expressive of a ratio found everywhere in nature, often in the strangest places (in the arrangement of the seeds of a sunflower, for example, or the shape of a snail’s shell). The Golden Section is expressed as the formula a/b = b/(a + b), where a is the length of the shorter side of the rectangle and b is the length of the longer. While it is an irrational number, this Golden Mean can be closely approximated by expressing the ratio of height to width as 1:1.618. This is very close to the most popular European widescreen ratio in use today, but it is certainly a far cry from the 1.33 ratio of the Academy aperture. While the Academy ratio, arbitrary as it is,* really only dominated for twenty years or so (until 1953 when widescreen formats like CinemaScope became popular), it was during this time that the television frame was standardized on its model; and that, in turn, continued to influence film composition. Widescreen HDTV, however, has an aspect ratio of 16:9 (or 1.777:1), much closer to the Golden Mean.
自 20 世纪 50 年代以来，电影制作人就有了相当多的屏幕比例可供选择。使用两种不同的方法来实现当今使用的宽屏比例。最简单的方法是遮盖框架的顶部和底部，提供两种最常见的“平面”宽屏比例：1.66（在欧洲）和 1.85（在美国）。然而，遮蔽意味着使用了可用胶片帧的一小部分，导致投影图像的质量下降。在 1.85 的比例中，总帧面积的 36% 被浪费了。
Since the 1950s, filmmakers have been presented with a considerable range of screen ratios to choose from. Two separate methods are used to achieve the widescreen ratios in use today. The simplest method is to mask off the top and bottom of the frame, providing the two most common “flat” widescreen ratios: 1.66 (in Europe) and 1.85 (in the United States). Masking, however, means that a much smaller portion of the available film frame is used, resulting in diminished quality of the projected image. In the 1.85 ratio, 36 percent of the total frame area is wasted.
实现宽银幕比例的第二种方法是变形过程，在五十年代中期以“CinemaScope”的形式流行起来。第一个变形处理是 Henri Chrétien 的“Hypergonar”系统，克劳德·奥坦-拉拉 (Claude Autant-Lara) 在 1927 年的电影《Construire un feu》中使用了该系统。同年，阿贝尔·冈斯 (Abel Gance) 与安德烈·德布里 (André Debrie) 合作，开发了一种多屏幕系统，该系统与他的史诗《拿破仑》的全景电影 (Cinerama) 类似。他将这个三投影仪系统称为 Polyvision。一年前，梅里安·C·库珀 (Merian C. Cooper) 和欧内斯特·B·舍德萨克 (Ernest B. Schoedsack) 在他们的电影《张》中尝试了“Magnascope”，它可以简单地放大整个图像，就像放大镜一样。
The second method of achieving a widescreen ratio, the anamorphic process, became popular in the mid-fifties as “CinemaScope.” The first anamorphic process was Henri Chrétien’s “Hypergonar” system, which was used by Claude Autant-Lara in 1927 for his film Construire un feu. In the same year, Abel Gance, working with André Debrie, developed a multiscreen system not unlike Cinerama for his epic Napoléon. He called this three-projector system Polyvision. A year previously, for their film Chang, Merian C. Cooper and Ernest B. Schoedsack had experimented with “Magnascope,” which simply enlarged the entire image, much as a magnifying glass would.
变形镜头将宽图像压缩到胶片的正常帧尺寸中，然后在投影过程中松开图像以提供具有适当比例的图像。最常见的变形系统（最初是 CinemaScope，现在是 Panavision）的标准挤压比是 2:1，也就是说，主体在挤压画面中的宽度是实际宽度的一半。主体的高度不变。早期的变形处理几乎使用了画面的所有可用区域获得投影图像长宽比为2.55；后来将其更改为 2.35（现已成为标准），以便为光学配乐腾出空间。
An anamorphic lens squeezes a wide image into the normal frame dimensions of the film and then unsqueezes the image during projection to provide a picture with the proper proportions. The standard squeeze ratio for the most common anamorphic systems (first CinemaScope, now Panavision) is 2:1—that is, a subject will appear in the squeezed frame to be half as wide as in reality. The height of the subject is unchanged. Using nearly all the area of the frame available, the earlier anamorphic process obtained a projected image aspect ratio of 2.55; this was later altered to 2.35, which is now standard, to make room for an optical soundtrack.
Figure 2-36. ASPECT RATIOS. Standard and widescreen systems.
虽然变形系统比遮蔽系统效率更高，因为它利用了可用的全画幅区域，但变形镜头是更复杂的光学设备，比球面（非变形）镜头更昂贵，而且种类更有限。这导致使用变形系统的电影摄影师受到某些实际限制。此外，虽然看起来变形负片包含的水平信息是标准负片的两倍，但解压过程确实会放大图像的颗粒和不一致性。换句话说，变形镜头只是拉伸正常量的信息以填充两倍宽的屏幕。
While the anamorphic system is considerably more efficient than masking, since it utilizes the full frame area available, anamorphic lenses are much more sophisticated optical devices, much more expensive, and more limited in variety than spherical (non-anamorphic) lenses. This results in certain practical limitations placed on the cinematographer using an anamorphic system. In addition, although it seems as if an anamorphic negative contains twice as much horizontal information as a standard negative, the unsqueezing process does amplify grain and inconsistencies along with the image. In other words, the anamorphic lens simply stretches a normal amount of information to fill a screen twice as wide.
1952 年 9 月，随着《This Is Cinerama》的上映，宽银幕时代开始了，这是一部成功的奇观，其主题实际上是用于拍摄它的系统。弗莱德·沃勒 (Fred Waller) 发明的全景电影 (Cinerama) 采用立体声，使用三个摄像机和三个投影仪进行覆盖一个巨大的弧形屏幕。与许多宽屏系统一样，它起源于世界博览会的展览，Waller 的“Vitarama”，它曾在 1939-40 年的纽约博览会上使用，后来演变为第二次世界大战的灵活枪械训练器。
The age of widescreen began in September 1952 with the release of This Is Cinerama, a successful spectacle whose subject was, in fact, the system that was used to shoot it. Employing stereophonic sound, Cinerama, the invention of Fred Waller, used three cameras and three projectors to cover a huge, curved screen. Like many widescreen systems, it had its roots in a World’s Fair exhibit, Waller’s “Vitarama,” which was used at the 1939-40 Fair in New York and later evolved into the Flexible Gunnery Trainer of World War II.
Figure 2-37. The Golden Mean as a sunflower displays it. (JM)
1953年，第一部宽银幕电影——二十世纪福克斯公司的《长袍》上映。CinemaScope 是一种变形处理而不是多投影机的盛宴，它很快成为 20 世纪 50 年代的标准宽银幕处理。Techniscope 由 Technicolor 公司开发，采用了变形过程的有趣变体。Techniscope 底片是用遮蔽的球面镜头拍摄的，以提供宽银幕比例。该相机采用了两孔下拉机构，而不是标准的四孔，从而使胶片成本减半。然后通过变形镜头打印负片，提供用于投影目的的标准变形四孔下拉打印。多年后，在 20 世纪 80 年代，Techniscope 技巧以 Super 35 的形式获得了新生，它通过回收配乐占用的区域，将摄像机框架的面积增加了 32%。当打印出来时，框架被缩小并在实验室中居中。数字中间片使这变得更加容易。
In 1953, the first CinemaScope film, Twentieth Century Fox’s The Robe, was released. An anamorphic process rather than a multiprojector extravaganza, CinemaScope quickly became the standard widescreen process of the 1950s. Techniscope, developed by the Technicolor company, employed an interesting variation on the anamorphic process. The Techniscope negative was shot with spherical lenses masked to give a widescreen ratio. The camera employed a two-hole pull-down mechanism rather than the standard four-hole, thus halving filmstock costs. The negative was then printed through an anamorphic lens, providing a standard anamorphic four-hole pull-down print for projection purposes. Years later in the 1980s the Techniscope trick found new life as Super 35, which increased the area of the camera frame by 32 percent by reclaiming the area which the soundtrack occupies. When prints were made the frame was reduced and recentered in the lab. Digital intermediates make this much easier.
虽然电影制片人多年来一直在尝试宽银幕系统，但正是电视在五十年代初带来的经济威胁最终使宽银幕比例变得普遍。遗赠任意1.33比率到新的电视行业，电影制片厂很快发现他们对抗新艺术最有力的武器是图像尺寸。因为它太笨重，全景电影很快就被废弃了。单摄像机系统，例如 CinemaScope 和后来的 Panavision，占据了主导地位。全景电影还催生了“3D”或立体电影的短暂现象。尽管该系统在 20 世纪 80 年代曾短暂卷土重来，但它仍然过于僵化，无法取得成功，而且也只是一种新奇的吸引力。希区柯克的《Dial M for Murder》 （1954 年）无疑是双机位 3D 制作中最好的电影，但直到 1980 年才以 3D 形式上映。
While filmmakers had experimented with widescreen systems for many years, it was the economic threat that television posed in the early fifties that finally made widescreen ratios common. Having bequeathed the arbitrary 1.33 ratio to the new television industry, film studios quickly discovered that their most powerful weapon against the new art was image size. Because it was so unwieldy, Cinerama quickly fell into disuse. Single camera systems, like CinemaScope and later Panavision, became dominant. Cinerama also engendered the short-lived phenomenon of “3-D” or stereoscopic film. Again the system was too inflexible to be successful and was never more than a novelty attraction, although it made a very brief comeback in the 1980s. What was undoubtedly the best film shot in the two-camera 3-D process, Hitchcock’s Dial M for Murder (1954), wasn’t released in 3-D until 1980.
图 2-38。DW Griffith 经常遮盖图像以吸引注意力，就像《一个国家的诞生》中的这张照片一样。（框架放大。）
Figure 2-38. D. W. Griffith often masked the image to focus attention, as in this shot from The Birth of a Nation. (Frame enlargement.)
最初的热潮过去半个世纪后，怪物又回来了。随着皮克斯在九十年代开创的数字技术成为动画领域的标准，经济地设计 3D 产品的机会出现了。（这只是编程的小问题。）迪士尼于 2005 年使用 Real-D 技术发布了 3D 版《小鸡》 。该系统需要专门配备的剧院和特殊的数字投影仪，因此目前尚未普及。但在 2008 年，迪士尼/皮克斯和梦工厂宣布他们未来的所有动画作品都将以 3D 形式发行。它剧院业主是否会安装必要的设备还有待观察。20 世纪 50 年代，3D 技术让青少年走出家门，远离电视；在 2010 年代，它会让他们远离电子游戏而走进影院吗？
Half a century after the initial craze the monster has returned. As digital techniques pioneered by Pixar in the nineties became the norm in animation, the opportunity to economically engineer 3-D product presented itself. (It’s all just a small matter of programming.) Disney released Chicken Little in 3-D in 2005 using the Real-D technology. This system requires specially equipped theaters and special digital projectors so it is not widespread as yet. But in 2008 Disney/Pixar and Dreamworks announced that all their future animated releases will be released in 3-D. It remains to be seen whether theater owners will install the necessary equipment. In the 1950s 3-D brought teenagers out of the house away from the TV; in the 2010s will it get them into the theaters and away from their video games?
讽刺的是，3D 试图开拓电影美学领域，而二维“平面”电影已经很好地表达了这一领域。我们对场景维度的感觉在心理上取决于双眼视觉以外的许多因素：明暗、运动、焦点都是重要的心理因素。（参见第 3 章。）此外，三维技术产生了一种固有的扭曲，从而分散了人们的注意力，将注意力从电影的主题上转移开。这些是全息术（一种更先进的立体摄影系统）必须克服的双重问题，然后才能被认为是平面胶片的可行替代品。
Ironically, 3-D attempted to exploit an area of film esthetics that was already fairly well expressed by two-dimensional “flat” film. Our sense of the dimensionality of a scene depends, psychologically, upon many factors other than binocular vision: chiaroscuro, movement, focus are all important psychological factors. (See Chapter 3.) Moreover, the three-dimensional technique produced an inherent distortion, which distracted, drawing attention from the subject of the film. These are the twin problems that holography, a much more advanced system of stereoscopic photography, will have to overcome before it can ever be considered a feasible alternative to flat film.
然而，20 世纪 50 年代各种技巧过程的发展产生了一些有用的成果。当年与宽银幕电影竞争的系统之一是派拉蒙对福克斯流程的回应。Vista Vision 将相机侧转，通过八个链轮孔下拉（更准确地说，“拉动”）来获得宽图像。该画框的尺寸是普通 35 毫米画框的两倍，并且使用了所有可用的图像区域，无需使用复杂的变形镜头。发布印刷品采用正常的 35 毫米配置。（后来开发的 Technirama 将该技术与压缩比为 1.5 的变形拍摄镜头相结合。）
The development of the various trick processes of the 1950s had some useful results, however. One of the systems that competed with CinemaScope in those years was Paramount’s answer to Fox’s process. Vista Vision turned the camera on its side to achieve a wide image with an eight-sprocket-hole pull-down (more precisely, a “pull-across”). The frame, then, was twice the size of a normal 35 mm frame and used all the image area available without tricky anamorphic lenses. Release prints were made in normal 35 mm configurations. (Technirama, a later development, combined this technique with an anamorphic taking lens with a 1.5 squeeze ratio.)
如今，电影制片人可以使用多种宽高比——一些用于摄影，一些用于发行印刷品，一些用于两者——如图2-36所示。数码摄影就其本质而言，允许对这些主题进行各种变化。当图像是数字的时，可以应用任何纵横比以及任何垂直和/或水平压缩方案。同样，分辨率的变化范围也很大。数码摄影中唯一没有改变的是镜头：仍然需要使用弯曲的玻璃片来聚焦光波。
Today, filmmakers have at their disposal the array of aspect ratios—some for photography, some for distribution prints, some for both—outlined in Figure 2-36. Digital photography, by its very nature, allows all sorts of variations on these themes. When the image is digital any aspect ratio and any vertical and/or horizontal compression scheme can be applied. Similarly, resolutions vary over a wide range. About the only thing that doesn’t change in digital photography is the lens: it’s still necessary to use curved pieces of glass to focus the light waves.
随着 2000 年代宽屏数字电视机的出现，这种灵活性给电影制作人带来了新的审美问题。在八十年代，由于轻率的录像带发行商失去了对宽银幕纵横比的控制，现在他们也不得不将控制权让给消费者。数字电视可以让你随意扭曲图像：“视觉拉伸”就此诞生。在 VHS 时代，发行商砍掉一半图像以“填满”4 × 3 电视屏幕；如今，消费者将 4 × 3 图像拉伸至 16:9 来填充屏幕。也许我们没有注意到，由于肥胖的流行，银幕上的演员比应有的宽了 34%。
With the advent of widescreen digital television sets in the 2000s this flexibility introduced a new esthetic problem for filmmakers. Having lost control over widescreen aspect ratios to thoughtless videotape distributors in the eighties, now they had to cede control to consumers, as well. Digital TVs allow you to distort the image at will: “stretch-o-vision” was born. In the age of VHS, distributors lopped off half the image in order to “fill” the 4 × 3 television screen; today consumers stretch a 4 × 3 image to 16:9 to fill the screen. Perhaps we don’t notice that actors on the screen are 34 percent wider than they should be because of the epidemic of obesity.
粒度、规格和速度
Grain, Gauge, and Speed
快速胶片和超灵敏图像传感器（以及更快的镜头）的发展为电影制作者提供了在夜间或室内通过“可用光线”拍摄场景的自由。虽然巨大、昂贵的弧光灯曾经是行业的标准配置，极大地限制了电影制作的过程，但快速彩色和黑白胶片现在赋予胶片几乎与我们的眼睛相同的灵敏度。胶片的曝光速度与其清晰度或颗粒度密切相关，并且成反比变化：速度的提高通常会导致清晰度的损失。速度更快的胶片颗粒感更强；较慢的胶片可提供更清晰、更细粒度的图像。
The development of fast filmstocks and super-sensitive image sensors (and faster lenses) has given filmmakers welcome freedom to photograph scenes by “available light,” at night or indoors. Whereas huge, expensive arc lights were once standard in the industry and greatly restricted the process of filmmaking, fast color and black-and-white filmstocks now give film almost the same sensitivity that our eyes have. The exposure speed of a filmstock is closely linked with its definition or grain, and varies inversely: what is gained in speed is generally lost in definition. Faster films are grainier; slower films give sharper, fine-grain images.
颗粒也是胶片规格或尺寸的函数。35 毫米胶片的标准帧面积略大于半平方英寸。如果将其投影到 40 英尺宽的屏幕上，则必须填充比自身大 350,000 倍的区域——这是一项艰巨的任务；一帧16毫米胶片（由于胶片宽度只有35毫米的一半多一点，所以画面面积小了四倍），如果要填满同一屏幕，就必须放大140万倍。如果将画面放大到静态摄影标准的 8 × 10 英寸尺寸，胶片的颗粒感可能永远不会被注意到，但在电影屏幕上却会变得更明显数千倍。
Grain is also a function of the gauge or size of the filmstock. A standard frame of 35 mm film has an area of slightly more than half a square inch. If it is projected onto a screen that is forty feet wide, it has to fill an area that is 350,000 times larger than itself—a prodigious task; a frame of 16 mm film (since the stock is a little more than half as wide as 35 mm, the area of the frame is four times smaller), if it were to fill the same screen, would have to be magnified 1.4 million times. The graininess of a filmstock, which might never be noticeable if the frame were enlarged to the 8 × 10-inch size that is a standard in still photography, will be thousands of times more noticeable on a motion picture screen.
观察者和图像之间的距离是另一个需要考虑的因素。从屏幕较小的大型影院的后排来看，35 毫米电影的图像可能与将一英尺放在观察者面前的 8 × 10 印刷品的视角相同。在这种情况下，谷物看起来或多或少是等价的。
The distance between the observer and the image is another factor to consider. From the back row of a very large theater with a small screen, the image of a 35 mm movie might appear in the same perspective as an 8 × 10 print held one foot in front of the observer. In that case, the grain would appear to be more or less equivalent.
电影胶片的标准宽度为 35 毫米。多年前推出的 16 毫米胶片仅适合业余电影制作人，随着胶片和处理变得更加复杂，16 毫米胶片在 20 世纪 60 年代成为有用的替代品。它被用于电视电影工作，特别是在欧洲，并且仍然可用于拍摄故事片。七十年代初开发的“super 16”格式显着增加了画面面积，从而提高了图像的清晰度。此外，8 毫米胶片在 20 世纪 70 年代之前完全仅限于业余爱好者使用，但有一段时间在商业电影制作中得到了一些应用，特别是在电视新闻和工业电影制作中。35 毫米中存在的任何清晰度和精度问题都将在 16 毫米中乘以四倍，并在 16 毫米中乘以一个因数8 毫米中有 16 个，因为我们关心的是面积而不是线性尺寸。
The standard width for motion-picture stock has been 35 mm. Introduced many years ago as suitable only for the amateur filmmaker, 16 mm stock became a useful alternative in the 1960s, as filmstock and processing became more sophisticated. It was used in television film work, especially in Europe, and it is still usable for shooting feature films. The “super 16” format, developed in the early seventies, measurably increased the area of the frame and thus the definition of the image. Also, 8 mm film, which had been restricted entirely to amateur use until the 1970s, found some applications in commercial filmmaking for a while, especially in television news and industrial filmmaking. Whatever problems of definition and precision exist in 35 mm are multiplied by a factor of four in 16 mm and by a factor of sixteen in 8 mm, since we are concerned with areas rather than linear dimensions.
图 2-39。阿贝尔·冈斯的《拿破仑》 （1927 年）复原作品中的两个三部分屏幕阵列，展示了多个视图如何创造出单一的心理印象。（现代艺术博物馆/英国金融服务管理局。）
Figure 2-39. Two tripartite screen arrays from the restoration of Abel Gance’s Napoléon (1927), showing how multiple views can create a single psychological impression. (MOMA/FSA.)
按照同样的算法，更宽的胶片将大大改善这些问题。因此，70 毫米胶片对于需要在大屏幕上呈现全景细节和力量感的制作非常有价值。虽然更宽的胶片的可能性很有趣，但 16 毫米和 8 毫米规格的日益复杂对 20 世纪 70 年代和 1980 年代的电影制作产生了更大的影响，因为它们非常便宜：16 毫米胶片比 35 毫米便宜两到四倍因此，电影制作向更多的潜在电影制作人开放。它不仅让更多的人有能力拍电影，也意味着用同样的钱可以拍更多的电影，从而减少专业电影制片人对变幻莫测的风险投资市场的依赖。
By the same arithmetic, a wider filmstock will greatly ameliorate those problems. Hence 70 mm filmstocks are valuable for productions that need a feeling of panoramic detail and power on a large screen. While the possibilities of the wider stocks are intriguing, the increased sophistication of the 16 mm and 8 mm gauges had a greater effect on filmmaking in the 1970s and 1980s because they were so inexpensive: 16 mm stock is two to four times cheaper than 35 mm and therefore opened up filmmaking to a much larger number of potential filmmakers. It not only made it possible for more people to afford to make films, it also meant that more films could be made for the same money, so that professional filmmakers were less reliant on the vagaries of the venture capital market.
当然，录像带提供了更大的经济效益，但大多数专业电影制作人仍然坚持化学，直到高清范式发生转变。
Of course, videotape offered still greater economies, but most professional filmmakers remained wedded to chemistry until the HD paradigm shift of the oughts.
尽管它没有幸存下来，但 20 世纪 50 年代的 Vista Vision 提出了两条有利可图的发展路线：首先，如果电影本身更大，则可以在不损失清晰度的情况下进行宽银幕摄影。这导致了商业 65 毫米和 70 毫米枪托的开发。*（Wide stock 早在 1900 年就已进行过试验。）其次，用于拍摄胶片的系统不一定是用于发行的系统和投影。自 20 世纪 60 年代以来，通常使用 35 毫米胶片进行拍摄，同时向有能力放映这些照片的剧院发行 70 毫米胶片。这种做法导致图像质量略有提高，但比使用宽幅胶片拍摄的胶片要低得多。以 70 毫米发行的主要优点是库存允许提供更精致的立体声音轨。到了 20 世纪 80 年代，由于成本高昂（加上 35 毫米库存质量的提高），70 毫米的芽已经很少见了。
Although it didn’t survive, the Vista Vision of the 1950s suggested two profitable lines of development: first, that the film itself, if it were larger, would permit widescreen photography without loss of clarity. This led to the development of commercial 65 mm and 70 mm stocks.* (Wide stock had been experimented with as early as 1900.) Second, that the system used for photographing the film did not have to be the system used for distribution and projection. Since the 1960s, it has been common to shoot on 35 mm stock while releasing 70 mm prints to those theaters that are equipped to show them. This practice resulted in a slight increase in image quality, but much less than if the film had been shot on wide stock, as well. The main advantage of releasing in 70 mm was the more elaborate stereophonic soundtrack that stock allows. By the 1980s, 70 mm shoots were rare, due to the significant expense (combined with the increased quality of 35 mm stock).
图 2-40。这是全景电影。这是艺术家对观众看到的大屏幕的构想。它在唤起体验方面做得很好。注意仰起的头。
Figure 2-40. This Is Cinerama. This is an artist’s conception of the view of the giant screen from the audience. It does a good job of evoking the experience. Note the upturned heads.
颜色、对比度和色调
Color, Contrast, and Tone
直到 20 世纪 70 年代，人们一直坚持认为黑白电影比彩色电影更真实、更符合审美。就像无声电影比有声电影更纯粹的观点，或者 1.33 某种程度上是银幕尺寸的自然比例的观点一样，这种黑白至上的理论似乎是事后发明的，更多的是一种借口，而不是一种借口。前提。
Until the 1970s, the theory persisted that black-and-white film was somehow more honest, more esthetically proper, than color film. Like the idea that silent film was purer than sound film, or the notion that 1.33 was somehow the natural ratio of the screen dimensions, this theory of black-and-white supremacy seems to have been invented after the fact, more an excuse than a premise.
这并不是说多年来黑白对于电影艺术家来说不是一种很好的媒介：当然它是，而且它继续吸引着一些雄心勃勃的电影制片人的关注，最著名的是马丁·斯科塞斯（《愤怒的公牛》， 1980）、伍迪·艾伦（《曼哈顿》， 1979；泽利格， 1983）、史蒂文·斯皮尔伯格（《辛德勒的名单》， 1993）和乔治·克鲁尼（晚安，好运， 2005）。Pleasantville (1998) 将黑白与彩色之间的张力作为基本的美学原则。一旦后期制作数字化，彩色和黑白之间的区别就变得不那么重要了。从那时起，问题就不再是非此即彼的问题，而是两者兼而有之的问题了。数字中间片上的色彩校正提供了完全自由地调整帧的每个组件，以便轻松组合同一图像中的彩色和黑白并调整图像内的颜色。事实上，年轻的电影观众可能会想知道为什么我们要把彩色与黑白分开。
This is not to suggest that black-and-white wasn’t a great medium for film artists for many years: certainly it was, and it continues to attract the attention of a few ambitious filmmakers, most notably Martin Scorsese (Raging Bull, 1980), Woody Allen (Manhattan, 1979; Zelig, 1983), Steven Spielberg (Schindler’s List, 1993), and George Clooney (Good Night, and Good Luck, 2005). Pleasantville (1998) made tension between black-and-white and color its basic esthetic principle. Once post-production was digitized, the differentiation between color and black-and-white became much less significant. From that point on it wasn’t a question of either/or but of both/and. Color correction on a digital intermediate offers complete freedom to adjust each component of the frame so that it is easy to combine color and black-and-white in the same image and adjust colors within the image. Indeed, younger filmgoers might wonder why we even separate color from black-and-white.
图 2-41。长袍。维克多·迈彻（Victor Mature）和他的团队以广阔的风景和更大的戏剧为背景。（现代艺术博物馆/英国金融服务管理局。）
Figure 2-41. The Robe. Victor Mature and cohort set against a large landscape and a larger drama. (MOMA/FSA.)
黑白电影传达的视觉信息比彩色电影少得多，这种限制可以让我们更深入地参与电影体验的故事、对话和心理，而不是奇观。从艺术家的角度来看，黑白的限制对构图、色调和场景调度带来了更多的沟通挑战。
Black-and-white communicates significantly less visual information than color film, and that limitation can have the effect of involving us more deeply in the story, dialogue, and psychology of the film experience instead of the spectacle. From the artist’s point of view, the constraint of black-and-white poses a challenge to communicate more with composition, tone, and mise-en-scène.
然而，从电影摄影的早期开始，电影制片人就开始尝试色彩和声音。只是彩色胶片的技术复杂性阻碍了他们。1900 年至 1935 年间，引入了数十种色彩系统，其中一些取得了一定的成功。此外，二十世纪二十年代的许多“黑白”电影都使用有色材料来提供色彩维度。伊士曼二十年代后期的 Sonochrome 目录列出了诸如 Peach-blow、Inferno、Rose Dorée、Candle Flame、Sunshine、Purple Haze、Firelight、Fleur de Lis、Azure、Nocturne、Verdante、Acqua Green、Argent 和 Caprice 等优雅色调！
Yet filmmakers were experimenting with color, as with sound, from the earliest days of cinematography; only the technological complexity of color film held them back. Between 1900 and 1935, dozens of color systems were introduced and some gained moderate success. Many of the “black-and-white” films of the twenties, moreover, used tinted stock to provide a dimension of color. Eastman’s Sonochrome catalogue of the late twenties listed such elegant shades as Peach-blow, Inferno, Rose Dorée, Candle Flame, Sunshine, Purple Haze, Firelight, Fleur de Lis, Azure, Nocturne, Verdante, Acqua Green, Argent, and Caprice!
图 2-42。测量…。这五个标准胶片规格的样本是按真人大小复制的。35 毫米图像有四个链轮孔高。配乐是图像左侧的细线。16 毫米框架和 Super-8 毫米框架均为一个链轮高。16 毫米音轨位于图像右侧。（Super-8 mm 样本上没有配乐。）70 mm 和 IMAX 样本的图像面积分别是标准 35 mm 帧的 10 倍和 30 倍。IMAX 水平穿过摄像机和投影仪。框架有 15 个链轮孔宽。
Figure 2-42. GAUGE…. These five samples of standard film gauges are reproduced life-size. The 35 mm image is four sprocket holes high. The soundtrack is the thin line to the left of the image. The 16 mm frames and the Super-8 mm frames are each one sprocket high. The 16 mm soundtrack is to the right of the image. (There is no soundtrack on the Super-8 mm sample.) The 70 mm and IMAX samples offer 10 and 30 times the image area of the standard 35 mm frame, respectively. IMAX runs horizontally through the camera and projector. The frame is 15 sprocket holes wide.
图 2-43。视觉密度：显示扫描。_ 这幅来自 Showscan 营销手册的生动插图以图形方式展示了该过程的卓越敏锐度，它提供的视觉信息（由阴影区域表示）大约是传统 35 毫米胶片的十倍。两条带代表大约 1/8 秒的观看时间。70 毫米 60 fps Showscan 胶片以每帧 1/125 秒的速度拍摄；35毫米24帧/秒标准胶片以每帧1/50秒的速度拍摄，因此Showscan图像也更加清晰。从另一个角度来看，这张图显示了电影的标准媒介传达的信息是多么少。（比较图 2-44。）
Figure 2-43. VISUAL DENSITY: SHOWSCAN. This telling illustration derived from a Showscan marketing brochure demonstrates graphically the superior acuity of that process, which delivers about ten times as much visual information (represented by the shaded areas) as conventional 35 mm film. Both strips represent about 1/8 second of viewing. The 70 mm 60 fps Showscan film is photographed at 1/125-second per frame; the 35 mm 24 fps standard film is shot at 1/50-second per frame, so the Showscan image is also sharper. From another point of view, this illustration shows just how little information the standard medium of film communicates. (Compare Figure 2-44.)
然而，直到 1935 年，彩色三带工艺才向大多数电影制作人开放彩色摄影。*该系统使用三个独立的胶片条来记录洋红色、青色和黄色光谱。在处理过程中，由这些底片中的每一个制作单独的浮雕矩阵胶片，然后用于将每种颜色转移到释放上打印过程与彩色墨水打印非常相似。三片带系统很快被“三片装”系统所取代，其中所有三个底片都分层组合在一个带上。
It was 1935, however, before the Technicolor three-strip process opened up color photography to the majority of filmmakers.* This system used three separate strips of film to record the magenta, cyan, and yellow spectrums. In processing, separate relief matrix films were made from each of these negatives, and then were used to transfer each color to the release print in a process very similar to color ink printing. The three-strip system was soon replaced by the “tri-pack” system, in which all three negatives were combined in layers on one strip.
图 2-44。视觉密度：视频与视频_ 电影。_ 我们推断了 Showscan 插图，以表明以每秒 24 帧运行的 35 毫米胶片与以 30 fps 运行的模拟 525 行美国/日本视频（或以 25 fps 运行的 625 行欧洲视频）之间的差异。视频帧的尺寸经过计算，以说明标准视频的分辨率较差。我们能够用如此少的信息构建视觉体验，真是太了不起了！（有关视频分辨率的更多信息，另请参见图 6-16。）
Figure 2-44. VISUAL DENSITY: VIDEO VS. FILM. We have extrapolated the Showscan illustration to suggest the difference between 35 mm film running at 24 frames per second and analog 525-line American/Japanese video running at 30 fps (or 625-line European video running at 25 fps). The dimensions of the video frames have been calculated to illustrate the poorer resolution of standard video. It is remarkable that we can construct a visual experience with so little information! (See also Figure 6-16 for more on video resolution.)
1952 年，伊士曼柯达推出了一种带有遮蔽系统的彩色负片材料，可改善最终印刷品的色彩再现，而特艺彩色负片很快就被淘汰了。然而，特艺彩色染料转移印刷工艺仍在使用，因为许多电影摄影师认为染料转移技术比伊士曼的化学开发技术能产生更好、更精确的色彩。伊士曼化学印刷和 Technicolor 染料转移印刷之间的区别即使在今天对于专业人士来说也是显而易见的。与 Eastman 印刷相比，Technicolor 印刷具有更凉爽、更平滑、更微妙的外观。此外，染料转移印花可以更长时间地保持色彩值。
In 1952 Eastman Kodak introduced a color negative material with a system of masking that improved color renditions in the final print, and Technicolor negatives quickly became obsolete. The Technicolor dye-transfer printing process remained in use, however, since many cinematographers felt that the dye-transfer technique produced better and more precise colors than Eastman’s chemical development. The difference between an Eastman chemical print and a Technicolor dye-transfer print is even today evident to professionals. The Technicolor print has a cooler, smoother, more subtle look to it than the Eastman print. Moreover, the dye-transfer print will maintain color values for a far longer time.
Technicolor 于 20 世纪 70 年代末关闭了其在美国的最后一个染料转移实验室。该系统在中国经常使用（其中Technicolor 在美国承认中国后不久就建立了一家工厂，直到 1992 年。几乎在西方世界逐步淘汰染料转移工艺的同时，胶片档案管理员和技术人员开始意识到 Eastmancolor 的重大问题过程。颜色褪色得非常快，并且彼此之间的关系永远不一样。除非保留特艺彩色染料转移印刷品或昂贵的三带黑白彩色唱片，否则五十年代、六十年代、七十年代和八十年代的大多数彩色胶片都会恶化到无可救药的地步——如果还没有的话。
Technicolor closed the last of its dye-transfer labs in the United States in the late 1970s. The system was regularly employed in China (where Technicolor built a plant soon after the recognition of China by the U.S.) until 1992. At almost the same time that the dye-transfer process was being phased out in the Western world, film archivists and technicians were becoming aware of significant problems with the Eastmancolor process. The colors fade very quickly and never in the same relationship to each other. Unless Technicolor dye-transfer prints, or expensive three-strip black-and-white color records have been preserved, most color films of the fifties, sixties, seventies, and eighties will deteriorate beyond help—if they haven’t already.
我们认为电影是一种永久的媒介，但这在理论上比在实践中更正确。例如，你今天可以租到米开朗基罗·安东尼奥尼的《红色沙漠》 （1964）的拷贝，但你不太可能看到当年以其视觉活力给电影观众留下深刻印象的同一部电影。您可能想知道这些大惊小怪的原因是什么。（你必须相信我：《红色沙漠》对色彩心理学来说是一次令人惊叹的练习。）你可能会在某个地方观看泰伦斯·马利克的《天堂之日》（Days of Heaven，1978），但很可能不会是 70 毫米，当然，精美的色彩已经褪色，你可能会打哈欠走出去。（请再次相信我，《天堂之日》是美国中西部的生动写照，充满了清晰的意象。）
We think of film as a permanent medium, but that’s true more in theory than in practice. You can rent a print today of Michelangelo Antonioni’s Red Desert (1964), for example, but it’s highly unlikely that you’ll see the same film that so impressed filmgoers with its visual élan back then. You’re likely to wonder what all the fuss was about. (You’ll have to trust me: Red Desert was a breathtaking exercise in the psychology of color.) You may catch a screening of Terrence Malick’s Days of Heaven (1978) somewhere, but chances are it won’t be in 70 mm, the exquisite colors have faded, of course, and you’re likely to walk out yawning. (Trust me again, Days of Heaven was an exuberant portrait of the American Midwest, dense with eidetic imagery.)
保存问题不仅限于颜色和版式：如果您还没有看过《公民凯恩》或《长眠不醒》等经典作品的硝酸银照片（或至少是用硝酸盐负片新制作的 35 毫米照片），那么您可能会严重低估了这些电影意象的力量。事实上，现在大多数 20 年代、1930 年代和 1940 年代电影的印刷材料都状况不佳，以至于一代又一代的电影学生不得不透过黑暗的玻璃来看待电影史。正如我们所指出的，20 世纪 30 年代末和 1940 年代的彩色经典作品并非如此。这些电影的新拷贝非常接近于再现原始的外观和感觉。
Preservation problems are not confined to color and format: if you haven’t seen a silver-nitrate print (or at least a 35 mm print newly struck from the nitrate negative) of classics like Citizen Kane or The Big Sleep, you are liable to underestimate seriously the power of the imagery of these films. Indeed, most of the print material now available for films from the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s is in such poor condition that generations of film students are sentenced to look at film history through a glass, darkly. As we’ve noted, this is not true of Technicolor classics from the late 1930s and 1940s. New prints of these films come very close to reproducing the original look and feel.
自从 20 世纪 80 年代中期彩色化出现以来，还有一个额外的问题需要处理：每次在电视上打开老电影时，您都必须查阅历史书，看看您正在观看的是否是原版。新上色的黑白胶片看起来并不比严重褪色的原始彩色胶片（或保存不良的黑白电视拷贝）差多少，但这不是重点。马丁·斯科塞斯和其他人联合起来抗议着色的做法。在我看来，他们做得还不够：恢复壮丽的黑色同样必要20 世纪 30 年代和 1940 年代的浅色和白色硝酸盐，以及 1950 年代、1960 年代和 1970 年代褪色的 Eastmancolor。
Since the advent of colorization in the mid-1980s, there’s an additional problem to deal with: every time you turn on an old movie on television you have to check the history books to see if what you’re watching is the original. Newly colorized black-and-white films don’t look much worse than badly faded original-color films (or poorly preserved black-and-white television prints), but that’s not the point. Martin Scorsese and others have united to protest the practice of colorization. It seems to me they don’t go far enough: it’s just as necessary to restore the magnificent black -and-white nitrates of the 1930s and 1940s and the faded Eastmancolor of the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s.
图 2-45。对比度范围。_ _ 这一系列摄影照片显示了从非常微妙、狭窄的灰色到近乎纯粹的黑白的各种对比度。(JM)
Figure 2-45. CONTRAST RANGE. This series of photographic prints displays a wide range of contrasts from very subtle, narrow grays to nearly pure black and white. (JM)
胶片之所以容易受到这些老年问题的影响，是因为它是一种化学技术。随着电子技术取代化学技术，保留艺术家的原始意图将不再是问题。我们能否将过去褪色的遗迹恢复到原来的视觉效果还有待观察。“重新着色”是一个有趣的概念，但颜色是一种明显的心理现象：一个男人的蓝色是另一个女人的绿色（但如果你是同性恋，它可能是青色），记忆比伊士曼股票褪色得更快。
Film is subject to these geriatric problems because it is a chemical technology. As electronics replaces chemistry, preservation of the artist’s original intent will be much less problematic. Whether or not we can restore the original visuals to the faded relics of the past remains to be seen. “Recolorization” is an intriguing concept, but color is a distinctly psychological phenomenon: one man’s blue is another woman’s green (but if you’re gay, it may be teal), and memories fade faster than Eastman stock.
1952 年之前，黑白是标准格式，彩色是为特殊项目保留的。1955 年至 1968 年间，两者的受欢迎程度大致相当。自 1968 年出现更快、更真实的彩色胶片以来，彩色已成为常态，这是一部罕见的黑白美国电影。其原因既与经济有关，也与美学有关。彩色电视的普及使得电影制片人使用黑白电视面临风险，因为电视、VHS 和 DVD 的转售价值都受到了影响。
Before 1952, black-and-white was the standard format, and color was reserved for special projects. Between 1955 and 1968 the two were about equal in popularity. Since 1968, when much faster, truer color stock became available, color has become the norm and it is a rare American film that is shot in black-and-white. The reasons for this have as much to do with economics as with esthetics. The popularity of color television made it risky for film producers to use black-and-white, since the resale value to television, VHS, and then DVD was affected.
如果我们暂时只讨论黑白摄影，我们可以更好地分离出胶片的其他两个重要维度：对比度和色调。*当我们谈到“黑白”时，我们实际上并不是在谈论双色系统，而是在谈论完全没有色彩值的图像。“黑白”中还剩下什么图片是对比度和色调的相关变量：图像各个区域的相对暗度和明度，以及暗部和亮部之间的关系。
If we limit ourselves for the moment to a discussion of black-and-white photography, we can better isolate two other dimensions of filmstock that are significant: contrast and tone.* When we speak of “black-and-white,” we are not really talking about a two-color system, but rather about an image deprived entirely of color values. What remains in the “black-and-white” picture are the related variables of contrast and tone: the relative darkness and lightness of the various areas of the image, and the relationship between the darks and the lights.
图 2-46。低对比度。_ _ 没有纯种黑人或纯种白人；灰色为主。卢奇诺·维斯康蒂 (Luchino Visconti) 的《工作》(The Job) 中的罗密·施奈德(Boccaccio 70, 1963)。
Figure 2-46. LOW CONTRAST. No pure blacks or whites; grays predominate. Romy Schneider in Luchino Visconti’s “The Job” (Boccaccio 70, 1963).
人眼的视网膜与胶片不同，首先在于它能够适应更广泛的亮度，其次在于它能够区分两种接近的亮度色调。电影在这两方面都是一种有限的媒介。特定胶片可以记录的亮度色调范围（从纯白色到纯黑色）在技术上称为其“纬度”。它区分接近色调的能力被称为胶片的“伽玛”。照片可分离的色调越少，照片就越粗糙。在最极端的情况下，只能看到黑色和白色，并且影片将把两者之间的所有阴影呈现为其中一种或另一种。库存的辨别能力越强，摄影的色调就越微妙。图 2-48以图形方式显示了这一点：低对比度照片是指色调值范围非常窄的照片。色调和对比度与纹理密切相关，因此可以看到色调值的最佳范围胶片具有最细的颗粒，因此具有最高的分辨率。
The retina of the human eye differs from film, first in its ability to accommodate a wider range of brightnesses, and second in its ability to differentiate between two close shades of brightness. Film is a limited medium in both respects. The range of shades of brightness, from pure white to pure black, that a particular filmstock can record is technically referred to as its “latitude.” Its ability to differentiate between close shades is called the “gamma” of the film stock. The fewer the number of shades that the stock can separate, the cruder the photograph will be. At its most extreme limit, only black and white will be seen, and the film will represent all the shadings in between as either one or the other. The more ability the stock has to discriminate, the more subtle the tone of the photography. Figure 2-48 shows this graphically: a low-contrast photograph is one in which the scale of tonal values is very narrow. Tone and contrast are closely associated with grain, so that the best range of tonal values is seen in filmstocks with the finest grain and therefore the highest resolution power.
图 2-47。高对比度。_ _ 黑人和白人是极端价值观；之间的灰度范围是有限的。英格丽德·图林. 约尔根·林德斯特罗姆 (Jörgen Lindstrom) 出演英格玛·伯格曼 (Ingmar Bergman) 的《沉默》 (1963)。
Figure 2-47. HIGH CONTRAST. Blacks and whites are extreme values; the range of grays between is limited. Ingrid Thulin. Jörgen Lindstrom in Ingmar Bergman’s The Silence (1963).
处理技术的进步极大地扩展了标准胶片的范围。尽管特定的胶片被设计为在某些化学参数（例如显影时间）内产生最高质量的图像，但到了六十年代末，当需要更高的灵敏度时，“推动”胶片显影已成为常见的做法。通过比标准更长的时间进行开发，实验室可以有效地扩展股票的宽容度，使其敏感度比其暴露评级可能显示的敏感度高两倍甚至三倍。完成此操作后，颗粒会增加，并且对于彩色库存，会出现色彩再现方面的额外问题，但伊士曼彩色负片具有足够的固有宽容度，因此可以将其推至一档（灵敏度加倍）甚至两档（四倍） ）而图像质量没有显着损失。正如人们所预料的那样，灵敏度的最大损失发生在对比度范围内可用光线最少的点（例如，在场景的阴影中）。对比度、色调和曝光宽容度都是电影照明中的重要因素。随着高速彩色胶片的出现，推动电影摄影技术发展的技术在四分之三个多世纪后达到了一个阶段，胶片可能接近人眼的敏感度。数字传感器更进一步，提供相当于夜视的功能。现在，电影制片人几乎可以在任何看得见的条件下（以及一些看不到的条件）进行拍摄。但在电影史的前七十五年里，情况并非如此。
Advances in processing techniques have greatly expanded the latitude of standard filmstocks. Although a particular stock is designed to produce the highest-quality image within certain chemical parameters such as development time, it had become common practice by the late sixties to “push” film in development when greater sensitivity was needed. By developing for a longer time than the standard, a laboratory could effectively stretch the latitude of the stock to make it two or even three times more sensitive than its exposure rating might indicate. Grain increases when this is done, and with color stocks there are extra problems with color rendition, but Eastman Color Negative, for example, has enough inherent latitude so that it can be pushed one stop (doubled in sensitivity) or even two stops (quadrupled) without significant loss in image quality. The greatest loss in sensitivity, as one might expect, occurs at the point in the contrast scale where there is least light available—in the shadows of a scene, for example. Contrast, tone, and exposure latitude are all important factors in the matter of film lighting. With the advent of high-speed color filmstock, the techniques of pushing the technology of cinematography reached a point, after more than three-quarters of a century, where film might approximate the sensitivity of the human eye. Digital sensors take this a step further, providing the equivalent of night vision. It is now possible for filmmakers to shoot under almost any conditions in which they can see (and some in which they can’t). But this was hardly the case during the first seventy-five years of film history.
图 2-48。伽玛。_ 这里的曲线被称为胶片乳液的“特性”。完美的乳液应具有一条直线特征曲线。也就是说，曝光量每增加一次，所获得的负片的密度就会增加一次。然而，没有乳液具有这样的曲线，并且当今使用的大多数乳液都显示出类似的曲线。曲线相对平坦的区域是乳剂的可用对比度范围。更重要的是，该曲线的斜率 (x) 是乳液“对比度”或潜在对比度的度量。例如，由曲线a表示的乳液具有比曲线b更大的电位对比度。换句话说，乳液a将能够更好地区分两个相似的亮度值。准确地说，乳液的伽马值等于 tan x（斜率角度的正切）。如果您有 Photoshop 的副本，您可以通过调整“曲线”来尝试伽玛值。
Figure 2-48. GAMMA. The curved line here is called the “characteristic” of a film emulsion. A perfect emulsion would have a characteristic curve which was a straight line. That is, for every equal increase in exposure there would be an equal increase in the density of the negative obtained. No emulsion, however, has such a curve, and most emulsions in use today show a similarly curved line. The area in which the curve is relatively flat is the usable contrast range of the emulsion. More important, the slope of this curve (x) is a measure of the “contrastiness”—or potential contrast—of the emulsion. The emulsion represented by curve a, for example, has a greater potential contrast than that of curve b. In other words, emulsion a will better be able to distinguish between two similar luminance values. The gamma of an emulsion, precisely, is equal to tan x (the tangent of the angle of the slope). If you have a copy of Photoshop you can experiment with gamma by adjusting “curves.”
最早的黑白乳剂是“单色”的——仅对蓝色、紫色和紫外线敏感。到 1873 年，人们找到了一种将敏感光谱扩展到绿色的方法，绿色是我们的眼睛对它最敏感的颜色。这就是所谓的正色胶片。全色胶片于 1903 年开发出来，它对可见光谱的所有颜色都有相同的响应，但直到二十多年后它才成为电影行业的标准。第一批使用全色胶片的电影包括罗伯特·弗莱厄蒂的《莫阿娜》（1925 年）以及库珀和舍德萨克的《张》（1926 年）。如果没有全色胶片，暖色（例如面部色调）的再现效果非常差，因此电影制片人需要蓝白色范围内的光源。除了太阳本身之外，这种光源的唯一来源就是巨大而昂贵的弧光灯。随着黑白照片变得更加敏感以及全色乳剂的引入，更便宜、更便携的白炽灯开始可用；但当电影制片人开始处理色彩时，他们不得不重新使用弧光灯——这既是因为色彩库存要慢得多，也是因为有必要再次严格控制光源的“色温”。
The earliest black-and-white emulsions were “monochromatic”—sensitive only to blue, violet, and ultraviolet light. By 1873, a way had been found to extend the spectrum of sensitivity to green, the color to which our eyes are most sensitive. This was the so-called Orthochromatic film. Panchromatic film, which responds equally to all the colors of the visible spectrum, was developed in 1903, but it was not until more than twenty years later that it became standard in the film industry. Among the first films to use panchromatic stock were Robert Flaherty’s Moana (1925) and Cooper and Schoedsack’s Chang (1926). Without panchromatic film, warm colors, such as facial tones, reproduced very poorly, so the filmmaker had need of a light source in the blue-white range. Besides the sun itself, the only source of this kind of light was the huge, expensive arc lamp. As black-and-white stock became more sensitive and panchromatic emulsions were introduced, cheaper and more mobile incandescent lamps became usable; but when filmmakers began working with color, they had to return to arc lamps—both because the color stock was much slower and because it became necessary, once again, to maintain strict control of the “color temperature” of the light source.
图 2-49。现代单色。_ _ 大卫·斯特雷泽恩在乔治·克鲁尼的《晚安，好运》中饰演爱德华·R·默罗。高调的灯光呼应了默罗作品的道德要求，罗伯特·埃尔斯威特的黑白电影摄影将故事与当时的档案电视镜头结合起来。
Figure 2-49. MODERN MONOCHROME. David Strathairn as Edward R. Murrow in George Clooney’s Good Night, and Good Luck. The high-key lighting echoes the moral imperative of Murrow’s work, as the black-and-white cinematography by Robert Elswit unifies the story with the archival television footage of the time.
除了亮度、色调和对比度之外，色温或色调只是色库必须计算的变量之一。其他是饱和度和强度。可见色调的范围从深红色（最暖）到深紫色（最冷），到橙色、黄色、绿色、蓝色和靛蓝色。颜色的饱和度是对其数量的衡量——同一种颜色的色调可以是淡的，也可以是浓的；强度或亮度是传输光量的度量（颜色与黑白共享此元素）。
Color temperature, or hue, is only one of the variables that must be calculated for color stock in addition to brightness, tone, and contrast. The others are saturation and intensity. The range of visible hues runs from deep red (the warmest) to deep violet (the coolest), through orange, yellow, green, blue, and indigo. The saturation of the color is a measure of its amount—the same hue of a color can be either weak or strong; the intensity, or lightness, is a measure of the amount of light transmitted (color shares this element with black-and-white).
图 2-50。“颜色楔子”图形化地说明了颜色理论的三个主要变量之间的关系。这是覆盖整个光谱的全色实体的一部分。
Figure 2-50. The “Color Wedge” graphically illustrates the relationships among the three major variables of color theory. This is a section of the full color solid which covers the entire spectrum.
与黑白摄影中的对比度和宽容度一样，电影制片人在早期的彩色摄影中只有有限的参数。必须严格控制用于照亮拍摄对象的光源。在现实世界中，我们会无意识地调整光源的色温，但电影制片人必须直接补偿这些变化。如果与色温为 3200°K 的标准白炽光源一起使用，平衡为 6000° 开尔文（阴天的色温）的颜色库存将产生烦人的橙色图片。同样，在 5000°K 或 6000°K 天空下户外使用时，平衡为 3200°K 的库存会产生非常蓝色的图像。正如业余摄影师所知，可以使用滤镜来调整这些不平衡。此外，数字色彩校正现在大大有助于将电影摄影师从这些限制中解放出来。
As with contrast and latitude in black-and-white photography, the film-maker had only limited parameters within which to work in color in the early days. The source of the light used to illuminate the subject had to be rigidly controlled. In the real world, we make unconscious adjustments for the color temperature of a light source, but the filmmaker must compensate for these variations directly. A color stock balanced for 6000° Kelvin (the color temperature of an overcast sky) will produce an annoyingly orange picture if used with standard incandescent light sources with a color temperature of 3200°K. Likewise, a stock balanced for 3200°K will produce a very blue image when used outdoors under a 5000°K or 6000°K sky. As amateur photographers know, filters can be used to adjust for these imbalances. Moreover, digital color correction now goes a long way to freeing the cinematographer from these limitations.
图 2-51。原色理论。_ _ _ _ 出于心理原因，可见光谱的所有颜色都可以通过三种所谓的原色的组合来再现。“加色”原色是红色、蓝色和绿色。“减色”原色是洋红色（红蓝色）、青色（蓝绿色）和黄色。光谱中的所有颜色一起产生白光，就像完全没有颜色产生黑色一样。如果从白光束中减去洋红色和黄色，结果就是红色。如果红色和绿色光束加在一起，结果是黄色，依此类推。这没有数学上的理由；这是一个心理难题。
Figure 2-51. PRIMARY COLOR THEORY. For psychological reasons all colors of the visible spectrum can be reproduced by the combination of three so-called primary colors. The “additive” primaries are red, blue, and green. The “subtractive” primaries are magenta (redblue), cyan (blue-green), and yellow. All the colors of the spectrum together produce white light, just as complete absence of color yields black. If both magenta and yellow are subtracted from a beam of white light, the result is red. If both red and green beams are added together, the result is yellow, and so on. There is no mathematical reason for this to be; it’s a psychological conundrum.
原声带
The Soundtrack
声音的记录大致与图像的记录平行：麦克风实际上是一个过滤声音的透镜；录音机与相机大致比较；声音和图像都是线性录制的，并且可以在以后进行编辑。但有一个显着的区别：由于我们感知它们的方式不同，声音必须连续记录，而图像则离散记录。“视觉暂留”的概念没有听觉上的等价物，这就是为什么我们没有“静止声音”来与静止图像进行比较的原因之一。声音必须及时存在。
The recording of sound is roughly parallel to the recording of images: the microphone is, in effect, a lens through which sound is filtered; the recorder compares roughly with the camera; both sound and picture are recorded linearly and can be edited later. But there is one significant difference: because of the contrasting manners in which we perceive them, sound must be recorded continuously, while pictures are recorded discretely. The concept of “persistence of vision” does not have an aural equivalent, which is one reason why we don’t have “still sounds” to compare with still pictures. Sound must exist in time.
由此推论，我们不能像将电影摄影应用于视觉信息那样将录音设备应用于听觉信息。胶片可以拉伸或压缩时间，这在科学上是有用的，但声音必须存在于时间中，压缩或压缩是没有意义的。拉伸它。声音早在 20 世纪 70 年代就已数字化。数字录音可以以更快或更慢的速度播放，但是当我们改变模拟录音的速度时，我们也会改变声音的质量。
A corollary of this is that we cannot apply sound recording devices to aural information in the same way we can apply cinematography to visual information. Film can stretch or compress time, which is useful scientifically, but sound must exist in time, and it is pointless to compress or stretch it. Sound was digitized as early as the 1970s. Digital recordings can be played back at a faster or slower rate, but when we change the speed of an analog recording we change the quality of the sound as well.
声音和图像的结合是电影发明者最初的梦想，但由于技术和经济原因被推迟到 1920 年代末。只要以线性、不连续的方式记录图像，以循环、连续的方式记录声音，声音和图像的同步问题就无法克服。Lee De Forest 于 1906 年发明的三极管，首次使得将声音信号转换为电信号成为可能。然后，电信号可以转换成可以印在胶片上的光信号。然后，两个平行的印刷品——声音和图像——可以很容易地“结合”在一起，这样它们就永远同步，即使胶片破裂并必须拼接。这本质上是德国的 Tri-Ergon 系统，早在 1919 年就获得了专利。这种光学声音系统至今或多或少没有变化。
The union of sound and image, the original dream of the inventors of cinema, was delayed for technological and economic reasons until the late 1920s. So long as image was recorded in a linear, discontinuous mode and sound was recorded in a circular, continuous mode, the problem of synchronization of sound and image was insurmountable. Lee De Forest’s audion tube, invented in 1906, made it possible for the first time to translate sound signals into electrical signals. The electrical signals could then be translated into light signals that could be imprinted on film. Then the two prints—sound and image—being parallel, could easily be “married” together so that they were always and forever synchronous, even if the film broke and had to be spliced. This was essentially the German Tri-Ergon system that was patented as early as 1919. This optical sound system has existed more or less unchanged to the present.
自 1926 年有声电影诞生以来的二十年里，电影制片人一直受到片场录音所需的笨重且嘈杂的机电设备的困扰。尽管便携式光学录音机很快问世，但现场录音仍不被鼓励。然而，在四十年代末，随着磁记录的发展，胶片技术又实现了一次巨大的飞跃。磁带比胶片更容易使用，也更紧凑，并且由于晶体管的存在，录音设备本身现在变得又小又轻。一般来说，磁带产生的信号质量也比光学音带好得多。如今，磁录音已经完全取代了片场的光学录音，尽管光学配乐在影院中仍然比磁性配乐更常见。（见图2-70。）这样做是有充分理由的：光学音轨可以与图像轨道一起快速轻松地打印，而磁性音轨必须单独录制。此外，光学音带技术的发展表明，磁记录目前相对于光学记录所具有的一些优势可能是匹配的：可变密度和可变色调的光学音轨可以消除粗暴处理的影响，提供更高的保真度，并且可以也适用于立体声和多声道系统。然而，由于其在处理、编辑和混合方面的优势，磁带（以及现在的数字磁盘存储）仍然是片场和实验室的首选介质。
For twenty years after the sound film was born in 1926, filmmakers were hampered by the bulky and noisy electromechanical equipment necessary to record sound on the set. Even though portable optical recorders were soon available, recording on location was discouraged. In the late forties, however, the technology of film took another quantum leap with the development of magnetic recording. Tape is easier to work with than film, more compact, and, thanks to transistors, the recording devices themselves are now small and lightweight. Magnetic tape, in general, also produces a much better quality signal than an optical soundtrack does. Today, magnetic recording has entirely replaced optical recording on the set, although the optical soundtrack is still more common than the magnetic soundtrack in theaters. (See Figure 2-70.) There is good reason for this: optical soundtracks can be printed quickly and easily along with image tracks, while magnetic soundtracks must be recorded separately. Developments in optical soundtrack technology, moreover, suggest that some of the advantages that magnetic recording now enjoys over optical recording might be matched: variable-density and variable-hue optical soundtracks could eliminate the effects of rough handling, providing a higher fidelity, and could also be adapted to stereophonic and multiphonic systems. Because of its advantages in handling, editing, and mixing, however, magnetic tape—and now digital disk storage—remain the mediums of choice on the set and in the laboratory.
图 2-52。杜比效果。_ _ _ _ 任何记录介质(A)都固有一定量的基本表面噪声。当记录信号的电平足够高时，它不会出现任何问题，但它会掩盖信号的较弱部分。杜比系统在录制过程中增强较弱的信号 (B)，然后在播放过程中将其降低到适当的水平，从而减少录制的表面噪声 (C)。
Figure 2-52. THE DOLBY EFFECT. A certain amount of basic surface noise is inherent in any recording medium (A). It presents no problem when the level of the recorded signal is high enough, but it masks out the weaker parts of the signal. The Dolby system boosts the weaker signal during recording (B), then reduces it to its proper level during playback, thus reducing the recorded surface noise along with it (C).
您可能认为 DVD 等数字发行媒体已经消除了这些问题。离得很远。MPEG-2 和 MPEG-4 是 DVD 和 HDTV 的标准编码系统，将声音信号与视频信号分开，从而常常导致相当明显的同步错误。
You may think that digital distribution media like DVD have obviated these problems. Far from it. MPEG-2 and MPEG-4, the standard encoding systems for DVD and HDTV, keep the sound signal separate from the video signal resulting often in quite noticeable synchronization errors.
麦克风是音响系统的透镜，是信号通过的第一道闸门。然而，与光学透镜不同的是，它还将信号转换为电能，然后可以通过磁性方式记录在磁带或磁盘上。（回放系统的工作原理正好相反：磁势能转化为电能，然后由扬声器进一步转化为物理声音。）由于声音是记录在与拍摄图像物理上分离的磁带上，因此必须有某种同步方法他们俩。这是通过直接机械联动，或通过承载定时脉冲的电缆连接，或通过晶体同步发生器来实现的，晶体同步发生器通过使用晶体时钟产生精确定时的脉冲。该脉冲调节两个独立电机的速度，使它们保持精确同步。然后，声音记录被转移到磁性涂层胶片上，其中链轮孔提供编辑过程中所需的精确时间控制。最后，投影胶片的印刷品通常以光学模式携带信号，但有时以磁性方式携带信号。70 毫米系统常见的立体声和“五音”5.1 音响系统几乎总是使用磁轨。
The microphone, the lens of the sound system, acts as the first gate through which the signal passes. Unlike the optical lens, however, it also translates the signal into electrical energy, which can then be recorded magnetically on tape or disk. (Playback systems work exactly the reverse: magnetic potential energy is translated into electrical energy which is further translated into physical sound by the loudspeaker.) Since sound is being recorded on a tape physically separate from the filmed image, there must be some method of synchronizing the two. This is accomplished either by a direct mechanical linkage, or by electrical cable connections that carry a timed impulse, or by a crystal sync generator, which produces a precisely timed pulse by using crystal clocks. This pulse regulates the speeds of the two separate motors, keeping them precisely in sync. The sound record is then transferred to magnetically coated film, where the sprocket holes provide the precise control over timing that is necessary in the editing process. Finally, the print of the film that is projected carries the signal, usually in the optical mode, but sometimes magnetically. Stereophonic and “quintaphonic” 5.1 sound systems common to 70 mm systems almost always use magnetic tracks.
有助于清晰准确地再现声音的变量与胶片的变量大致相当。幅度因子可以与胶片的曝光宽容度进行比较：幅度是信号强度的度量。磁带、录音机和麦克风协同工作应该能够再现各种幅度，从非常柔和到非常响亮。
The variables that contribute to the clear and accurate reproduction of sound are roughly comparable to the variables of filmstock. The factor of amplitude can be compared to the exposure latitude of filmstock: the amplitude is the measure of the strength of a signal. Tape, recorder, and microphone working in concert should be able to reproduce a wide range of amplitudes, from very soft to very loud.
其次重要的是频率范围，可直接与彩色胶片中可再现的色调范围进行比较。耳朵响应的正常频率范围是 20 到 20,000 赫兹（每秒周期）。好的高保真录音设备可以充分再现这个范围，但光学播放系统的频率响应范围要有限得多（平均为 100 到 7,000 赫兹）。
Next in importance is the frequency range, directly comparable to the scale of hues reproducible in color film. The normal range of frequencies to which the ear responds is 20 to 20,000 Hertz (cycles per second). Good high-fidelity recording equipment can reproduce this range adequately, but optical playback systems have a much more limited range of frequency response (100 to 7,000 Hertz, on the average).
记录介质和设备还应该能够再现广泛的和声，即那些赋予音乐和声音以肉体和生命的亚音。声音的谐波可以与图像的音质进行比较。信号应该没有哇音、颤动和其他类型的机械失真，并且设备应该具有令人满意的响应时间：即能够再现短时间的声音而不糊状。这就是声音信号的“分辨率”。
The recording medium and the equipment should also be able to reproduce a wide range of harmonics, those subtones that give body and life to music and voices. The harmonics of sound can be compared to the tonal qualities of an image. The signal should be free from wow, flutter, and other kinds of mechanical distortion, and the equipment should have a satisfactory response time: that is, the ability to reproduce sounds of short duration without mushiness. This is the “resolution” of the sound signal.
虽然立体图像会受到特殊的心理和身体问题的影响，从而显着降低其价值，但立体声相对没有这些问题，因此非常受欢迎。我们习惯于听到来自各个方向的声音。尽管我们对声音有选择性的关注，但我们并不像关注图像那样直接关注声音。电影声音应该能够再现整个听觉环境，即“声场”。
While stereoscopic images are subject to special psychological and physical problems that significantly reduce their value, stereophonic sound is relatively free of these problems and therefore highly desirable. We are used to hearing sound from every direction. Although we engage in selective attention to sounds, we don’t focus directly on a sound the way we focus on an image. Film sound should have the ability to reproduce the total aural environment, the “soundstage.”
20 世纪 70 年代，音乐行业开发的多轨录音技术的融合扩大了电影声音艺术的视野，例如，科波拉的《对话》 (1974) 和奥特曼的《纳什维尔》 (1975) 等复杂的配乐，都是在八声道录音机上制作的。轨道系统。七十年代中期杜比降噪和信号增强技术的应用也大大提高了电影声音的潜在保真度。杜比电子电路与胶片的闪光大致相当，即使是最好的磁带，也能降低固有的背景噪音，从而显着提高宽容度。它通过选择出现噪声的声谱区域并在录音期间增强该区域的信号电平来实现这一点。当播放期间信号降低到正常水平时，噪音也会随着音频信号而降低。
In the 1970s, the assimilation of multitrack recording techniques developed in the music industry expanded the horizons of the art of film sound—for example, such sophisticated soundtracks as Coppola’s The Conversation (1974) and Altman’s Nashville (1975), produced on an eight-track system. The application of Dolby techniques of noise reduction and signal enhancement in the mid-seventies greatly increased the potential fidelity of film sound as well. Roughly comparable to the flashing of filmstock, the Dolby electronic circuitry reduces the background noise inherent in even the best tape stock, thereby significantly enhancing the latitude. It does this by selecting out the area of the sound spectrum in which the noise occurs and boosting the signal level in that area during recording. When the signal is reduced to normal levels during playback, the noise is reduced along with the audio signal.
多年来，电影声音技术一直落后于家庭音响技术。在立体声成为唱片标准很久之后，许多电影都以单声道曲目发行。然而，从 20 世纪 80 年代开始，剧院业主开始更加关注高质量的声音再现。杜比和索尼率先推出了在基本胶片上录制多轨声音的巧妙方案。乔治·卢卡斯 (George Lucas) 的 THX 计划树立了标准用于高级音响系统。到 20 世纪 90 年代中期，复杂的声音再现已成为连锁影院的主要营销优势。
For years film sound technology had lagged behind home audio technology. Many films were released with monophonic tracks long after stereo became the standard for records. Beginning in the 1980s, however, theater owners began to pay more attention to quality sound reproduction. Dolby and Sony led the way with ingenious schemes for recording multitrack sound on basic filmstock. George Lucas’s THX program set the standard for advanced sound systems. By the mid-1990s sophisticated sound reproduction had become a major marketing advantage for theater chains.
后期制作
Post-Production
电影专业人士将他们的艺术创作过程分为三个阶段：前期制作、拍摄和后期制作。第一阶段是准备阶段——编写剧本、聘请演员和技术人员、规划拍摄时间表和预算。在另一种艺术中，这段准备时间相对缺乏创造性。但阿尔弗雷德·希区柯克（Alfred Hitchcock）认为电影制作过程中的这一阶段至关重要：他常说，一旦他设计了这部电影，它的执行就相对无聊。此外，在这种最昂贵的艺术中，明智而准确的计划往往决定着成功与失败。现在我们必须清楚，电影制作是一项复杂的工作，以至于现代系统设计对这一过程产生了显着的积极影响。例如，斯坦利·库布里克为他的电影项目创建的精心设计、精心组织的系统是他的作品中更有趣的方面之一。
Film professionals divide the process of their art into three phases: preproduction, shooting, and post-production. The first phase is preparatory—the script is written, actors and technicians hired, shooting schedules and budgets planned. In another art, this period of preparation would be relatively uncreative. But Alfred Hitchcock, for one, regarded this period of the film process as paramount: once he had designed the film, he used to say, its execution was comparatively boring. Moreover, in this most expensive of arts, intelligent and accurate planning often spells the difference between success and failure. It must be clear by now that making films is a complicated business—so much so that modern systems design has had a measurably positive effect on the process. The elaborate, carefully organized systems Stanley Kubrick created for his film projects, for example, were one of the more intriguing aspects of his work.
到目前为止，本章关于电影技术的所有讨论几乎都集中在电影制作的第二阶段：拍摄。然而，从某种意义上说，该过程的这一领域也可以被视为准备工作。射击产生的原材料仅在该过程的第三阶段被制成成品。剪辑通常被认为是电影艺术的支点，因为正是在这个过程中，电影最明显地将自己与竞争艺术区分开来。电影剪辑的理论将在第三章和第五章中讨论；在这里，我们将概述实践并描述所涉及的设备。在后期制作过程中，三项工作通常或多或少同时进行：剪辑；声音混合、增强和循环（或 ADR 和 Foley 工作）；以及实验室工作、光学和特效。可以想象，一部电影可以在几个小时内完成剪辑、混合和印刷。假设原始状态下的配乐和图像都令人满意，那么编辑只需将几个镜头从头到尾拼接起来即可。但很少有电影能如此简单，而且后期制作工作往往比电影的实际拍摄时间还要长。虽然被称为“后期制作”，但工作通常在拍摄期间开始并同时进行。
Nearly all the discussion in this chapter on film technology has so far centered on the second phase of film production: shooting. Yet there is a sense in which this area of the process can be seen as preparatory, too. Shooting produces the raw materials that are fashioned into finished products only in the third stage of the process. Editing is often regarded as the fulcrum of film art, since it is in this process that film most clearly separates itself from competing arts. The theory of film editing will be discussed in Chapters 3 and 5; here we will outline the practice and describe the equipment involved. Three jobs generally proceed more or less concurrently during post-production: editing; sound mixing, augmentation, and looping (or ADR and Foley work); and laboratory work, opticals, and special effects. A film could conceivably be edited, mixed, and printed within a few hours; assuming both the soundtrack and the picture in their raw state were satisfactory, the editing would be simply a matter of splicing a few takes end to end. But very few films are this simple, and post-production work often takes longer than the actual shooting of the film. Although it is called “post-production,” the work often begins during the shoot and runs concurrently.
编辑
Editing
镜头是影片构建的基本单位；从物理上来说，它被定义为一部完整的电影，动作的连续性不会中断。它可能持续长达十分钟（因为大多数胶片相机只能容纳十分钟的胶片）；它可能短至 1/24 秒（一帧）。《希区柯克的绳索》（Hitchcock's Rope，1948）被拍摄为连续镜头，米克洛什·扬索的大部分电影都是由全卷镜头组成（每部电影十到十二个），但标准的虚构故事片包含多达五百或一千个单独的镜头。在前数字时代，每个镜头都必须用水泥或胶带物理拼接到其前后的镜头上。*剪辑技巧包括在同一个镜头的两个或多个镜头之间进行选择，决定每个镜头应持续多长时间以及应如何标点符号，以及将配乐与编辑后的图像仔细匹配（反之亦然，如果配乐是首先编辑）。
The shot is the basic unit of film construction; it is defined, physically, as a single piece of film, without breaks in the continuity of the action. It may last as long as ten minutes (since most film cameras only hold ten minutes of film); it may be as short as 1/24 second (one frame). Hitchcock’s Rope (1948) was shot to appear as if it were one continuous take, and most of Miklós Jancsó’s films were composed of full-reel shots (ten or twelve per film), but the standard fictional feature comprises as many as five hundred or a thousand separate shots. In the pre-digital era each of the shots had to be physically spliced with cement or tape to the shots that preceded and followed it.* The craft of editing consists of choosing between two or more takes of the same shot, deciding how long each shot should last and how it should be punctuated, and matching the soundtrack carefully with the edited images (or vice versa, if the soundtrack is edited first).
在美国，直到六十年代中期，这项工作都是在立式编辑机上完成的，该机的主要品牌名称为 Moviola。另一种更为通用的配置——卧式或平板编辑台——由德国 UFA 工作室在二十世纪二十年代首创，并在二战前在整个欧洲广泛使用。由于胶片水平放置在桌面配置中的板上，而不是垂直放置在卷轴上，因此更容易处理。战后开发的旋转棱镜取代了间歇运动下拉机构，进一步增强了编辑台的多功能性，使其速度达到正常每秒二十四帧的五倍。
In America, until the mid-sixties, this work was accomplished on an upright editing machine generically known by the major brand name, Moviola. Another, much more versatile configuration—the horizontal, or flat-bed, editing table—had been pioneered by the UFA studios in Germany in the twenties and was widely used throughout Europe before World War II. Because the film rested horizontally on plates in the table configuration rather than vertically on reels, it was much easier to handle. The development after the war of the revolving prism to replace the intermittent-motion pull-down mechanism further enhanced the versatility of the editing table, allowing speeds up to five times the normal twenty-four frames per second.
在六十年代，部分由于纪录片制片人的影响，他们是最先认识到剪辑台巨大优势的人之一，剪辑台（Steenbeck 和 Kem 是两个重要的品牌名称）彻底改变了蒙太奇的过程。更现代的编辑表还允许对多达四个单独的图片和配乐进行即时比较，从而大大缩短了选择镜头所需的时间。纪录片制作人在剪辑时经常要检查大量的镜头，他们立即看到了其中的优势。例如，电影《伍德斯托克》（1970）的剪辑师面临着这场划时代音乐会的数百小时的镜头。即使使用分屏技术正如他们所做的那样，有必要将原始材料编辑到四个小时，如果没有编辑台的速度和多种功能，这一壮举确实非常困难。一部普通的虚构故事片可能会以十比一（或更多）的比例拍摄：也就是说，最终使用的每英尺需要拍摄十英尺的胶片。
During the sixties, partly due to the influence of documentary filmmakers who were among the first to recognize its great advantages, the editing table (Steenbeck and Kem were two important brand names) revolutionized the process of montage. The more modern editing tables also permitted instantaneous comparison of as many as four separate picture and soundtracks, thereby vastly shortening the time needed to make a choice of shots. Documentarians, who often have huge amounts of footage to examine while editing, saw the advantages immediately. The editors of the film Woodstock (1970), for example, were confronted with hundreds of hours of footage of that epochal concert. Even using split-screen techniques as they did, it was necessary to edit that raw material down to four hours, a feat that would have been very difficult indeed without the speed and multiple abilities of the editing table. A normal fictional feature might be shot at a ratio of ten to one (or more): that is, ten feet of film shot for every foot finally used.
图 2-53。预再生产。这些由莱昂·卡佩塔诺斯 (Leon Capetanos) 为保罗·马祖斯基 (Paul Mazursky) 的《暴风雨》 (1982) 绘制的故事板草图暗示了该序列的结构。关键如下。（保罗·马祖斯基提供。）
Figure 2-53. PRE-PRODUCTION. These storyboard sketches by Leon Capetanos for Paul Mazursky’s Tempest (1982) suggest the structure of the sequence. The key follows. (Courtesy Paul Mazursky.)
当然，如果图像被数字化，编辑过程的机制就会大大简化。哥伦比亚广播公司 (CBS) 在七十年代中期推出了第一个计算机化编辑系统。价格为100万美元。到了八十年代末，像 Avid 这样基于微型计算机的编辑系统，价格便宜了二十到五十倍，再次彻底改变了编辑艺术。到了 20 世纪 90 年代中期，基于计算机的编辑主导了这一乏味且耗时的艺术。
Of course, the mechanics of the editing process are greatly simplified if the images are digitized. CBS introduced the first computerized editing system in the mid-seventies. The price was $1 million. By the late eighties, microcomputer-based editing systems like the Avid, twenty to fifty times cheaper, were revolutionizing the art of editing once again. By the mid-1990s, computer-based editing dominated this tedious and timeconsuming art.
有趣的是，软件程序采用了编辑台的比喻，所以编辑之间的对话听起来和过去没什么区别。尽管基于计算机的编辑具有多功能性和灵活性，但数字化确实增加了几层复杂性，编辑人员现在必须担心“时间码”（将数字图像与胶片帧相匹配）和“编辑决策列表”（记录各种编辑选择），以及所有微型计算机技术。因此，仍然有一些老手坚持认为，他们可以在老式桌子上做得更好：感受股票从手指流过的感觉，并从呼呼的卷轴中感受到节奏。（有传言说史蒂芬·斯皮尔伯格仍然使用 Moviola。）
Interestingly, the software programs adopted the metaphor of the editing table, so conversations between editors sound much the same as they did in the past. Despite the versatility and flexibility of computer-based editing, digitization does add several layers of complexity, and editors now must worry about “timecodes” (which match the digital images to the film frames) and “Edit Decision Lists” (which record the various editorial choices), as well as all the technology of microcomputers. So there are still some oldtimers who maintain they can do a better job on an old-fashioned table: feeling the stock as it runs through their fingers, and sensing rhythms from the whirring reels. (There is a rumor that Steven Spielberg sill uses a Moviola.)
然而，当您必须花时间在多个垃圾箱中搜索以找到所需的素材而不是仅仅单击屏幕上列表中的项目时，很难相信您可以做得更好。
Yet it is hard to believe you can do a better job when you have to spend the time to search through multiple bins to find the footage you want rather than just click on an item in a list on the screen.
混合和循环
Mixing and Looping
配乐的编辑与图像的编辑有些不同。首先，由于各种原因，在设备上与图像同时录制的声音可能无法使用。虽然糟糕的照片完全没有用，必须重新拍摄，但糟糕的声音可以更容易地修复或更换。在称为后期配音或循环的过程中，几秒钟的电影被形成一个循环，在录音室中投影并重复多次，以便演员能够抓住场景的节奏，然后与观众同步说出他们的对话。图片。然后将其录制并拼接到原始音轨中。在八十年代，这一过程开始在片尾字幕中得到美化，缩写为
The editing of a soundtrack differs somewhat from the editing of images. First, for various reasons, the sound recorded on the set at the same time as the picture may not be usable. While a bad take of the picture is totally useless and must be reshot, a bad take of the sound can be much more easily repaired or replaced. In the process called post-dubbing, or looping, a few seconds of film are formed into a loop that is projected in a sound studio and repeated many times so the actors can catch the rhythm of the scene and then mouth their dialogue in synchronization with the image. This is then recorded and spliced into the original soundtrack. During the eighties, this process began to be glorified in credits with the acronym
图 2-54。后期制作。此流程图概述了当今常用的大多数后期制作系统。美国戏剧电影通常遵循实线的路径。以前这意味着观众看到的印刷品是第四代。欧洲戏剧电影通常是沿着传统后期制作的虚线路径制作的：观众看到的是质量更好的第二代印刷品。
Figure 2-54. POST-PRODUCTION. Most of the post-production systems commonly in use today are outlined in this flowchart. American theatrical films usually follow the path of the solid line. Formerly that meant that the print audiences saw was fourth generation. European theatrical films often were produced along the path of the dotted line in traditional post-production: audiences saw a second generation print of better quality.
数字后期制作将所需的生成次数减少到两代，尽管将模拟相机原始图像转换为数字图像并再转换回数字图像以发布印刷品会降低图像质量。
Digital post-production reduces the number of necessary generations to two, although the conversion of the analog camera original to digital and back again for a release print degrades the quality of the image.
“ADR”代表“附加对话录音”，但自有声电影出现以来，该方法一直保持不变。
“ADR,” for “additional dialogue recording,” but the method has remained the same since the advent of talkies.
这个过程以前比现在要普遍得多，因为磁带和后来数字录音的引入大大简化了录音技术。现场录音已成为规则而不是例外。然而，在意大利，长期以来的做法是对整部电影进行后期配音。费德里科·费里尼（Federico Fellini）就是其中之一，他因偶尔在场景拍摄后才懒得写对话而闻名，而是指导演员背诵数字（但带着感情！）。
This process was formerly much more common than it is today because sound recording techniques have been vastly simplified by the introduction first of magnetic tape and later digital recording. On-location recording has become the rule rather than the exception. It was long the practice in Italy, however, to post-dub the entire film. Federico Fellini, for one, was renowned for occasionally not even bothering to write dialogue until after the scene had been shot, directing his actors instead to recite numbers (—but with feeling!).
图 2-55A。传统的平板编辑台（例如图中所示的 Steenbeck）允许在多达三到四个图像和音轨之间进行比较。这个特定的表是为一个图片轨道和两个配乐而设置的。（W.斯汀贝克公司）
Figure 2-55A. Traditional flatbed editing tables, such as the Steenbeck pictured here, permitted comparisons between as many as three or four picture and sound tracks. This particular table is set up for one picture track and two soundtracks. (W. Steenbeck and Co.)
后期配音通常是将电影翻译成其他语言的有用技术。通常，以这种方式制作的配乐有明显的呆板和尴尬，但意大利人，正如人们所预料的那样——因为他们的做法是对所有电影进行后期配音——已经制作了一些相当过得去的外语配音工作。
Post-dubbing has generally been a useful technique for translating films into other languages. Usually, a soundtrack produced this way has a noticeable deadness and awkwardness to it, but the Italians, as might be expected—since their practice was to post-dub all films—have produced some quite passable foreign-language dubbing jobs.
繁琐的配音工作完成后，就可以对配乐进行混音了。这一过程与图像没有真正的等价物，尽管分屏技术和多重曝光可以一次向我们呈现多张图像，但这些多张图像很少被组合起来。遮罩技术和背投（见下文）提供了与混音更直接相当的等效效果，但它们相对很少使用。这种情况正在迅速改变，因为计算机对于电影剪辑师和作家来说都变得同样重要。现在编辑数字图像和编辑数字声音一样容易，电影剪辑师也成为了一名“混音师”，可以像现在将镜头首尾相连一样轻松地组合画面内的图片元素。
Once the tedious job of dubbing has been completed, the soundtrack can be mixed. This process has no real equivalent with images for, although split-screen techniques and multiple exposures can present us with more than one image at a time, those multiple images are seldom combined. Matte techniques and rear projection (see below) offer more directly comparable equivalents to sound mixing, but they are relatively rarely used. This is changing rapidly, as computers become as essential to film editors as they are to writers. Now that it’s as easy to edit digital images as it is to edit digital sounds, the film editor has become a “mixer” as well, combining picture elements within the frame with the same ease he or she now joins shots end to end.
到 1932 年，声音技术已经发展到重新录音很常见的程度，并且可以混合多达四个光学轨道。多年来，混音只是将预先录制的音乐、音效（复杂工艺的粗略术语）和对话结合起来。然而，在 20 世纪 60 年代，多轨磁记录仪大大扩展声音混合的潜力。单个单词或声音效果很容易拼接（这对于光学音轨来说很困难），可以通过多种不同的电子方式修改、增强或改变声音的质量，并且可以将数十个单独的音轨与声音组合在一起混音器完全控制每个轨道的所有美学变量。
By 1932 sound technology had developed to the point where rerecording was common, and it was possible to mix as many as four optical tracks. For many years, mixing consisted simply of combining prerecorded music, sound effects (a crude term for a sophisticated craft), and dialogue. However, in the 1960s the multiple-track magnetic recorder greatly expanded the potential of sound mixing. A single word or sound effect was easily spliced in (this was difficult with optical soundtracks), the quality of the sound could be modified, reinforced, or altered in many different ways electronically, and dozens of separate tracks could be combined, with the sound mixer in total control of all the esthetic variables of each track.
图 2-55B。计算机编辑套件（例如此处所示的 Avid）尝试模仿旧编辑台的物理设置。比较更快、更灵活。
Figure 2-55B. Computer editing suites, such as the Avid, shown here, try to mimic the physical setup of the old editing tables. Comparisons are quicker and much more flexible.
九十年代，混音和编辑艺术迅速数字化。数字录音机加入了其模拟前辈的行列，而混音和编辑则转移到了计算机上。由于音频行业在 20 世纪 80 年代已转向 CD 的数字发行格式，因此电影声音艺术现在完全数字化也就不足为奇了。与数字电影剪辑一样，旧的隐喻被保留下来，而且——是的——有些老前辈仍然认为他们可以用模拟电位器和面板做得更好。然而，到了 20 世纪 90 年代初，这种以前神秘的技术已为大多数使用电脑的孩子所熟悉，他们很快就在硬盘上塞满了自己对音频艺术的尝试。
In the nineties, the art of sound mixing and editing was quickly digitized. Digital recorders joined their analog predecessors on the set, while mixing and editing moved to the computer. Since the audio industry had converted to the digital distribution format of the CD in the 1980s, it isn’t surprising that the art of film sound is now thoroughly digital. As with digital film editing, the old metaphors have been retained, and—yes—there are oldtimers who still think they can do a better job with analog pots and panels. Yet, by the early 1990s, this formerly arcane technology was familiar to most kids with computers, who quickly filled up hard discs with their own attempts at audio art.
特殊效果
Special Effects
对于各种各样的活动来说，“特效”是一个相当乏味的标签，而每项活动都具有直接的创造潜力。特效技术基于三个前提：（1）胶片不需要连续拍摄，每一帧都可以单独拍摄；(2) 图纸、绘画和模型可以以假冒现实的方式拍摄；(3)图像可以组合。即使现在这么多效果工作都是以数字方式完成的，这些前提仍然成立。
“Special effects” is a rather dull label for a wide variety of activities, each of which has direct creative potential. The craft of special effects rests on three premises: (1) film need not be shot continuously, each frame can be photographed separately; (2) drawings, paintings, and models can be photographed in such a way that they pass for reality; (3) images can be combined. These premises hold true even now that so much effects work is done digitally.
第一个前提使动画艺术成为可能。动画的先驱是西洋镜和古老的“翻页书”，其中一系列图画被装订在一起，这样如果快速翻页，图像就会出现移动。但动画并不依赖于绘图，尽管大多数动画电影都是卡通。通过单独拍摄帧并在帧之间改变拍摄对象的位置，可以为模型甚至活人制作动画。这种动画技术称为“像素化”。至于卡通动画，卡通的各个部分都绘制在单独的透明片材（cel）上的赛璐珞技术使得整个过程比人们一开始想象的要灵活得多。一部 10 分钟的动画电影必须制作大约 14,400 张单独的图画，但如果背景保持不变，则可以将其绘制在单独的赛璐珞上，艺术家只需绘制那些应该在运动中看到的主题。
The first premise makes possible the art of animation. The precursors of animation were the Zoetrope and the age-old “flip book,” in which a series of drawings were bound together so that if the pages were flipped quickly the image appeared to move. But animation is not dependent on drawings, even though most animated films are cartoons. Models and even living figures can be animated by photographing frames individually and changing the position of the subject between frames. This animation technique is called “pixillation.” As for cartoon animation, the cel technique in which various sections of the cartoon are drawn on separate transparent sheets (cels) made the process much more flexible than one might at first think. Approximately 14,400 separate drawings must be made for a ten-minute animated film, but if the background remains constant then it can be painted on a separate cel and the artist need draw only those subjects that are meant to be seen in motion.
自 20 世纪 60 年代以来，计算机视频技术使动画变得更加灵活，因为计算机可以通过编程来即时生成各种图画，并在适当的时机准确地改变其形状。直到八十年代末，计算机动画还是专业领域。现在，与迄今为止电影行业的许多专有技术一样，动画已成为任何拥有 PC 的人所熟悉的工具。
Since the 1960s, computer video techniques have made animation even more flexible, since a computer can be programmed to produce a wide variety of drawings instantaneously and to change their shape accurately and with proper timing. Until the late eighties, computer animation was the province of the professional. Now, as with so many of the hitherto proprietary techniques of the film industry, animation has become a familiar tool to anyone with a PC.
随着硬件变得越来越强大、软件越来越复杂，动画师已经转向 3D 建模。这种技术是如此逼真，以至于动画和现实之间的界限被严重模糊了。如果没有 CGI（“计算机生成图像”）的快速发展，动作片和奇幻片不可能为好莱坞带来应有的票房收入。我们仍然使用真实的演员（暂时），但他们在此类电影中所居住的大部分世界都是由 CGI 比特和字节构建的。相反，动作捕捉技术可以记录和数字化真实演员的动作（然后随意操纵），使人类为动画服务。罗伯特·泽米吉斯的《极地快车》（2004）使用动作捕捉让汤姆·汉克斯扮演五个不同的角色。
As the hardware has grown more powerful and the software more sophisticated, animators have moved to 3-D modeling. This technique is so verisimilitudinous that the line between animation and reality has been seriously smudged. The Action and Fantasy films that have driven box-office for Hollywood in the oughts wouldn’t have been possible without the rapid development of CGI (“computer-generated images”). We still use real actors (for the time being) but much of the world they inhabit in such films is built out of CGI bits and bytes. Conversely, motion-capture technology, which allows the movements of real actors to be recorded and digitized (and then manipulated at will), puts the humans at the service of the animation. Robert Zemeckis’s The Polar Express (2004) used motion capture to allow Tom Hanks to play five different roles.
第二个前提产生了一系列称为微型或模型镜头和玻璃镜头的特效。微型摄影的成功取决于我们以比正常速度更快的速度运行相机的能力（称为“超速运转”）。一个两英寸的波，以正常速度传播，但以正常速度的四倍拍摄，当它以标准速率投影时，它看起来大约是四倍大（因此减慢了四倍）。微型摄影的经验法则是相机速度是比例的平方根；也就是说，四分之一比例的模型需要两倍于正常速度的相机速度。实际上，可用的最小微缩模型是 1/16 尺寸，甚至 1/4 尺寸微缩模型也会出现一些逼真度问题。
The second premise yields a series of special effects known as miniature or model shots and glass shots. The success of miniature photography depends on our ability to run the camera at faster than normal speeds (called “overcranking”). A two-inch wave, traveling at normal speed but photographed at four times normal speed, will appear to be approximately four times larger when it is projected at the standard rate (and therefore slowed down by a factor of four). The rule of thumb in miniature photography is that the camera speed be the square root of the scale; that is, a quarter-scale model will require a camera speed twice normal. In practice, the smallest miniatures that work are 1/16-size, and even 1/4-size miniatures present some problems of verisimilitude.
玻璃镜头可能是最简单的特效。该技术涉及在相机前面几英尺处放置一块玻璃，并在必须更改的场景区域上进行有效绘画。效果当然取决于画家的才华，但这种简单技术的真实例子却令人惊讶。
Glass shots are possibly the simplest of special effects. The technique involved placing a glass several feet in front of the camera and in effect painting over the area of the scene that must be changed. The effect depends of course on the talent of the painter, but surprisingly realistic examples of this simple technique exist.
第三个前提对于当代电影制作人来说可能是最富有成效的。利用这个想法的最简单方法是将另一个图像（背景）投影到演员和前景后面的屏幕上。数以千计的好莱坞出租车行程都是通过 1932 年推出的背投技术来拍摄的。（见图2-61。）然而，彩色的出现使得背投变得过时。彩色摄影需要更多的光线照射到拍摄对象上，这往往会冲淡背投图像。更重要的是，彩色图像提供了更多的视觉信息，这使得前景和背景的匹配变得更加困难。开发了两种技术来取代背投。
The third premise is possibly the most fruitful for contemporary filmmakers. The simplest way to make use of the idea is to project another image—the background—on a screen behind the actors and the foreground. Thousands of Hollywood taxi rides were filmed this way by the aid of rear projection, introduced in 1932. (See Figure 2-61.) The advent of color made rear projection obsolete, however. Color photography required a greater amount of light on the subject, which tended to wash out the rear-projected image. More important, the color image provides more visual information, which makes it much more difficult to match foreground and background. Two techniques were developed to replace rear projection.
正投采用由数百万个充当透镜的微小玻璃珠组成的定向屏幕，使屏幕能够将落在其上的多达 95% 的光线反射回光源。如图 2-62所示，这要求光源与相机镜头位于同一轴上，这个位置也可以消除屏幕上的阴影。这种定位是通过使用成 45° 角的半镀银镜来实现的。斯坦利·库布里克 (Stanley Kubrick) 的《2001：太空漫游》(2001: A Space Odyssey ) (1968)的正面投影得到了完善。（事实上，四十年后，这部电影仍然是现代特效的目录。）
Front projection utilizes a directional screen composed of millions of tiny glass beads that act as lenses, which enable the screen to reflect as much as 95 percent of the light falling on it back to the source. As can be seen in Figure 2-62, this requires that the source be on the same axis as the camera lens, a position that also eliminates shadows on the screen. This positioning is achieved by using a half-silvered mirror set at a 45° angle. Front projection was perfected for Stanley Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968). (That film, in fact, remains—four decades on—a catalogue of modern special effects.)
玻璃镜头和背投和正投是组合图像的技术，并在现场完成。然而，遮罩镜头和蓝屏（或移动遮罩）镜头是在实验室中制作的。固定遮罩镜头产生与玻璃镜头类似的效果。在实验室中，胶片被投影在一张白卡上，艺术家勾勒出要遮盖的区域并将其涂成黑色。然后拍摄该黑色轮廓（见图2-64），胶片冲洗后与投影仪中的原始镜头打包在一起，并制作一份副本，其中在每个帧中遮盖适当的区域。要添加到该区域的场景（连同第一个遮罩的反转）然后打印到原始场景的副本上，并对打印进行冲洗。
Glass shots and rear and front projection are techniques that combine images and are accomplished on the set. Matte shots and blue screen (or traveling matte) shots, however, are produced in the laboratory. Stationary matte shots produce an effect similar to the glass shot. In the laboratory, the film is projected on a white card and the artist outlines the area to be matted out and paints it black. This black outline (see Figure 2-64) is then photographed, and the film, after it is developed, is packed together with the original shot in the projector and a copy is made in which the proper area is matted out in each frame. The scene to be added to this area (together with a reversal of the first matte) is then printed onto the copy of the original scene, and the print is developed.
图 2-56。CEL动画。_ _ 经典动画使用 cel 技术来提高效率和准确性。图像被分为多个运动层，每一层都绘制在一个单独的透明纸上，称为“鳗鱼”（来自“赛璐珞”）。因此，一个场景只需绘制一次静止背景，可以快速执行简单的运动，并且可以特别注意孤立的复杂运动。在 RO Blechman 的《尼古拉斯·尼克比的一生与时代》 （1982 年）中的这个场景中，四个赛格 (AD) 叠加在背景 (E) 上。元素根据动作分为几组。（由 Seymour Chwast/Push Pin Studios 设计。由 The Ink Tank 提供。）
Figure 2-56. CEL ANIMATION. Classical animation uses the cel technique for efficiency and accuracy. The image is divided into layers of movement and each of those layers is drawn on a separate transparent sheet called a “eel” (from “celluloid”). Thus, the stationary background need be drawn only once for a scene, simple movements can be executed rapidly, and special attention can be paid to isolated, complex movements. In this scene from R. O. Blechman’s The Life and Times of Nicholas Nickleby (1982), four cels (A-D) are overlaid on the background (E). The elements are divided into groups according to the action. (Designed by Seymour Chwast/Push Pin Studios. Courtesy of The Ink Tank.)
移动遮光镜头取代了正投和背投镜头，并在彩色胶片开始主导该行业时开始使用。该过程本质上是这样的：将蓝色或绿色屏幕放置在前景动作后面，然后拍摄场景。由于背景颜色均匀且精确，因此可以通过滤镜复制胶片来制作“男性”和“女性”遮罩。蓝色或绿色滤光片只能让背景光，使前景动作空白并产生“女性”遮罩；红色滤镜会遮挡背景并仅曝光前景，产生黑色轮廓，即“男性”遮罩。然后可以使用女性遮罩，就像在固定遮罩技术中一样，在制作原始胶片的副本时遮挡蓝色背景，男性遮罩将精确遮挡已选择的背景场景的正确区域，然后可以将无光泽的背景和无光泽的前景组合起来。这是一个困难且严格的过程，但该技术已被运用到电视中，被称为“色度键”。它已成为电视的基本工具，不断用于将主题与动作结合起来。
Traveling matte shots replaced front and rear projection shots and came into use when color film began to dominate the industry. The process, essentially, is this: a blue or green screen is placed behind the foreground action, and the scene is photographed. Because the background color is uniform and precise, “male” and “female” mattes can be made by copying the film through filters. A blue or green filter would let through only the background light, leaving the foreground action blank and producing a “female” matte; a red filter would block out the background and expose only the foreground, producing a black silhouette, the “male” matte. The female matte can then be used, as in the stationary matte technique, to block out the blue background when a copy of the original film is made, the male matte will block out precisely the right areas of the background scene that has been chosen, and the matted background and matted foreground can then be combined. This is a difficult and exacting process but the technique has been carried over to television where it is called “chroma key.” It has become a basic tool of television, used constantly to integrate the subject with the action.
图 2-57。早期的计算机动画。_ _ 由于动画涉及管理大量数据，因此计算机已被证明是无价的。早期的程序有不同程度的复杂性，可以让简单的鳗鱼完成它们生动的步伐，就像卡尔·萨根（Carl Sagan）的《宇宙》 （1980）中压缩的进化历史一样。这幅画从一个阶段连续流畅地移动到另一个阶段，这在当时是一个奇迹。这些火柴人与无缝融入《侏罗纪公园》真人表演中的栩栩如生的恐龙群之间的差异体现了 20 世纪 80 年代计算能力的爆炸性增长。（James Blinn、Pat Cole、Charles Kohlhase，喷气推进实验室计算机图形实验室。）
Figure 2-57. EARLY COMPUTER ANIMATION. Since animation involves managing large quantities of data, computers have proven invaluable. The early programs, of varying degrees of sophistication, could take simple eels through their animated paces, as in this compressed history of evolution from Carl Sagan’s Cosmos (1980). The drawing moves continuously and smoothly from stage to stage, a wonder at the time. The difference between these stick figures and the lifelike herds of dinosaurs integrated seamlessly into the live action in Jurassic Park measures the explosive growth of computing power in the 1980s. (James Blinn, Pat Cole, Charles Kohlhase, jet Propulsion Laboratories Computer Graphics Lab.)
在这里，就像后期制作中的其他地方一样，计算机程序在很大程度上取代了电影制片人多年来开发的细致而艰苦的机械技术，用于调整和修改相机捕捉到的图像。现在，任何拥有副本的人都可以通过抠图来组合前景和背景Photoshop 可以做到。电影制片人自己也采取了下一个合乎逻辑的步骤，实际上是随意建模或转换他们拍摄的图像。这些被称为“变形”的变形在詹姆斯·卡梅隆的《终结者 2》（1991）中被介绍给普通观众（尽管在此之前它们已经在电视广告中得到了巨大的效果）。
Here, as just about everywhere else in post-production, computer programs have largely replaced the meticulous and painstaking mechanical techniques developed by filmmakers over the years to adjust and modify the images their cameras have captured. Combining foregrounds and backgrounds by matting is now something that anyone with a copy of Photoshop can do. And filmmakers themselves have taken the next logical step, actually modeling or transforming at will the images they have shot. These transformations, called “morphs,” were introduced to general audiences in James Cameron’s Terminator 2 (1991) (although they had been used to great effect in television commercials before then).
图 2-58。数学动画。_ _ 从 20 世纪 60 年代开始，约翰·惠特尼 (John Whitney) 和其他人首先探索了使用像这样的示波组合的抽象计算机化动画。他们建立了一种数学图像风格，这种风格已成为当代设计的共同主线，因为微型计算机的强大功能为每个桌面带来了类似的工具。这些画框取自 1992 年的《月鼓》。（画框放大，约翰·惠特尼提供。）
Figure 2-58. MATHEMATICAL ANIMATION. Beginning in the 1960s, John Whitney and others first explored abstract computerized animation with oscillographic compositions like this. They established a style of mathematical imagery that has become a common thread of contemporary design, as the power of the microcomputer brought similar tools to every desktop. These frames are from “Moon Drum,” 1992. (Frame enlargements, courtesy John Whitney.)
光学、实验室和邮局
Opticals, the Lab, and the Post House
传统上，实验室为电影制片人完成两项基本工作：第一是调整图像，使其更接近电影制片人拍摄时的想法；第二是调整图像，使其更接近电影制片人拍摄时的想法；第二种是添加一些称为“光学”的效果，通常用于标点符号的目的。
Traditionally, the laboratory has performed two basic jobs for the filmmaker: the first is to adjust the image so that it more closely approximates what the filmmaker had in mind while shooting; the second is to add a number of effects called “opticals,” usually for purposes of punctuation.
在色彩工作中，实验室的作用至关重要。虽然大脑会自动无意识地纠正光线和颜色的变化，电影没有。实验室技术人员必须对打印进行“计时”，调整在不同时间和各种条件下拍摄的各种场景的颜色，以符合某些商定的标准。正如我们已经指出的，在拍摄过程中可以对光源色温的差异进行一些补偿，但时机几乎总是必要的。同时，实验室可能必须通过胶片冲洗过度或冲洗不足来纠正曝光不足或过度的情况。除了对打印计时和校正曝光差异之外，实验室或数字后期制作室还执行许多统称为“光学”的标点设备，包括淡入淡出、擦拭、溶解、冻结和遮罩。这些将在下一章中详细讨论。还可以使用许多其他光学效果。重影（通过双打印帧实现的视觉回声）、多图像（分屏等）和叠加（双曝光）是最常见的。
In color work, the role of the laboratory is critical. While the brain automatically and unconsciously corrects for variations in lighting and color, film does not. The laboratory technician must “time” the print, adjusting the colors of various scenes shot at different times and under widely varying conditions to conform to some agreed-upon standard. As we have already noted, some compensation can be made for differences in the color temperature of the light source during filming, yet timing is almost always necessary. At the same time, the lab might have to correct for under- or overexposure by over- or underdeveloping the filmstock. In addition to timing the print and correcting for exposure differences, the laboratory or digital post house also executes a number of punctuational devices known collectively as “opticals,” including fades, wipes, dissolves, freezes, and masks. These are discussed in detail in the next chapter. A number of other optical effects are available. Ghosts (visual echoes achieved by double-printing frames), multiple images (split-screen and the like), and superimpositions (double exposures) are the most common.
图 2-59。动作捕捉。_ _ 汤姆·汉克斯配备了传感器，使动作捕捉动画和电影（极地特快）中出现的场景成为可能。请注意捕捉面部表情所需的大量传感器；身体的其他部分只需要很少的量。
Figure 2-59. MOTION CAPTURE. Tom Hanks outfitted with the sensors that make motion-capture animation possible and the scene as it appeared in the film (The Polar Express). Note the large number of sensors necessary to capture facial expressions; very few are needed for the rest of the body.
图 2-60。玻璃镜头。_ _ 玻璃的底部是透明的；顶部被涂漆。玻璃离相机足够远，因此它和布景都清晰可见。调整设置灯光和哑光灯光以达到平衡。相机安装在坚固的底座上以防止振动。
Figure 2-60. GLASS SHOTS. The bottom part of the glass was left clear; the top part was painted. The glass was situated far enough from the camera so that both it and the set were in focus. Set lights and matte lights were adjusted to balance. The camera was mounted on a solid base to prevent vibration.
最后，实验室配备放大或缩小图像尺寸的设备。整张胶片可能会被放大或缩小，以便可以以不同的规格发布，或者可以通过在光学打印机上放大其中的一部分来改变单个镜头，而光学打印机是完成大部分效果的机器。例如，当为 VHS（以及一些早期的 DVD）准备宽屏印刷品时，采用了一种称为“平移和扫描”的技术。以便至少动作的主要部分出现在 1.33 电视帧内。当胶片被打印到学院光圈时，在光学打印机上添加了从宽银幕图像的一侧到另一侧的人工剪切和平移。
Finally, the laboratory is equipped to enlarge or reduce the size of the image. The whole film might be enlarged or reduced so that it can be released in a different gauge, or a single shot might be altered by enlarging part of it on the optical printer, the machine on which most of these effects are accomplished. When a widescreen print was prepared for VHS (and some early DVDs), for example, a technique known as “pan and scan” was used so that at least the major part of the action showed up within the 1.33 television frame. As the film was printed down to the Academy aperture, artificial cuts and pans from one side of the widescreen image to the other were added on the optical printer.
图 2-61。后置投影。_ 相机和投影仪是联锁的，因此投影仪在相机拍摄一帧的同时投影一帧。屏幕前的汽车模型中的演员的灯光使他们身后的半透明屏幕无法反射；它只传输来自投影仪的光。请注意支撑汽车模型以模拟运动的弹簧。
Figure 2-61. REAR PROJECTION. Camera and projector were interlocked so that the projector projected a frame at precisely the same time the camera took one. The actors in the car mock-up in front of the screen were lit in such a way that the translucent screen behind them did not reflect; it only transmitted the light from the projector. Note the springs that supported the car mock-up in order to simulate movement.
当它们以机械和光学方式完成时，几乎所有这些实验室效果都会在印刷过程中增加额外的代数，从而影响图像的质量。这就是实验室在很大程度上被“后期制作室”（全数字后期制作中心）取代的原因之一。现在大部分工作都是在数字中间片上完成的。
When they are accomplished mechanically and optically, nearly all these laboratory effects add extra generations to the printing process and therefore affect the quality of the image. This is one reason the laboratory has largely been replaced by the “post house”—an all-digital center for post-production. Most of this work is now accomplished on the digital intermediate.
当本书第二版于 1981 年完成时，电影剪辑师、混音师和特效技术人员的技术和词汇对于普通读者来说就像印刷商和出版商的专业行话一样晦涩难懂。现在，过去三十年来引人注目的微型计算机革命已经使淡入淡出和翻转擦拭变得像字体和对开本一样熟悉。电影制片人的工作——就像出版商的工作一样——不再那么神秘。事实上，对于新手来说，实现这些效果是如此容易，以至于他们可能想知道这有什么大惊小怪的。
When the second edition of this book was completed in 1981, the techniques and vocabulary of the film editor, sound mixer, and special-effects technician were as arcane and mysterious to the average reader as the professional lingo of printers and publishers then was. Now, the remarkable microcomputer revolution of the past thirty years has made fades and flip wipes as familiar as fonts and folios. The work of the filmmaker—like that of the publisher—is no longer so mysterious. Indeed, it is so easy for newcomers to accomplish these effects that they may wonder what all the fuss was about.
图 2-62。正面投影。_ _ 前投影系统的基本元件是半镀银镜，它既能透射又能反射光。这使得投影仪可以沿着与摄像机观看场景完全相同的轴将背景图像投影到布景和演员后面的屏幕上。因此，摄像机无法看到演员和布景在银幕上投射的阴影。布景照明经过调整，亮度刚好足以冲掉落在演员和布景上的背景图像。屏幕具有高度方向性，沿轴反射的投影图像光线比侧面反射的光线多得多，从而提供足够明亮的图像。投影的场景从投影仪 (A) 传输，从半镀银镜反射到屏幕（以及布景和演员）(B)，然后通过镜子 (C) 返回到相机。投影仪发出的一些光也透过镜子 (D)。最终效果见下图。
Figure 2-62. FRONT PROJECTION. The essential element of the front projection system was the half-silvered mirror, which both transmitted and reflected light. This made it possible for the projector to project the background image onto the screen behind the set and actor along precisely the same axis that the camera viewed the scene. Thus, the camera could not see the shadows which the actor and set cast on the screen. Set lighting was adjusted so that it was just bright enough to wash out the background image which fell on the actor and set. The screen was highly directional, reflecting a great deal more light from the projected image along the axis than off to the side and thus providing a bright enough image. The projected scene traveled from the projector (A), was reflected off the half-silvered mirror onto the screen (and set and actor) (B), and then back into the camera, through the mirror (C). Some of the light from the projector was also transmitted through the mirror (D). See the final effect below.
图 2-63。2001 年的正投。库布里克和他的特效技术人员团队完善了电影的系统。（图框放大）
Figure 2-63. Front projection from 2001. Kubrick and his staff of special effects technicians perfected the system for the film. (Frame enlargement)
图 2-64。马特斯。_ 男性和女性的遮罩均来自于主图像。它们是用固定遮罩技术绘制的；在此处图示的移动遮罩系统中，遮罩是光学导出的。
Figure 2-64. MATTES. Both male and female mattes were derived from the main image. In the stationary matte technique they were drawn; in the traveling matte system, diagrammed here, the mattes were derived optically.
然而，对于电影制片人本身而言，这场革命才刚刚开始。当您处理数字化图像时，所有这些困难的工作都变得更加容易，从基于化学的电影摄影到数字成像的转变似乎是不可抗拒的。正如我们所知，电影艺术现在正开始向数字电影摄影和更广阔的世界不断转变。
Yet, as far as the filmmakers themselves are concerned, the revolution has only begun. All of this difficult work is so much easier when you’re dealing with a digitized image that the transformation from chemically based cinematography to digital imaging seems irresistible. The art of film, as we have known it, is now embarked on a relentless morph to digital cinematography and worlds beyond.
视频和电影
Video and Film
电影和视频之间的求爱始于半个世纪前，当时好莱坞发现电影制片厂可以从电视中赚钱，并与新媒体休战。八十年代末，当 VHS 电影销售收入超过传统票房收入时，这种关系蓬勃发展。两人如今幸福地同居。随着数字革命的推进，婚礼的钟声显然已经不远了。为了至少在过去十五年里，将“电影”视为更大的视听宇宙的一个子集是正确的。
The courtship between film and video began half a century ago when Hollywood figured out that movie studios could make money from television and called a truce with the new medium. The relationship blossomed in the late eighties when revenues from VHS movie sales climbed past the take from the traditional box office. The two now cohabit contentedly. As the digital revolution moves on it’s clear wedding bells are not far off. For at least the last fifteen years it has been proper to see “film” as a subset of the larger audiovisual universe.
图 2-65。2001 年的遮罩镜头。月亮的风景被遮住了。窗户下方小屏幕上的图像是背投的。（框架放大。）
Figure 2-65. A matte shot from 2001. The scenery of the moon was matted in. The images on the tiny screens below the windows were rear-projected. (Frame enlargement.)
图 2-66。2001年拍摄的登月站模型照片。模型球形着陆舱中的小舷窗以及左右明亮的矩形区域都用实景场景进行遮盖，以增加模型的错觉。大多数精美的细节在这幅复制品中都丢失了。（框架放大。）
Figure 2-66. A model shot of the moon landing station from 2001. The small portholes in the model spherical landing capsule as well as the bright rectangular areas to the left and right were matted with live-action scenes to increase the illusion of the model. Most of the exquisite detail is lost in this reproduction. (Frame enlargement.)
与胶片相比，视频（无论是老式模拟磁带还是数字磁带）最明显的优势是可以立即查看视频；不需要先对其进行处理。此外，虽然摄像师是拍摄电影时唯一能清楚看到图像的人，但视频图像可以立即传输到多个监视器。因此，视频在片场得到了广泛的应用。与 Skycam 流程一样，它将操作员从相机中解放出来。正常情况下在电影摄影中，摄像机可以通过半反光镜连接到胶片摄影机上，并且可以看到操作者看到的相同图像。然后，导演（和其他技术人员）可以在片场其他地方的监视器上观察正在拍摄的精确图像。如果场景被录制，可以立即回放，以便演员和技术人员可以检查以确保拍摄按计划进行，从而大大减少了额外拍摄的需要。
The most obvious advantage of video—whether old-fashioned analog tape or digital—over film is that video is immediately available for review; it need not be processed first. In addition, whereas the camera operator is the only person who has a clear view of the image while a film is being shot, a video image can be instantaneously transmitted to a number of monitors. As a result, video has found a number of applications on the set. It frees the operator from the camera, as in the Skycam process. In normal cinematography, a video camera can be attached to a film camera by means of a semireflecting mirror, and can see the same image the operator sees. The director (and other technicians) can then observe on a monitor elsewhere on the set the precise image being shot. If the scene is recorded, it can immediately be played back so that actors and technicians can check to make sure the take went as planned, thus greatly reducing the need for additional takes.
正如我们所看到的，视频在编辑过程中具有其最具革命性的效果。数千张胶片的存储和检索问题大大简化。数字化素材的磁盘存储可以立即随机访问任何镜头。
As we’ve seen, video has its most revolutionary effect in the editing process. The problem of storage and retrieval of thousands of pieces of film is vastly simplified. Disk storage of the digitized footage offers immediate random access to any shot.
虽然胶片到磁带的传输几乎自诞生以来就在电视中广泛使用（制作在胶片上拍摄，然后转移到磁带上进行展览），但相反的过程（在磁带上拍摄然后转移到胶片上）现在才发现应用程序。已经很久了。早在 1971 年，弗兰克·扎帕 (Frank Zappa)使用提供 2,000 线分辨率的系统在录像带上拍摄了200 家汽车旅馆，该系统的分辨率甚至比今天的高清电视还要高，并且是 35 毫米胶片的有力竞争对手。
While film-to-tape transfer has been in wide use in television almost since its inception (a production is shot on film, then transferred to tape for exhibition), the reverse process (shooting on tape for transfer to film) is only now finding applications. It has been a long time coming. As long ago as 1971, Frank Zappa shot 200 Motels on videotape using a system that offered 2,000 lines of resolution, significantly greater than even today’s HDTV and a serious competitor to 35 mm film.
事后看来，我们现在了解到记录图像和声音的电子技术的发展是真正的革命：数字化的必要前奏。一旦这些对现实的非凡唤起被量化，它们就会达到一定的抽象水平，使我们能够毫不费力地随心所欲地操纵它们。电影制作的技术和道德方程式都发生了根本性的变化。我们在本章中讨论的大多数技术在数字世界中都得到了极大的简化。从道德上讲，这种深刻的新技术力量意味着我们不能再像过去一百年那样信任图像和声音。一旦电影制作人几乎完全控制了录音，他们就不再依赖现实作为图像和声音的来源。我们看到的不一定是他们拍摄的东西，而是他们想要拍摄的东西，或者想象他们可能拍摄的东西，或者后来确定他们应该拍摄的东西。
With hindsight, we now understand that the development of electronic techniques of recording images and sounds was a necessary prelude to the true revolution: digitization. Once these remarkable evocations of reality are quantified, they reach a level of abstraction that allows us to manipulate them as we will, effortlessly. Both the technical and moral equations of filmmaking change radically. Most of the techniques we have discussed in this chapter are vastly simplified in the digital world. Morally, this profound new technical power means that we can no longer place the same trust in the images and sounds as we have done for the past hundred years. Once filmmakers have near total control over the recording, they are no longer dependent on reality as the source of the images and sounds. What we see is not necessarily what they shot, but rather what they wanted to shoot, or imagined that they might have shot, or determined, later, that they should have shot.
图 2-67。视频创意助手。导演现在在片场依赖视频，有时甚至使用监视器而不是相机目镜来取景。视频播放可以立即查看镜头，从而节省时间和金钱。监视器通常是片场的中心，演员和工作人员争先恐后地聚集在一起，看看他们的工作的直接结果。(A) 安装在 Aaton XTR Plus 摄像机上的 Aaton VR42 黑白 CCD 视频辅助。(B)录像带内部视图。（由阿贝尔电影技术公司提供）
Figure 2-67. VIDEOASSIST. Directors now rely on video on the set, sometimes even using the monitor instead of the camera eyepiece to frame a shot. Video playback permits an immediate review of the shot, saving time and money. The monitor is often the hub of the set, with cast and crew rushing to gather round to see the immediate results of their work. (A) An Aaton VR42 black-and-white CCD videoassist installed on an Aaton XTR Plus camera. (B) A view of the inside of the videotap. (Courtesy Abel Cine Tech.)
投影
Projection
在电影技术链完成之前还有最后一步：投影。在某种程度上，这是最关键的一步，因为在电影到达观众面前之前，早期阶段完成的所有工作都必须经过这一阶段。讽刺的是，电影放映机是过去五十年来变化最小的单一电影设备。除了增加读取音轨的光学或磁头以及投影变形照片所需的适配器之外，投影机基本上与 20 年代初使用的机器相同。事实上，一些放映员认为三十年代的古董机器比今天制造的许多机器性能更好。
One final step remains before the chain of film technology is complete: projection. This is, in a way, the most crucial step, since all the work done in the earlier stages must funnel through this one before a film reaches an observer. Ironically, the film projector is the single piece of film equipment that has changed least during the past fifty years. Except for the addition of the optical or magnetic head, which reads the soundtrack, and adapters necessary to project anamorphic prints, the projector is basically the same machine used in the early 1920s. Indeed, some projectionists think antique machines from the thirties work better than many manufactured today.
简单地说，任何投影仪都是一台以相反模式运行的相机：它不是拍摄照片，而是显示照片，但这一区别是显着的。记录图像所需的光量很容易获得，而投影图像所需的更大光量必须由足够小以安装在投影仪镜头后面的光源提供，并且必须能够放大图像1/2平方英寸35毫米画框30万次以上即可填满屏幕。直到 20 世纪 60 年代，商业投影机的光源都是碳弧灯，可以提供所需的 5000° 或 6000°K 的强光。两根碳棒之间的高压电流电弧是直接来源。使用碳弧灯（早期用于照明的同类灯）的困难在于，碳棒在这个过程中被消耗，并且必须不断地被消耗。调整。此外，灯需要强大的通风系统。碳弧灯被氙气灯箱取代，其使用寿命更长，无需不断调整，也不需要特殊的通风。
Any projector is, simply, a camera that operates in the reverse mode: instead of taking a picture, it shows it—but this one difference is significant. The amount of light necessary to record an image is easily obtained, while the even larger amount of light necessary to project a picture must be provided by a source small enough to fit behind the lens of the projector, and it must be able to enlarge the 1/2-square-inch 35 mm frame 300,000 times or more to fill the screen. Until the 1960s, the light source of commercial projectors was a carbon arc lamp that could provide the intense light of 5000° or 6000°K that is necessary. An arc of high-voltage current between two carbon rods was the direct source. The difficulty with the carbon arc lamp (the same sort used to illuminate sets in earlier days) was that the carbon rods were consumed in the process and had to be continually adjusted. In addition, the lamps needed powerful ventilation systems. Carbon arc lamps were replaced by xenon lamphouses, which last longer, need not be continually adjusted, and don’t require special ventilation.
图 2-68。传统投影仪。_ 较小的链轮将胶片从进给卷轴上拉出，并将其送至收卷轴。主链轮间歇性地推进薄膜。它与马耳他十字齿轮相连（见图2-21）。环路对于系统至关重要，因为它们提供了允许链轮将每个框架猛拉到位而不损坏库存所需的给力。然后，一系列滚轮在胶片到达音头之前缓冲胶片的间歇运动，以便可以连续、流畅地读取音轨。
Figure 2-68. TRADITIONAL PROJECTOR. The smaller sprocket wheels pull the film off the feed reel and feed it to the take-up reel. The main sprocket advances the film intermittently. It is connected to the Maltese cross gear (see Figure 2-21). The loops are essential to the system since they provide the give needed to allow the sprocket to jerk each frame into position without destroying the stock. A series of rollers then damps the intermittent motion of the film before it reaches the sound head, so that the soundtrack can be read continuously and smoothly.
虽然底片仅通过相机运行一次并通过光学打印机运行一次，但胶片的冲印要承受更大的压力，通常在商业电影院每周运行三十五或四十次。这是相机和投影仪之间的第二个显着区别：后者必须更温和地处理胶片。然而，由于投影仪设计方面取得的进展很少，因此打印效果受到影响造成很多不必要的伤害。结果是你很少能完全按照作者的意图看到一部电影。作者可以相当确定他的出版商和印刷商将向他的读者表达他的意图；电影制片人无法从发行商和放映商那里得到这样的保证。薄膜损坏意味着将切除部分薄膜进行拼接。剪辑也只是为了缩短播放时间（以及消除政治或性方面令人反感的内容）。读者知道一本书的副本是否已被更改：页码将会丢失（除非它是电子书）。电影观众很少知道他所看到的拷贝与原作有什么关系。胶片通常被认为是一种永久的媒介：相反，它异常脆弱。
While a film negative runs only once through a camera and once through an optical printer, the print of a film is subjected to far more stress, normally being run thirty-five or forty times per week in a commercial movie theater. This is the second salient difference between camera and projector: the latter must treat the film more gently. Because so few advances have been made in projector design, however, prints are subjected to much unnecessary damage. The result is that you very seldom see a film exactly the way its authors intended. A writer can be fairly sure that his publisher and printer will represent his intentions to his reader; a filmmaker has no such assurance from distributors and exhibitors. Damage to the film means that splices will be made excising parts of the film. Cuts are also made simply to shorten the running time (as well as to eliminate politically or sexually objectionable material). A reader knows if a copy of a book has been altered: page numbers will be missing (unless it’s an eBook). A film viewer seldom knows just what relationship the print he is seeing bears to the original. Film is often thought to be a permanent medium: on the contrary, it is exceptionally fragile.
图 2-69。平板投影仪。_ 送片和收片卷轴已被成角度的滚轴所取代，这些滚轴将胶片从安装在盘片上的大型开放式卷轴输送到左侧。更少的卷轴更换意味着放映员可以同时处理多个影院；因此，多路复用。（Magnasync Moviola 公司提供。）
Figure 2-69. FLATBED PROJECTOR. The feed and take-up reels have been replaced by angled rollers that feed the film from large open reels installed on the platters to the left. Fewer reel changes means projectionists can handle several theaters at once; hence, the multiplexes. (Courtesy Magnasync Moviola Company.)
有更好的方法来完成这项工作。20 世纪 70 年代，Hollogon 旋转投影系统（七十五年来对投影机械的首次彻底重新设计）有望取得相当大的进步。Hollogon 系统采用旋转的二十四面棱镜，类似于高速相机和现代编辑台中使用的棱镜，以减少印刷品上的压力。Hollogon 投影机没有由链轮、下拉机构、阻尼滚轮和声头组成的复杂系统，而是仅由两个持续旋转、始终同步的轮子组成。当帧图像围绕图像轮移动时，多面棱镜使其在屏幕上保持光学稳定。这项技术从未流行起来。
There are better ways to do this job. In the 1970s, the Hollogon Rotary projection system—the first radical redesign of projection machinery in seventy-five years—promised a considerable advance. The Hollogon system utilized a revolving twenty-four-sided prism like those used in high-speed cameras and modern editing tables to reduce strain on the print. Instead of a complicated system of sprocket wheels, pull-down mechanisms, damping rollers, and sound heads, the Hollogon projector consisted simply of two continuously revolving wheels, constantly in sync. As the frame image moved around the picture wheel it was kept optically steady on the screen by the multifaceted prism. The technology never caught on.
图 2-70。今日配乐。_ _ 二十世纪末，很少有电影院安装了数字投影仪，但几乎所有电影院都能够处理多种数字和模拟音轨。在这个现代 35 毫米印刷品的示例中，容纳了四个独立的音响系统。两侧最外面的条带包含 SDDS 音轨，作为数字信号的条形码状图像。（构成图像的点实际上比图中的要细得多。）接下来是穿孔。在右侧，杜比数字原声带印在它们之间。右侧穿孔的左侧是两个模拟轨道（通常使用杜比环绕声进行编码以模拟第三个轨道）。紧邻模拟轨道的是一条细线时间码，用于同步 DTS 音轨，该音轨在 CD 上单独播放，这种技术将我们带回到有声电影的开头。（注：图像经过变形压缩。）事实证明，这项 19 世纪的技术非常强大。还值得注意的是，老式胶片的架构确保了声音和图像的同步——这一壮举仍然超出了大多数数字竞争对手的能力。（图片由 Wikimedia Commons 提供，遵循 GNU 自由文档许可证。）
Figure 2-70. SOUNDTRACKS TODAY. At the end of the oughts few cinemas had installed digital projectors—but nearly all were capable of handling a multiplicity of digital and analog soundtracks. In this example of a modern 35 mm print, four separate sound systems are accommodated. The outermost strips on either side contain the SDDS soundtrack as a barcode-like image of the digital signal. (The dots which make up the image are actually much finer than in this illustration.) Next in are the perforations. On the right side, the Dolby Digital soundtrack is printed between them. To the left of the right-hand perforations are the two analog tracks (often encoded using Dolby Surround to simulate a third track). Just in from the analog track is a thin line of timecode, used to synchronize the DTS soundtrack, which is played separately on a CD—a technique that brings us back to the beginning of sound film. (Note: the image is anamorphically compressed.) This nineteenth-century technology has proved remarkably capable. It’s worth noting, too, that the architecture of old-fashioned film ensures the synchronization of sound and image—a feat still beyond the reach of most digital competitors. (Image courtesy Wikimedia Commons, under the GNU Free Documentation License.)
除了保持放映机正常工作之外，放映员还有另外两项职责：保持图像清晰对焦，并通过镜头和遮光罩的适当组合，以适当的宽高比放映影片。这里的标准和其他地方的预测一样宽松。尽管科学上精确的聚焦方法很容易获得（并且一度通常在放映室中找到），但许多当代放映员更喜欢依靠肉眼即兴发挥。几代人在成长过程中并不知道一部聚焦良好的电影是什么样的。
Besides keeping the projector in working order, the projectionist has two other responsibilities: to keep the image in focus and, through a proper combination of lenses and masks, to show the film in the proper aspect ratio. Standards are as slack here as elsewhere in projection. Although scientifically precise means of focusing are readily available (and at one time were usually found in projection booths), many contemporary projectionists prefer to improvise, relying on the naked eye. Generations have grown up not knowing what a well-focused film looks like.
口罩的问题更加严重。很少有剧院能备有全套面罩和配套镜片。许多影院只有当代标准的1.85美式宽银幕面罩和基本的变形镜头。如果一部 1.66 的电影到达——或者更糟糕的是——一部学院长宽比的电影，放映员会用手头的任何遮罩来放映它。头颅被随意砍掉，无论导演最初的构想是什么，都只能是猜测。最后，还有声音：近年来，这方面取得了重大进展。现在，几乎所有首映影院都配备了处理立体声或六轨音效、杜比化音轨、磁轨和 THX 音响系统的设备。虽然大多数影院的图像质量比三十或四十年前要差，但声音却有了显着改善。感谢 George Lucas 制定的 THX 标准。
The problem of masks is even more acute. Few theaters keep a complete range of masks and concomitant lenses on hand. Many theaters have only the contemporary standard 1.85 American widescreen mask and the basic anamorphic lens. If a 1.66 film arrives—or, even worse—a movie in the Academy aspect ratio, the projectionist shows it with whatever mask is at hand. Heads are lopped off with abandon, and whatever composition the director originally had in mind is a matter of conjecture. Finally, there is sound: significant strides have been made here in recent years. Now, nearly all first-run theaters are equipped to handle stereophonic or sixtrack sound, Dolbyized tracks, magnetic tracks, and the THX sound system. While the image in most theaters is poorer in quality than it was thirty or forty years ago, the sound has improved markedly. Thank George Lucas for the THX standard.
图 2-71。这座名为“Kinepolis”的影院于 1988 年在布鲁塞尔开业，迄今为止拥有 25 家配备 35 毫米和 70 毫米影院的影院以及一家 IMAX 影院，保持着多厅影院的纪录。总座位数达8000人，甚至超过了三十年代最后一座伟大的电影宫殿——无线电城音乐厅。Kinepolis 位于大型娱乐综合体的中心，其中包括主题公园、水上游乐设施和由比例模型建造的“迷你欧洲”，以及餐厅和精品店。（由 Kinepolis 和 Sonja Coudeville 提供。）
Figure 2-71. Opened in Brussels in 1988, the modestly named “Kinepolis” holds the multiplex record to date with 25 theaters equipped for 35 mm and 70 mm, plus an IMAX theater. The total seating capacity is 8,000, exceeding even Radio City Music Hall, the last great movie palace of the thirties. Kinepolis is at the center of a massive entertainment complex which includes a theme park, water rides, and a “mini-Europe” constructed of scale models, together with restaurants and boutiques. (Courtesy Kinepolis and Sonja Coudeville.)
自 20 世纪 70 年代以来，带有小型影院（尽管经济效益更好）的多厅影院数量呈爆炸式增长。当你将投影技术缺乏进步与大多数观众现在在比客厅大不了多少的房间里看电影时，屏幕尺寸比过去几年的电影屏幕更接近电视机的屏幕的事实结合起来，他们不得不坐着看电影半小时的广告和预告片，院线电影能幸存下来真是一个奇迹。IMAX 的生存和繁荣表明高品质影院体验的未来。
Multiplexed cinemas, with tiny theaters (albeit better economics) have exploded in numbers since the 1970s. When you combine the lack of advances in projection with the fact that most audiences now see films in rooms not much larger than their living rooms on screens closer in size to their television sets than to the cinema screens of years past, and have to sit through half an hour of commercials and trailers, it is a wonder that theatrical film has survived at all. That IMAX has survived and thrived suggests that there is a future for the high-quality theatrical experience.
投影是电影制作中最后一个屈服于数字化的领域，但即便如此，视频也正在取代赛璐珞。广泛发行的印刷品成本高昂，一旦有必要的带宽可用，院线电影将不可避免地通过窄播以数字方式传送。称之为“尼克频道点播”。数字投影的首次公开试验于 1999 年春天第四部星球大战电影上映后不久举行。只是数字投影设备的高额投资成本阻碍了这项技术的发展。
Projection has been the last area of film production to succumb to digitization, but even here video is superseding celluloid. The substantial costs of prints for a wide release make it inevitable that theatrical movies will be delivered digitally via narrowcast once the necessary bandwidth is available. Call it “ Nickelodeon-on-demand.” The first public trials of digital projection were held in the spring of 1999 shortly after the release of the fourth Star Wars film. Only the high cost of investing in digital projection equipment has held back this technology.
数字化临界点
Digital Tipping Points
虽然消费市场迅速转向数码摄影，但故事片业务的情况却并非如此。原因？一句话：品质。在消费市场，数码快照相机的易用性、便利性、经济性和即时满足感战胜了普遍较差的图像质量。但故事片制片人的工作水平更高。直到本世纪末，其产品可与标准 35 毫米胶片相媲美的数码相机的价格却高得令人望而却步。
While the oughts saw a rapid switch to digital photography in consumer markets, such was not the case in the feature film business. The reason? In a word: quality. In the consumer market the ease of use, convenience, economy, and instant gratification of digital snapshot cameras trumped the generally poorer quality of the images. But feature filmmakers operate on a higher plane. Until well into the decade digital cameras whose product could rival standard 35 mm film were prohibitively expensive.
第一个问题是图像的分辨率。（请注意，当我们谈论模拟胶片时，我们不会使用“分辨率”这个词。）三十多年前，当我准备本书的第一版时，我花了几天时间与柯达的一位老手一起工作，试图确定分辨率标准柯达 35 毫米胶片的分辨率。这花了一段时间，因为以前没有人问过这个问题。最终，我们得出了每英寸约 4,000 点的标准学院比例故事片画面的数字。直到 2007 年，才出现了价格实惠的所谓 4K 电影摄影机。2K 分辨率的相机开始出现在中端，但 2K 的分辨率仅为 4K 的四分之一。
The first issue is the resolution of the image. (Notice “resolution” is not a word we have used when talking about analog film.) When I was preparing the first edition of this book more than thirty years ago I spent several days working with an old hand at Kodak to try to determine the resolution of the standard Kodak 35 mm stock. It took a while, because nobody had ever asked that question before. Eventually we came up with a figure of about 4,000 dots per inch for the standard Academy-ratio feature film frame. Only since 2007 has an affordable so-called 4K cinema camera been available. Cameras with 2K resolution began appearing about the midoughts but 2K offers only one-quarter the resolution of 4K.
分辨率并不是质量方程式中的唯一因素：伽马值或对比度范围以及色彩保真度和范围也是数字技术直到最近才落后于胶片的问题。更重要的是，早期数码相机配备的镜头质量较差，当然，如果无法穿过镜头，那么传感器再好也无济于事。现在，数码相机可以使用可靠的胶片相机镜头。人们通常认为乔治·卢卡斯拍摄了第一部主要的数字电影（《星球大战 III：西斯归来》， 2005 年），但现在 4K 摄像机的价格越来越便宜，我们可以预期片场的数字转折点很快就会到来。
Resolution isn’t the only factor in the quality equation: gamma, or contrast range, and color fidelity and range are also issues where digital has lagged behind film until recently. Even more important, the lenses that came with early digital cameras were of inferior quality—and of course if it can’t get through the lens it really doesn’t matter how good the sensor is. Now digital cameras are available that can use reliable film-camera lenses. George Lucas is usually credited with shooting the first major digital feature (Star Wars III: Return of the Sith, 2005), but now that 4K cameras are becoming affordable we can expect the digital tipping point on the set to arrive quickly.
已经到了剪辑室了。从九十年代中期开始，我们所谓的计算机辅助编辑成为常态。电影片段被数字化并存储在计算机硬盘上。数字素材是用 Avid 或其他软件编辑的。然后胶片剪辑师使用编辑决策列表（一组标记细节的帧编号）将原始底片拼接在一起。当时的计算机既不够强大，也不够容量，无法处理高质量的数据。数字镜头。使用的文件对于编辑套件来说具有足够的质量，但不足以用于打印。
It has already arrived in the editing room. Beginning in the mid-nineties what we might call computer-assisted editing became the norm. The film footage was digitized and stored on the computer’s hard disk. The digital footage was edited with Avid or other software. Then film cutters used the Edit Decision List (a set of frame numbers marking the ins and outs) to splice together the original film negative. At that time the computers were neither powerful enough nor capacious enough to deal with high-quality digital footage. The files used were of sufficient quality for the editing suite but not nearly good enough to print from.
图 2-72。窄播性能。_ 2008 年，大都会歌剧院联播理查德·瓦格纳的巨著《特里斯坦与伊索尔德》，由黛博拉·沃伊特和罗伯特·迪恩·史密斯主演，视频导演芭芭拉·威利斯·斯威特很明智地使用了这样的拼贴画。尽管《特里斯坦》的力量很大，但它的舞台表演可能是所有大型歌剧中最简单的。这在舞台上可能行得通，但在银幕上，这种创造性的场景调度是一种有用的增强。
Figure 2-72. NARROWCAST PERFORMANCE. For the Metropolitan Opera’s 2008 simulcast of Richard Wagner’s monumental Tristan und Isolde starring Deborah Voigt and Robert Dean Smith, video director Barbara Willis Sweete had the good sense to use collages like this. Despite its power Tristan has perhaps the simplest staging of any grand opera. That might work on stage, but on screen this creative mise-en-scène is a useful enhancement.
自2000年以来，情况发生了变化。现在，在大多数剪辑室里已经很难找到老式胶片了。电影胶片以足够高的质量进行数字化，因此无需返回相机负片进行最终组合。相反，会生成数字中间片（DI）。然后，一种称为胶片记录机的设备会打印可用于制作胶片照片的中间负片。该系统的一大优势是在 DI 上比在胶片上更容易进行色彩校正。色彩校正（或计时）是几乎每部专业电影的重要步骤。现在对于业余爱好者来说也是一种可能性。全数字编辑套件的操作成本也更低。（几年前，剪辑师雇佣两三个人来归档数千个剪辑并不罕见。）
Since 2000 this has changed. Now it is rare to find any old-fashioned film stock in most editing rooms. The film footage is digitized at high enough quality so that there is no need to return to the camera negative for the final assemblage. Instead a digital intermediate—or DI—is produced. A device called a film recorder then prints an internegative that can be used to make film prints. One great advantage of this system is that color correction can be done much more easily on the DI than with film. Color correction—or timing—is an essential step for almost every professional film. Now it is also a possibility for amateurs. The all-digital editing suite is also cheaper to operate. (It was not unusual years ago for an editor to employ two or three people just to file the thousands of clips.)
但要小心你的愿望。当制片人乔·梅德贾克 (Joe Medjuck) 最近询问一家工作室是否介意他的公司以胶片而非数字方式拍摄时，工作室很乐意答应。尽管用完的胶片会增加费用，但他们知道可以节省剪辑室的钱。为什么？由于数字存储几乎是无成本的，因此电影制作者拍摄的次数要多得多，最终的拍摄比率也比胶片材料高得多，这意味着剪辑素材需要更长的时间。当您带着装有 1,500 张照片的新数码相机度假回来时，您可能也遇到过类似的问题。找不到时间来整理它们以选择好的。数字拍摄确实具有提供即时样片的经济优势。您可以在一天结束时开始拍摄，并确信您已获得所需的镜头。
But be careful what you wish for. When producer Joe Medjuck recently asked a studio if they would mind if his company shot on film rather than digitally the studio was happy to oblige. Despite the added expense of the filmstock that would be used up they knew they’d save the money in the editing room. Why? Because digital storage is nearly costless, filmmakers shoot a lot more and wind up with much higher shooting ratios than is the case with filmstock which means editing the footage takes longer. You’ve probably experienced a similar problem when you came back from a vacation with your new digital camera loaded with 1,500 pictures and then you couldn’t find the time to sort through them to choose the good ones. Shooting digitally does have the economic advantage of providing instant dailies. You can strike the set at the end of the day, confident you’ve got the shots you need.
因此，数字革命已经在剪辑室里发生在我们身后，并且现在正在片场发生。但在影院中，尽管数字投影技术的最新进展可以与摄像机前端的进步相媲美，但转折点仍然在未来。原因很简单：仅在美国就有超过 38,000 个屏幕（及其配套的投影仪），更换电影投影仪的投资几乎没有经济意义。
So the digital revolution is behind us in the editing room and happening now on the set. But in theaters the tipping point is still well in the future, despite recent advances in digital projection that rival the advances on the camera front. The reason is simple: with more than 38,000 screens (and their accompanying projectors) in the U.S. alone the investment to replace film projectors makes little economic sense.
加快这一进程的一种方法是重新思考剧院的功能。2007 年，大都会歌剧院开始向全球 500 多个场馆同步转播高清精选歌剧表演。该节目取得了巨大成功——也许并不令人意外：大都会博物馆的周六下午广播节目自 1932 年首次推出以来，已成为世界上最受欢迎的广播节目。这些高清联播是高票价的演出，可能会证明剧院业主在至少一个多路复用屏幕上添加数字投影是合理的，特别是如果大都会艺术博物馆的节目在其他表演领域重复的话：芭蕾舞、百老汇，或者老式的备用，冠军拳击。爵士乐音乐家无法靠在俱乐部 100 人面前演奏而谋生。但如果全国还有 50 个虚拟“俱乐部”，每个俱乐部有 100 人，愿意为演出支付 20 美元呢？如果电影首映式包括导演和明星的联播采访会怎样？
One way to speed up the process is to rethink the function of the theater. In 2007 the Metropolitan Opera began simulcasting in HD select opera performances to more than 500 venues around the world. The program has been a huge success—perhaps not surprising: the Met’s Saturday afternoon radio broadcast since their debut in 1932 has become the world’s most popular radio show. These HD simulcasts are high-ticket shows and might justify theater owners adding digital projection to at least one of their multiplexed screens, especially if the Met program is duplicated in other performance niches: ballet, Broadway, or that old standby, championship boxing. A jazz musician can’t make much of a living playing in front of 100 people in a club. But what if there were another fifty virtual “clubs” across the country with 100 people in each willing to pay $20 for the performance? What if film premieres included simulcast interview sessions with the director and the stars?
我们还必须考虑何时适合在剧院进行窄播以及何时适合向家庭广播。文艺演出是一件大事，是大家共同分享的事情，值得付出更多的钱。在未来的某个时候，我们所有 38,000 多个电影屏幕都将实现数字化：当转换的经济性被证明比制作数千张发行拷贝更便宜时，就会发生这种情况。与此同时，数字投影是特殊活动的领域。
We also have to consider when it is appropriate to narrowcast to theaters and when it is right to broadcast to homes. The theatrical performance is an event, shared by others, and that is worth paying more for. At some time in the future all of our 38,000-plus movie screens will be digital: that will happen when the economics of conversion prove cheaper than the production of thousands of release prints. In the meantime digital projection is the province of special events.
媒体数字化已经持续了三十年。可能还需要十年或十五年才能完成。在现代历史上，这是一段极其漫长的时期，世界每季度都在发生变化。为什么要花这么长时间？数字媒体不仅仅是一种新技术，如有声电影、彩色电视、iPod 或电子书；它也是一种新技术。这是一种构建现实的全新方式。在数字世界中，我们不是简单地模仿或呼应现实，而是将其分解成其组成量子，对其进行计数，并分析我们剩下的近乎无限的数字。那里这种方法有很多优点：操作抽象数字非常容易。但我们应该永远记住，一旦声音和图像被数字化，它们就完全是人造的、不真实的。我们永远无法像模拟媒体那样对数字现实抱有隐含的信任。一个鲜明的界限已经被跨越。
The digitization of media has been going on for thirty years now. It is likely to be another ten or fifteen years before it is complete. That’s an extraordinarily long time in modern history where the world changes quarter to quarter. Why is it taking so long? Digital media is not merely a new technology, like sound film or color television or iPods or eBooks; it’s an entirely new way of structuring reality. In the digital world we don’t simply mimic or echo reality, we break it down into its component quanta, numerate it, and analyze the near-infinite numbers we are left with. There are many advantages to this approach: it is so easy to manipulate the abstract numbers. But we should always remember that once sounds and images have been digitized they are profoundly artificial, unreal. We can never have the implicit trust in digital reality that we once enjoyed with analog media. A stark boundary has been crossed.
显然，电影制作并不是（多年来针对业余摄影师的广告试图说服我们）简单地通过取景器观看并按下按钮。电影制作需要一定程度的技术知识和专业知识，远远超过任何其他艺术。虽然电影技术在某些领域确实还没有跟上电影制片人的愿望，但同样真实的是，在某些领域，技术提供了电影爱好者尚未探索的潜力。电影的技术和美学是相互关联的：其中一者拉动，另一者也必须跟随。因此，在开始理解电影美学的理想世界（下一章的主题）之前，必须充分了解技术限制和相互联系。
It is clear that filmmaking is not (as ads directed to amateur photographers have tried to convince us for years) simply a matter of looking through the viewfinder and pressing the button. Filmmaking requires a degree of technical knowledge and expertise far surpassing that of any other art. While it is true that there are certain areas in which the technology of film has not yet caught up with the aspirations of filmmakers, it is equally true that there are areas where the technology offers a potential that cinéastes have yet to explore. The technology and the esthetics of film are interlocked: where one pulls, the other must follow. So a full understanding of the technological limitations and interconnections is necessary before one can begin to comprehend the ideal world of film esthetics that is the subject of the following chapter.
3
电影语言：
符号和句法
3
The Language of Film:
Signs and Syntax
Denotative and Connotative Meaning
语言的力量在于能指和所指之间的区别；电影的力量在于不存在。但电影就像一种语言。那么，它是如何做到这一点的呢？”
The power of language is that there is a difference between the signifier and the signified; the power of film is that there is not. But film is like a language. How, then, does it do what it does?”
标志
Signs
电影不是英语、法语或数学意义上的语言。首先，电影里不语法是不可能的。而且没有必要学习词汇。例如，婴儿在开始发展任何口语能力之前几个月似乎就能够理解电视图像。就连猫也看电视。显然，没有必要为了欣赏电影而获得对电影的理智理解——至少在最基本的层面上是这样。
Film is not a language in the sense that English, French, or mathematics is. First of all, it’s impossible to be ungrammatical in film. And it is not necessary to learn a vocabulary. Infants appear to understand television images, for example, months before they begin to develop any facility with spoken language. Even cats watch television. Clearly, it is not necessary to acquire an intellectual understanding of film in order to appreciate it—at least on the most basic level.
但电影很像语言。那些在电影方面经验丰富的人——具有很高的视觉素养（或者我们应该说“电影人”？）——比那些很少去看电影的人看到的更多、听到的更多。电影准语言的教育为观察者打开了更大的潜在意义，因此用语言的隐喻来描述电影现象是有用的。
But film is very much like language. People who are highly experienced in film—highly literate visually (or should we say “cinemate”?)—see more and hear more than people who seldom go to the movies. An education in the quasi-language of film opens up greater potential meaning for the observer, so it is useful to use the metaphor of language to describe the phenomenon of film.
事实上，对于我们理解人造声音和图像的能力还没有进行过什么科学研究，但尽管如此，我们通过研究确实知道，虽然孩子们早在能够阅读之前就能够识别图片中的物体，但他们在八岁或十岁的时候他们需要几岁才能像大多数成年人那样理解电影图像。此外，图像感知存在文化差异。在 20 年代的一项著名测试中，人类学家威廉·赫德森 (William Hudson) 开始研究与西方文化接触甚少的非洲农村人是否与欧洲人一样感知二维图像的深度。他明确地发现他们没有。结果各不相同——有些人以西方方式对测试做出反应——但在广泛的文化和社会学范围内，他们是一致的。
In fact, little scientific investigation of our ability to comprehend artificial sounds and images has yet been performed, but nevertheless we do know through research that while children are able to recognize objects in pictures long before they are able to read, they are eight or ten years of age before they can comprehend a film image the way most adults do. Moreover, there are cultural differences in the perception of images. In one famous 1920s test, anthropologist William Hudson set out to examine whether rural Africans who had had little contact with Western culture perceived depth in two-dimensional images the same way that Europeans do. He found, unequivocally, that they do not. Results varied—there were some individuals who responded in the Western manner to the test—but they were uniform over a broad cultural and sociological range.
图 3-1。施工任务数据。_ 受试者被要求使用棍棒或棍棒在三维空间中重建这些图形，并以不同的方式做出反应。来自西方文化的人们，受过艺术家用来在二维绘画中表达三维性的规范和惯例的训练，将 A 视为三维，将 B 视为二维。这里的三维操作规范坚持沿45°斜线描绘深度维度。这在 A 中效果很好，但在 B 中则不然，因为 B 中的斜线不在深度平面中。来自古老非洲文化的主体倾向于将这两个图形视为二维的，因为他们不熟悉这种西方的三维代码。图C和D分别说明了西方和非洲观察者构建的A模型。
Figure 3-1. CONSTRUCTION-TASK FIGURES. Subjects asked to reconstruct these figures in three dimensions using sticks or rods, respond in different ways. People from Western cultures, trained in the codes and conventions that artists use to convey three-dimensionality in a two-dimensional drawing, see A as three-dimensional and B as two-dimensional. The operating code for three-dimensionality here insists that the dimension of depth be portrayed along the 45° oblique line. This works well enough in A, but not in B, where the oblique lines are not in the depth plane. Subjects from old African cultures tend to see both figures as two-dimensional, since they are not familiar with this Western three-dimensional code. Figures C and D illustrate the models of A constructed by Western and African observers, respectively.
从这个开创性的实验和随后的其他实验中可以得出两个结论：第一，每个正常人都可以感知和识别视觉图像；第二，每个正常人都可以感知和识别视觉图像。其次，即使是最简单的视觉图像在不同的文化中也会有不同的解释。所以我们知道人们一定是在“阅读”这些图像。当我们观察图像时，会发生一个智力过程（不一定是有意识的），因此我们必须在某个时刻学会如何做到这一点。
The conclusions that can be drawn from this seminal experiment and others that have followed are two: first, that every normal human being can perceive and identify a visual image; second, that even the simplest visual images are interpreted differently in different cultures. So we know that people must be “reading” these images. There is a process of intellection occurring—not necessarily consciously—when we observe an image, and it follows that we must, at some point, have learned how to do this.
“模糊三叉戟”，一种著名的“视错觉”，提供了对这种能力的简单测试。可以肯定地说，视觉素养水平读这本书的人都会对三叉戟的观察感到困惑。这不适合没有受过西方三维惯例训练的人。
The “ambiguous trident,” a well-known “optical illusion,” provides an easy test of this ability. It’s safe to say that the level of visual literacy of anyone reading this book is such that observation of the trident will be confusing to all of us. It would not be for someone not trained in Western conventions of three-dimensionality.
图 3-2。模棱两可的三叉戟。_ _ _ 这种错觉之所以有趣，只是因为我们接受了西方透视法的训练。心理效应是强大的：我们的思想坚持认为我们看到的是空间中的物体，而不是平面上的图画。
Figure 3-2. THE AMBIGUOUS TRIDENT. The illusion is intriguing only because we are trained in Western codes of perspective. The psychological effect is powerful: our minds insist that we see the object in space rather than the drawing on a plane.
图 3-3。内克立方体。_ _ _ 由瑞士博物学家LA Necker于 1832 年发明。这种幻觉再次取决于文化训练。
Figure 3-3. THE NECKER CUBE. Devised in 1832 by L.A. Necker, a Swiss naturalist. The illusion depends, once again, on cultural training.
图 3-4。漫画家 W E. Hill 的《我的妻子和我的婆婆》于 1915 年在《帕克》杂志上出版。它从此成为多阶段人物现象的一个著名例子。年轻女子的下巴就是老妇人的鼻子。老妇人的下巴就是少妇的胸部。（纽约公共图书馆。）
Figure 3-4. “My Wife and My Mother-in-law,” by cartoonist W E. Hill, was published in Puck in 1915. It has since become a famous example of the phenomenon known as the multistage figure. The young woman’s chin is the old woman’s nose. The old woman’s chin is the young woman’s chest. (NewYork Public Library.)
图 3-5。庞佐错觉。_ _ _ _ 水平线的长度相等，但顶部的线看起来比底部的线长。对角线表示透视，以便我们深入地解释图片并得出结论，由于“顶部”线必须在“底部”线“后面”，更远，因此它必须更长。
Figure 3-5. THE PONZO ILLUSION. The horizontal lines are of equal length, yet the line at the top appears to be longer than the line at the bottom. The diagonals suggest perspective, so that we interpret the picture in depth and conclude, therefore, that since the “top” line must be “behind” the “bottom” line, further away, it must thus be longer.
同样，图3-3和图3-4中著名的视错觉表明，感知和理解的过程涉及大脑：它是一种心理体验，也是一种身体体验。我们是否从顶部或底部“看到”内克尔立方体，或者我们是否将图 3-4中的图画视为年轻女孩或老妇人，并不取决于我们眼睛的生理功能，而是取决于大脑如何处理收到的信息。事实上，“图像”这个词有两个相连的含义：图像是光学图案；图像是光学图案。这也是一种心理体验，这可能就是为什么我们用“想象”这个词来描述图像的心理创造。
Similarly, the well-known optical illusions in Figures 3-3 and 3-4 demonstrate that the process of perception and comprehension involves the brain: it is a mental experience as well as a physical one. Whether we “see” the Necker Cube from the top or the bottom or whether we perceive the drawing in Figure 3-4 as either a young girl or an old woman depends not on the physiological function of our eyes but on what the brain does with the information received. The word “image,” indeed, has two conjoined meanings: an image is an optical pattern; it is also a mental experience, which is probably why we use the word “imagine” to describe the mental creation of pictures.
因此，我们解释图像（无论是静态图像还是动态图像）的部分能力取决于学习。有趣的是，对于听觉现象来说，这在很大程度上并不正确。如果机器足够复杂，我们就可以录制出在技术上与原始声音没有区别的录制声音。视觉和听觉两种感知系统模式的这种差异的结果是，我们的耳朵为了感知现实而接受的任何教育都足以感知记录的声音，而在感知现实所需的教育之间存在微妙但显着的差异。我们的眼睛感知（我们的大脑理解）记录的图像，以及理解我们周围的现实所必需的。将留声机视为一种语言是没有任何意义的，但将摄影（和电影摄影）视为一种语言是有用的，因为其中涉及学习过程。
So part of our ability to interpret images, whether still or moving, depends on learning. This is, interestingly, not true to a significant extent with auditory phenomena. If the machines are sophisticated enough, we can produce recorded sounds that are technically indistinguishable from their originals. The result of this difference in mode of the two systems of perception—visual and auditory—is that whatever education our ears undergo in order to perceive reality is sufficient to perceive recorded sound, whereas there is a subtle but significant difference between the education necessary for our eyes to perceive (and our brain to understand) recorded images and that which is necessary simply to comprehend the reality that surrounds us. It would serve no purpose to consider phonography as a language, but it is useful to speak of photography (and cinematography) as a language, because a learning process is involved.
知觉的生理学
The Physiology of Perception
描述这两种感官之间差异的另一种方式是根据感觉器官的功能：耳朵听到任何可以听到的声音；耳朵听到任何声音；耳朵听到任何声音。眼睛选择看什么。这不仅在有意识的意义上是正确的（选择将注意力从 A 点转移到 B 点，或者通过闭上眼睛完全忽略视线），而且在无意识中也是如此。由于允许视敏度的感受器官仅集中（并正确排列）在视网膜的“中央凹”中，因此我们有必要直接凝视物体才能获得清晰的图像。您可以通过盯着本页中心的点来向自己演示这一点。只有紧邻其周围的区域才是清晰的。这种中心凹视觉的结果是眼睛必须不断移动才能感知任何大小的物体。这些半意识的运动被称为“眼跳”，每次大约需要 1/20 秒，正好是视觉暂留的时间间隔，正是这种现象使电影成为可能。
Another way to describe this difference between the two senses is in terms of the function of the sensory organs: ears hear whatever is available for them to hear; eyes choose what to see. This is true not only in the conscious sense (choosing to redirect attention from point A to point B or to ignore the sight altogether by closing our eyes), but in the unconscious as well. Since the receptor organs that permit visual acuity are concentrated (and properly arranged) only in the “fovea” of the retina, it’s necessary for us to stare directly at an object in order to have a clear image of it. You can demonstrate this to yourself by staring at the dot in the center of this • Page. Only the area immediately surrounding it will be clear. The result of this foveated vision is that the eyes must move constantly in order to perceive an object of any size. These semiconscious movements are called “saccades” and take approximately 1/20 second each, just about the interval of persistence of vision, the phenomenon that makes film possible.
从中央凹视觉的事实可以得出的结论是，我们确实在身体上、精神上和心理上阅读图像，就像我们阅读一页一样。不同之处在于，我们知道如何阅读英文页面——从左到右、从上到下——但我们很少意识到我们到底是如何阅读图像的。
The conclusion that can be drawn from the fact of foveated vision is that we do indeed read an image physically as well as mentally and psychologically, just as we read a page. The difference is that we know how to read a page—in English, from left to right and top to bottom—but we are seldom conscious of precisely how we read an image.
一套完整的生理学、人种学和心理学实验可能会证明，不同的人或多或少以三种不同的方式阅读图像：
A complete set of physiological, ethnographic, and psychological experiments might demonstrate that various individuals read images more or less well in three different ways:
生理上：最好的阅读者将拥有最有效和最广泛的扫视模式；
physiologically: the best readers would have the most efficient and extensive saccadic patterns;
从民族志的角度来看：最有文化的读者会利用各种文化视觉惯例的最丰富的经验和知识；
ethnographically: the most literate readers would draw on the greatest experience and knowledge of a wide variety of cultural visual conventions;
从心理上来说：从材料中获益最多的读者将是那些最能够吸收他们所感知到的各种含义，然后整合经验的人。
psychologically: the readers who gained the most from the material would be the ones who were best able to assimilate the various sets of meanings they perceived and then integrate the experience.
这里具有讽刺意味的是，我们非常清楚，在尝试欣赏或理解文学之前，我们必须学会阅读，但我们往往错误地认为任何人都可以阅读电影。任何人都可以看电影，这是事实。但有些人比其他人更复杂地学会了从生理学、人种学和心理学上理解视觉图像。这一证据证实了第一章中讨论的感知三角的有效性，将作者、作品和观察者结合在一起观察者不仅仅是一个消费者，而且是这个过程中的积极或潜在的积极参与者。
The irony here is that we know very well that we must learn to read before we can attempt to enjoy or understand literature, but we tend to believe, mistakenly, that anyone can read a film. Anyone can see a film, it’s true. But some people have learned to comprehend visual images—physiologically, ethnographically, and psychologically—with far more sophistication than have others. This evidence confirms the validity of the triangle of perception discussed in Chapter 1, uniting author, work, and observer The observer is not simply a consumer, but an active—or potentially active—participant in the process.
图 3-6。学院模式。 _ 左边是纳芙蒂蒂王后的半身像；右图是受试者观看半身像时的眼球运动图。请注意，眼睛遵循规则的模式，而不是随机地观察图像。拍摄对象显然集中在脸部，而对颈部兴趣不大。耳朵似乎也是关注的焦点，可能不是因为它本身很有趣，而是因为它位于此轮廓中的显着位置。扫视模式不是连续的；记录清楚地表明，眼睛从一个点到另一个点快速跳动（连续线中的“凹口”），固定在特定节点上而不是吸收一般信息。该录音由莫斯科信息传输问题研究所的阿尔弗雷德·L·亚布斯 (Alfred L. Yarbus) 录制。
Figure 3-6. SACCADE PATTERNS. At left, a drawing of a bust of Queen Nefertiti; at right, a diagram of the eye movements of a subject viewing the bust. Notice that the eye follows regular patterns rather than randomly surveying the image. The subject clearly concentrates on the face and shows little interest in the neck. The ear also seems to be a focus of attention, probably not because it is inherently interesting, but rather because it is located in a prominent place in this profile. The saccadic patterns are not continuous; the recording clearly shows that the eye jerks quickly from point to point (the “notches” in the continuous line), fixing on specific nodes rather than absorbing general information. The recording was made by Alfred L. Yarbus of the Institute for Problems of Information Transmission, Moscow.
电影不是一种语言，但却像语言，因为它像语言，所以我们用来研究语言的一些方法可能会有益地应用于电影研究。
Film is not a language, but is like language, and since it is like language, some of the methods that we use to study language might profitably be applied to a study of film.
然而，由于电影不是一种语言，狭隘的语言概念可能会产生误导。自电影史诞生以来，理论家们就一直喜欢将电影与口头语言进行比较（部分是为了证明对电影的认真研究是正确的），但直到五十年代和六十年代初出现了一种新的、更大的思想范畴——认为书面语言和口语只是众多交流系统中的两种——对电影作为一种语言的真正研究可以继续进行。这个包容性的范畴被称为符号学，即符号系统的研究。
Yet, since film is not a language, narrowly linguistic concepts can be misleading. Ever since the beginning of film history, theorists have been fond of comparing film with verbal language (partly to justify the serious study of film), but it wasn’t until a new, larger category of thought developed in the fifties and early sixties—one that saw written and spoken language as just two among many systems of communication—that the real study of film as a language could proceed. This inclusive category is known as semiotics, the study of systems of signs.
符号学家通过重新定义书面语言和口头语言的概念来证明电影作为语言的研究是合理的。任何交流系统都是一种“语言”；英语、法语或汉语是一种“语言系统”。因此，电影可能是某种语言，但它显然不是一种语言系统。正如著名电影符号学家克里斯蒂安·梅茨所指出的：我们理解一部电影，并不是因为我们了解它的体系，而是因为我们了解它。相反，我们之所以能理解它的系统，是因为我们理解了这部电影。换句话说，“并不是因为电影是语言，它才能讲述如此精彩的故事，而是因为它讲述了如此精彩的故事，所以它才成为语言”[Metz，《电影语言》，第 17 页。47]。
Semioticians justified the study of film as language by redefining the concept of written and spoken language. Any system of communication is a “language”; English, French, or Chinese is a “language system.” Cinema, therefore, may be a language of a sort, but it is not clearly a language system. As Christian Metz, the well-known film semiotician, pointed out: we understand a film not because we have a knowledge of its system; rather, we achieve an understanding of its system because we understand the film. Put another way, “It is not because the cinema is language that it can tell such fine stories, but rather it has become language because it has told such fine stories” [Metz, Film Language, p. 47].
对于符号学家来说，符号必须由两部分组成：能指和所指。例如，“词”这个词——字母或声音的集合——是一个能指；它所代表的又是别的东西——“所指”。在文学中，能指与所指之间的关系是艺术的一个主要焦点：诗人正在构建的结构，一方面由声音（能指）组成，另一方面由意义（所指）组成，并且这种关系两者之间可能会很有趣。事实上，诗歌的大部分乐趣就在这里：声音和意义之间的舞蹈。
For semioticians, a sign must consist of two parts: the signifier and the signified. The word “word,” for example—the collection of letters or sounds—is a signifier; what it represents is something else again—the “signified.” In literature, the relationship between signifier and signified is a main locus of art: the poet is building constructions that, on the one hand, are composed of sounds (signifiers) and, on the other, of meanings (signifieds), and the relationship between the two can be fascinating. In fact, much of the pleasure of poetry lies just here: in the dance between sound and meaning.
但在电影（和静态摄影）中，能指和所指几乎是相同的：电影的符号是短路符号。从概念上讲，一本书的图片比“书”这个词更接近一本书。确实，我们可能必须在婴儿期或幼儿期学习将一本书的图片解释为一本书的含义，但这比学习将“书”这个词的字母或声音解释为它的含义要容易得多。图片与其所表示的含义有某种直接的关系，但单词很少有这种关系。*
But in film (and still photography), the signifier and the signified are almost identical: the sign of cinema is a short-circuit sign. A picture of a book is much closer to a book, conceptually, than the word “book” is. It’s true that we may have to learn in infancy or early childhood to interpret the picture of a book as meaning a book, but this is a great deal easier than learning to interpret the letters or sounds of the word “book” as what it signifies. A picture bears some direct relationship with what it signifies, but a word seldom does.*
正是这种短路标志的事实，使得电影语言变得如此难以讨论。正如梅斯所说的一句令人难忘的话：“一部电影很难解释，因为它很容易理解。” 这也使得“做”电影与“做”英语（无论是写作还是口语）截然不同。我们无法像修改语言系统的文字那样修改电影的符号。在电影中，玫瑰的形象就是玫瑰的形象就是玫瑰的形象——不多也不少。（这是一个图像，而不是事物。）英语中，玫瑰可以是玫瑰，简单地说，但它也可以被修饰或与类似的词混淆：rose、rosy、rosier、rosiest、rise、rise、rows (ruse)、arose、roselike，等等。甚至“玫瑰”这个声音本身也有多重含义。
It is the fact of this short-circuit sign that makes the language of film so difficult to discuss. As Metz put it, in a memorable phrase: “A film is difficult to explain because it is easy to understand.” It also makes “doing” film quite different from “doing” English (either writing or speaking). We can’t modify the signs of cinema the way we can modify the words of language systems. In cinema, an image of a rose is an image of a rose is an image of a rose—nothing more, nothing less. (It is an image, not the thing.) In English, a rose can be a rose, simply, but it can also be modified or confused with similar words: rose, rosy, rosier, rosiest, rise, risen, rows (ruse), arose, roselike, and so forth. Even the sound “rose” itself has multiple meanings.
语言系统的力量在于能指和所指之间存在着巨大的差异。电影的力量在于不存在。
The power of language systems is that there is a very great difference between the signifier and the signified; the power of film is that there is not.
尽管如此，电影就像一种语言。那么，它是如何做到这一点的呢？显然，一个人对某个物体的印象不是另一个人的。如果我们都读到“玫瑰”这个词，你可能会想到去年夏天采摘的传统玫瑰，而我则想到 1968 年 12 月劳拉·韦斯特法尔 (Laura Westphal) 送给我的一朵，或者是短片《界面》的道具我们拍摄于1995年。然而，在电影中，我们看到的是同一朵玫瑰，而电影制片人可以从无数种玫瑰中进行选择，然后以另一种无限多种方式拍摄所选择的玫瑰。艺术家在电影中的选择是没有限制的；艺术家对文学的选择是有限的，而对于观察者来说则相反：文学的伟大之处在于你可以想象；电影的伟大之处在于你不能。
Nevertheless, film is like a language. How, then, does it do what it does? Clearly, one person’s image of a certain object is not another’s. If we both read the word “rose” you may perhaps think of a Heritage rose you picked last summer, while I am thinking of the one Laura Westphal gave to me in December 1968, or the prop for “The Interface,” the short film we shot in 1995. In cinema, however, we both see the same rose, while the filmmaker can choose from an infinite variety of roses and then photograph the one chosen in another infinite variety of ways. The artist’s choice in cinema is without limit; the artist’s choice in literature is circumscribed while the reverse is true for the observer: the great thing about literature is that you can imagine; the great thing about film is that you can’t.
在这种情况下，电影并没有暗示：它陈述了。这就是它的力量以及它给观察者带来的危险：这就是为什么学会很好地阅读图像以便观察者能够抓住媒介的一些力量是有用的，甚至是至关重要的。一个人对图像的解读越好，对它的理解就越多，对它的掌控力就越大。一页纸的读者发明了图像，而电影的读者则不然，但两位读者都必须努力解释他们所感知到的符号，以完成智力过程。他们做的工作越多，观察者和创造者之间的平衡就越好；平衡越好，艺术作品就越有生命力和共鸣。
Film does not suggest, in this context: it states. And therein lies its power and the danger it poses to the observer: the reason why it is useful, even vital, to learn to read images well so that the observer can seize some of the power of the medium. The better one reads an image, the more one understands it, the more power one has over it. The reader of a page invents the image, the reader of a film does not, yet both readers must work to interpret the signs they perceive in order to complete the process of intellection. The more work they do, the better the balance between observer and creator in the process; the better the balance, the more vital and resonant the work of art.
最早的电影文本以短视的热情追求电影与书面/口头语言的粗略比较。标准理论认为，镜头是电影的单词，场景是句子，序列是段落。从这些划分集合按复杂性升序排列的意义上来说，这种比较是足够正确的。但在分析下它就会崩溃。
The earliest film texts pursued with shortsighted ardor the crude comparison of film and written/spoken language. The standard theory suggested that the shot was the word of film, the scene its sentence, and the sequence its paragraph. In the sense that these sets of divisions are arranged in ascending order of complexity, the comparison is true enough; but it breaks down under analysis.
暂时假设单词是最小的方便的意义单位，那么镜头是否等效？一点也不。首先，拍摄需要时间。在这段时间内，不断有不同数量的图像。那么，单个图像（即画面）是否构成了电影中意义的基本单位？答案仍然是否定的，因为每一帧都可能包含无限量的视觉信息，就像伴随它的配乐。虽然我们可以说电影镜头就像一个句子，因为它做出了陈述并且本身就足够了，但关键是电影并没有将自己划分为如此易于管理的单元。虽然我们可以从技术上很好地将“镜头”定义为单个电影，但如果特定镜头在内部被打断，会发生什么？相机可以移动；场景可以在平移或轨道中完全改变。那么我们应该谈论一枪还是两枪？
Assuming for the moment that a word is the smallest convenient unit of meaning, does the shot compare equivalently? Not at all. In the first place, a shot takes time. Within that time span there is a continually various number of images. Does the single image, the frame, then constitute the basic unit of meaning in film? Still the answer is no, since each frame includes a potentially infinite amount of visual information, as does the soundtrack that accompanies it. While we could say that a film shot is something like a sentence, since it makes a statement and is sufficient in itself, the point is that the film does not divide itself into such easily manageable units. While we can define “shot” technically well enough as a single piece of film, what happens if the particular shot is punctuated internally? The camera can move; the scene can change completely in a pan or track. Should we then be talking of one shot or two?
同样，场景在法国古典戏剧中被严格定义为角色进入或离开舞台时的开始和结束，而在电影中则更加无定形（就像今天的剧院一样）。毫无疑问，“场景”这个词很有用，但并不精确。序列当然比场景长，但“序列镜头”（其中单个镜头与序列相连）是一个重要的概念，其中没有更小的单元是离散的。
Likewise, scenes, which were defined strictly in French classical theater as beginning and ending whenever a character entered or left the stage, are more amorphous in film (as they are in theater today). The term “scene” is useful, no doubt, but not precise. Sequences are certainly longer than scenes, but the “sequence-shot,” in which a single shot is coterminous with a sequence, is an important concept and no smaller units within it are discrete.
电影的真正科学，就像物理学一样，似乎取决于我们是否能够定义最小的结构单位。我们可以从技术上做到这一点，至少对于图像来说：它是单帧。但这肯定不是最小的意义单位。事实上，电影与书面或口头语言不同，它本身并不是由单元组成的，而是意义的连续体。一个镜头包含了我们想要在其中读取的尽可能多的信息，并且我们在镜头中定义的任何单位都是任意的。
It would seem that a real science of film, as in physics, would depend on our being able to define the smallest unit of construction. We can do that technically, at least for the image: it is the single frame. But this is certainly not the smallest unit of meaning. The fact is that film, unlike written or spoken language, is not composed of units as such, but is rather a continuum of meaning. A shot contains as much information as we want to read in it, and whatever units we define within the shot are arbitrary.
因此，电影向我们呈现了一种（某种）语言：
Therefore, film presents us with a language (of sorts) that:
由短路符号组成，其中能指几乎等于所指；和
consists of short-circuit signs in which the signifier nearly equals the signified; and
依赖于一个连续的、非离散的系统，在这个系统中我们无法识别一个基本单位，因此我们无法定量地描述它。
depends on a continuous, nondiscrete system in which we can’t identify a basic unit and which therefore we can’t describe quantitatively.
结果是，正如克里斯蒂安·梅茨所说：“电影是一种简单的艺术，但它始终面临着成为这种简单的受害者的危险。” 电影太容易理解了，所以很难分析。“一部电影很难解释，因为它很容易理解。”
The result is that, as Christian Metz says: “An easy art, the cinema is in constant danger of falling victim to this easiness.” Film is too intelligible, which is what makes it difficult to analyze. “A film is difficult to explain because it is easy to understand.”
外延意义和内涵意义
Denotative and Connotative Meaning
然而，电影确实能够传达意义。他们基本上以两种不同的方式做到这一点：外延式和内涵式。
Films do, however, manage to communicate meaning. They do this essentially in two different manners: denotatively and connotatively.
就像书面语言一样，但在更大程度上，电影图像或声音具有外延意义：它就是它本来的样子，我们不必努力去认识它。这似乎是一个简单的说法，但事实不容低估：电影的巨大力量就在于此。有一个实质性的对一个人或事件的文字描述（甚至静态照片）与电影记录之间的区别。因为电影可以让我们如此接近现实，所以它可以传达书面或口头语言很少能传达的精确知识。“电影是你无法想象的。” 语言系统可能能够更好地处理非具体的思想和抽象世界（例如，想象一下这本书，在电影中：如果没有完整的叙述，它将难以理解），但它们几乎没有能力传达有关以下内容的精确信息：物理现实。
Like written language, but to a greater degree, a film image or sound has a denotative meaning: it is what it is and we don’t have to strive to recognize it. This may seem a simplistic statement, but the fact should never be underestimated: here lies the great strength of film. There is a substantial difference between a description in words (or even in still photographs) of a person or event, and a cinematic record of the same. Because film can give us such a close approximation of reality, it can communicate a precise knowledge that written or spoken language seldom can. “Film is what you can’t imagine.” Language systems may be much better equipped to deal with the nonconcrete world of ideas and abstractions (imagine this book, for example, on film: without a complete narration it would be incomprehensible), but they are not nearly so capable of conveying precise information about physical realities.
图 3-7。逻各斯。标识的概念自中世纪以来就一直伴随着我们，当时行会成员在他们的作品上打上专有的标记。在二十世纪，标志成为企业形象的重要标志。电话公司异常幸运。“贝尔系统”由亚历山大·格雷厄姆·贝尔 (Alexander Graham Bell) 创建，其名称与其最具识别性的特征相呼应，也很容易被想象。早年的企业意识经常以签名进行交易，例如福特的签名，或者看似更个人化的脚本，可口可乐。（甚至丝带处理也受到保护。）国际商业机器公司——正如它们曾经被称为的那样——开始了缩写词的趋势。Esso（SO（标准石油）的派生词）在 20 世纪 60 年代认为这个随机词不够现代；他们重生为埃克森，其理论是x在某种程度上更现代（尽管他们仍然是欧洲的埃索）。许多大公司纷纷效仿他们的做法，试图重塑自己，尽管只是名义上的。这一趋势在七十年代中期达到顶峰，当时 NBC，最令人难忘的音乐标志之一的所有者，花费超过 70 万美元购买了一个漂亮的红蓝“N”，却发现内布拉斯加州的一家公共电视台已经有了相同的标志（他们几乎没有支付任何费用）。在早期的电影制片厂中，米高梅和福克斯拥有最精致的标志。尽管三四十年代的许多制片人在他们的电影中使用了他们的签名，但只有阿尔弗雷德·希区柯克开发了令人难忘的个人标志。
Figure 3-7. LOGOS. The concept of the logotype has been with us since medieval times, when guildsmen stamped their work with a proprietary mark. In the twentieth century, the logo became a crucial mark of corporate identity. The telephone company was unusually lucky. Founded by Alexander Graham Bell, the “Bell System” was born with a name that echoed its most identifying feature and was also easily pictured. The early years of the corporate consciousness often traded on signatures, like Ford’s, or seemingly more personal script, Coca-Cola. (Even the ribbon treatment is protected.) International Business Machines—as they were once known—began the trend to acronyms. Esso (a derivation of S. O.—Standard Oil) decided in the 1960s that that nonce-word wasn’t modern enough; they were reborn as Exxon, on the theory that x’s are somehow more contemporary (although they remained Esso in Europe). Scores of major corporations followed their lead, attempting to reinvent themselves, if in name only. The trend peaked in the mid-seventies, when NBC, owner of one of the most memorable musical logos, paid over $700,000 for a nice red and blue “N” only to discover that a public television station in Nebraska already had the same logo (for which they had paid next to nothing). Of the early film studios MGM and Fox had the most elaborate logos. Although numerous producers of the thirties and forties used their signatures on their films, only Alfred Hitchcock developed a memorable personal logo.
就其本质而言，书面/口语分析。写“玫瑰”这个词，就是对玫瑰这个概念的概括和抽象。语言的真正力量不在于它们的外延能力，而在于语言的内涵：我们可以赋予一个词超越其外延的丰富意义。例如，如果外延是衡量一种语言力量的唯一标准，那么英语——其词汇量约为一百万个单词，是历史上最大的语言——的力量将是法语的三倍多，而法语的力量是法语的三倍多。只有三十万字左右。但法语通过明显更多地使用内涵来弥补其“有限”的词汇量。电影也具有内涵能力。
By its very nature, written/spoken language analyzes. To write the word “rose” is to generalize and abstract the idea of the rose. The real power of the linguistic languages lies not in their denotative ability but in this connotative aspect of language: the wealth of meaning we can attach to a word that surpasses its denotation. If denotation were the only measure of the power of a language, for example, then English—which has a vocabulary of a million or so words and is the largest language in history—would be more than three times more powerful than French, which has only 300,000 or so words. But French makes up for its “limited” vocabulary with a noticeably greater use of connotation. Film has connotative abilities as well.
考虑到电影声音和图像的强烈外延性，令人惊讶地发现这些内涵性能力在很大程度上是电影语言的一部分。其实，很多都源于电影的外延能力。正如我们在第一章中所指出的，电影可以利用所有其他艺术来实现各种效果，仅仅是因为它可以记录它们。这样，口语的内涵就可以容纳在电影配乐中，而书面语言的内涵就可以容纳在片名中（更不用说舞蹈、音乐、绘画等的内涵了）。因为电影是文化的产物，所以它的共鸣超出了符号学家所说的“diegesis”（其外延的总和）。例如，玫瑰的形象不仅仅是在理查德三世的电影中出现的那样，因为我们知道白玫瑰和红玫瑰作为约克和兰开斯特家族象征的含义。这些是文化决定的内涵。
Considering the strongly denotative quality of film sounds and images, it is surprising to discover that these connotative abilities are very much a part of the film language. In fact, many of them stem from film’s denotative ability. As we have noted in Chapter 1, film can draw on all the other arts for various effects simply because it can record them. Thus, all the connotative factors of spoken language can be accommodated on a film soundtrack while the connotations of written language can be included in titles (to say nothing of the connotative factors of dance, music, painting, and so forth). Because film is a product of culture, it has resonances that go beyond what the semiotician calls its “diegesis” (the sum of its denotations). An image of a rose is not simply that when it appears in a film of Richard III, for example, because we are aware of the connotations of the white rose and the red as symbols of the houses of York and Lancaster. These are culturally determined connotations.
除了这些普遍文化的影响之外，电影还有其独特的内涵能力。我们知道（即使我们不经常有意识地提醒自己）电影制作者已经做出了特定的选择：从某个角度拍摄玫瑰，镜头移动或不动，颜色明亮或暗淡，玫瑰是新鲜的还是褪色的，刺是明显的还是隐藏的，背景清晰（以便在上下文中看到玫瑰）或模糊（以便它被孤立），镜头保持很长时间或短暂，等等。这些都是对电影内涵的具体辅助，虽然我们可以在文学中近似其效果，但我们无法以电影的精确度或效率来实现它。正如谚语所说，有时一张图片胜过一千个文字。
In addition to these influences from the general culture, film has its own unique connotative ability. We know (even if we don’t often remind ourselves of it consciously) that a filmmaker has made specific choices: the rose is filmed from a certain angle, the camera moves or does not move, the color is bright or dull, the rose is fresh or fading, the thorns apparent or hidden, the background clear (so that the rose is seen in context) or vague (so that it is isolated), the shot held for a long time or briefly, and so on. These are specific aids to cinematic connotation, and although we can approximate their effect in literature, we cannot accomplish it there with the precision or efficiency of cinema. A picture is, on occasion, worth a thousand words, as the adage has it.
当我们对某个特定镜头的内涵的感觉取决于它是从一系列其他可能的镜头中选择出来的时，那么我们可以用符号学的语言说，这是一种范式内涵。那也就是说，我们理解的内涵意义源于将镜头与此类镜头的范式或一般模型中未实现的同伴进行比较，不一定是有意识的。例如，低角度拍摄的玫瑰会传达出一种感觉，即该花出于某种原因占据主导地位，具有压倒性的力量，因为我们有意识或无意识地将其与例如玫瑰的俯视镜头进行比较，这会削弱其重要性。
When our sense of the connotation of a specific shot depends on its having been chosen from a range of other possible shots, then we can say that this is, using the language of semiotics, a paradigmatic connotation. That is, the connotative sense we comprehend stems from the shot being compared, not necessarily consciously, with its unrealized companions in the paradigm, or general model, of this type of shot. A low-angle shot of a rose, for example, conveys a sense that the flower is for some reason dominant, overpowering, because we consciously or unconsciously compare it with, say, an overhead shot of a rose, which would diminish its importance.
图 3-8。玫瑰不一定是玫瑰。(A) 詹姆斯·罗森奎斯特的玫瑰：掸掉玫瑰上的灰尘。1965 年。（石版画，彩色印刷，构图：25 15/16” x 21 11/16”。收藏，纽约现代艺术博物馆。Celeste 和 Armand Bartos 基金会的礼物。照片 © 1995 现代艺术博物馆，纽约。）（B）《界面》中的玫瑰。©白玫瑰和红玫瑰，来自奥利维尔的《理查三世》的片尾字幕。
Figure 3-8. A rose is not necessarily a rose. (A) James Rosenquist’s roses: Dusting Off Roses. 1965. (Lithograph, printed in color, composition: 25 15/16” by 21 11/16”. Collection, Museum of Modern Art, New York. Gift of the Celeste and Armand Bartos Foundation. Photograph © 1995 The Museum of Modern Art, NewYork.) (B) The rose from “The Interface.” ©The white rose and the red, from the credits to Olivier’s Richard III.
相反，当玫瑰的重要性不取决于该镜头与其他潜在镜头相比，而是取决于该镜头与它之前或之后的实际镜头相比时，那么我们就可以谈论它的组合内涵；也就是说，它的含义是固定的，因为它与我们确实看到的其他镜头进行了比较。
Conversely, when the significance of the rose depends not on the shot compared with other potential shots, but rather on the shot compared with actual shots that precede or follow it, then we can speak of its syntagmatic connotation; that is, the meaning adheres to it because it is compared with other shots that we do see.
图 3-9。图标。英格玛·伯格曼的《面对面》 (1975) 中的丽芙·乌尔曼。这个鲜明的形象就是这样。
Figure 3-9. ICON. Liv Ullmann in Ingmar Bergman’s Face to Face (1975). This stark image is what it is.
这两种不同的内涵在文学中也有对应的含义。页面上单独的单词没有特定的含义，只有外延。我们知道它的意思，我们也可能知道它的含义，但在我们在上下文中看到它之前，我们无法提供该词的作者所想到的特定含义。然后我们知道它有什么特定的内涵价值，因为我们通过有意识或无意识地将它与（1）所有可能适合这个上下文但没有被选择的类似单词进行比较来判断它的含义，以及（2）前面或后面的单词跟着它。
These two different kinds of connotation have their equivalents in literature. A word alone on the page has no particular connotation, only denotation. We know what it means, we also know potentially what it connotes, but we can’t supply the particular connotation the author of the word has in mind until we see it in context. Then we know what particular connotative value it has because we judge its meaning by conscious or unconscious comparison of it with (1) all the words like it that might fit in this context but were not chosen, and (2) the words that precede or follow it.
这两个意义轴——范式和组合——作为理解电影意义的工具具有真正的价值。事实上，电影作为一门艺术，几乎完全取决于这两组选择。当电影制片人决定拍摄什么后，两个令人着迷的问题是如何拍摄（做出什么选择：范式）和如何呈现镜头（如何编辑它：组合）。相比之下，在文学中，第一个问题（如何说）是最重要的，而第二个问题（如何表达所说的内容）则是次要的。到目前为止，符号学一直集中在电影的组合方面，原因很简单：正是在这里电影与其他艺术最明显的不同，因此组合类别（剪辑、蒙太奇）在某种意义上是最“电影化”的。
These two axes of meaning—the paradigmatic and the syntagmatic—have real value as tools for understanding what film means. In fact, as an art, film depends almost entirely upon these two sets of choices. After a filmmaker has decided what to shoot, the two obsessive questions are how to shoot it (what choices to make: the paradigmatic) and how to present the shot (how to edit it: the syntagmatic). In literature, in contrast, the first question (how to say it) is paramount, while the second (how to present what is said) is quite secondary. Semiotics, so far, has concentrated on the syntagmatic aspect of film, for a very simple reason: it is here that film is most clearly different from other arts, so that the syntagmatic category (editing, montage) is in a sense the most “cinematic”.
图 3-10。指数。伯格曼的耻辱(1968) 中的丽芙·乌尔曼。提供金钱——枕头上的一卷现金——是卖淫的标志，因此也是伊娃羞耻的标志。
Figure 3-10. INDEX. Liv Ullmann in Bergman’s Shame (1968). The offer of money—the roll of cash on the pillow—is an index of prostitution and, hence, of Eva’s shame.
电影借鉴了其他艺术的大部分内涵力量，并在范式和组合上产生了自己的力量。但内涵意义还有另一个来源。严格来说，电影并不是一种相互交流的媒介。人们很少用电影作为媒介进行对话。口语和书面语言用于相互交流，而电影，就像一般的非具象艺术（以及用于艺术目的的语言）一样，是一种单向交流。因此，即使是最实用的电影在某些方面也具有艺术性。电影用新词说话。“当一种‘语言’还不存在时，”梅茨写道，“一个人必须是一位艺术家才能说它，无论多么糟糕。因为说它部分是为了发明它，而说日常语言只是为了使用它。” 因此，即使是电影中最简单的陈述也蕴含着内涵。
Film draws on the other arts for much of its connotative power as well as generating its own, both paradigmatically and syntagmatically. But there is also another source of connotative sense. Cinema is not strictly a medium of intercommunication. One seldom holds dialogues using film as the medium. Whereas spoken and written languages are used for intercommunication, film, like the nonrepresentational arts in general (as well as language when it is used for artistic purposes), is a one-way communication. As a result, even the most utilitarian of films is artistic in some respect. Film speaks in neologisms. “When a ’language’ does not already exist,” Metz wrote, “one must be something of an artist to speak it, however poorly. For to speak it is partly to invent it, whereas to speak the language of everyday is simply to use it.” So connotations attach to even the simplest statements in film.
有一个古老的笑话可以说明这一点：两个哲学家相遇；两个哲学家相遇；两个哲学家相遇。有人说：“早上好！” 另一个人微笑着表示认可，然后皱着眉头继续走，心里想着：“我不知道他这句话是什么意思？” 这当口语为主题时，问题就是一个笑话；然而，对于电影中的任何陈述来说，这是一个完全合理的问题。
There is an old joke that illustrates the point: Two philosophers meet; one says “Good morning!” The other smiles in recognition, then walks on frowning and thinking to himself: “I wonder what he meant by that?” The question is a joke when spoken language is the subject; it is however, a perfectly legitimate question to ask of any statement in film.
图 3-11。象征。伯格曼在他的电影中经常使用棺材和尸体作为象征。在这里，乌尔曼再次面对面……
Figure 3-11. SYMBOL. Bergman often uses coffins and corpses as symbols in his films. Here, Ullmann again in Face to Face …
有没有办法进一步区分电影中的各种外延和内涵方式？彼得·沃伦（Peter Wollen）借用哲学家 CS Peirce 的“三分法”，在其极具影响力的《电影中的符号与意义》（Signs and Meaning in the Cinema，1969）一书中提出，电影符号分为三个等级：
Is there any way we can further differentiate the various modes of denotation and connotation in film? Borrowing a “trichotomy” from the philosopher C. S. Peirce, Peter Wollen, in his highly influential book Signs and Meaning in the Cinema (1969), suggested that cinematic signs are of three orders:
图标：一种符号，其中能指主要通过与所指的相似性、相似性来代表所指；
The Icon: a sign in which the signifier represents the signified mainly by its similarity to it, its likeness;
指数：它衡量一种质量，不是因为它与它相同，而是因为它与它有内在的关系；
The Index: which measures a quality not because it is identical to it but because it has an inherent relationship to it;
符号：一种任意符号，其中能指与所指既没有直接关系也没有索引关系，而是通过约定来表示它。
The Symbol: an arbitrary sign in which the signifier has neither a direct nor an indexical relationship to the signified, but rather represents it through convention.
虽然沃伦没有将它们归入外延/内涵类别，但图标、索引和符号可以被视为主要是外延的。当然，肖像是图标，但皮尔斯/沃伦系统中的图表也是图标。索引更难定义。沃伦引用皮尔斯的话提出了两种指标，一种是技术性的——医学症状是健康指标，时钟和日晷是时间的索引——还有一个比喻：滚动的步态表明一个人是一名水手。（这是皮尔士/沃伦范畴接近内涵的一点。）符号，第三类，更容易定义。按照皮尔斯和沃伦的使用方式，这个词有一个相当广泛的定义：词是符号（因为能指通过惯例而不是相似性来代表所指）。
Although Wollen didn’t fit them into the denotative/connotative categories, Icon, Index, and Symbol can be seen as mainly denotative. Portraits are icons, of course, but so are diagrams in the Peirce/Wollen system. Indexes are more difficult to define. Quoting Peirce, Wollen suggests two sorts of indexes, one technical—medical symptoms are indexes of health, clocks and sundials are indexes of time—and one metaphorical: a rolling gait should indicate that a man is a sailor. (This is the one point where the Peirce/Wollen categories verge on the connotative.) Symbols, the third category, are more easily defined. The way Peirce and Wollen use it, the word has a rather broad definition: words are symbols (since the signifier represents the signified through convention rather than resemblance).
图 3-12。……以及《狼时刻》（1966 年）中的马克斯·冯·西多 (Max von Sydow)。
Figure 3-12. … and Max von Sydow in Hour of the Wolf (1966).
这三个类别并不相互排斥。尤其是在摄影图像中，标志性因素几乎总是很重要的。正如我们所指出的，一个事物就是它本身，即使它也是一个索引或一个符号。一般符号学理论，尤其是克里斯蒂安·梅茨的著作中提出的理论，已经相当好地涵盖了第一个和最后一个类别——图标和符号。图标是电影特有的短路标志。符号是任意或约定的符号，是口头和书面语言的基础。在皮尔士和沃伦的体系中，第二类——指数——是最有趣的：它似乎是介于电影图标和文学符号之间的第三种手段，电影可以通过它来传达意义。它不是任意的符号，但也不是完全相同的。它建议一个第三种外延，直接指向内涵，离开内涵的维度，实际上可能无法理解。
These three categories are not mutually exclusive. Especially in photographic images, the iconic factor is almost always a strong one. As we have noted, a thing is itself even if it is also an index or a symbol. General semiotic theory, especially as it is put forth in Christian Metz’s writings, covers the first and last categories—icon and symbol—fairly well already. The icon is the short-circuit sign that is so characteristic of cinema; the symbol is the arbitrary or conventional sign that is the basis of spoken and written language. It is the second category—the index—that is most intriguing in Peirce and Wollen’s system: it seems to be a third means, halfway between the cinematic icon and the literary symbol, by which cinema can convey meaning. It is not an arbitrary sign, but neither is it identical. It suggests a third type of denotation that points directly toward connotation, and may in fact not be understandable without the dimension of connotation.
图 3-13。转喻。在《红色沙漠》（1964）中，米开朗基罗·安东尼奥尼发展了一种精确的色彩转喻。在影片的大部分时间里，朱丽安娜（莫妮卡·维蒂饰）在心理和政治上都受到灰色和死气沉沉的城市工业环境的压迫。当她多次成功摆脱束缚时，安东尼奥尼用鲜艳的色彩表示她暂时的独立（以及可能恢复健康），这一细节不仅在这部电影中，而且在一般文化中都与健康和幸福相关。在这个场景中，朱丽安娜试图开设自己的商店。灰色的墙壁上点缀着绚丽的色彩斑点（对自由的尝试），但形状本身却是暴力的、杂乱的、令人恐惧的（神经症的复发）。总之，这是一组复杂的转喻。
Figure 3-13. METONYMY. In Red Desert (1964), Michelangelo Antonioni developed a precise metonymic of color. Throughout most of the film, Giuliana (Monica Vitti) is oppressed psychologically and politically by a gray and deathly urban industrial environment. When she manages to break away from its grip on several occasions, Antonioni signals her temporary independence (and possible return to health) with bright colors, a detail associated with health and happiness not only in this film but in general culture as well. In this scene, Giuliana attempts to open her own shop. The gray walls are punctuated with splotches of brilliant color (the attempt at freedom), but the shapes themselves are violent, disorganized, frightening (the relapse into neurosis). In all, a complicated set of metonymies.
该索引似乎是电影直接处理想法的一种非常有用的方式，因为它为我们提供了它们的具体表示或测量。例如，我们如何以电影的方式传达热度的概念？在书面语言中这很容易，但在电影中呢？温度计的形象很快就会浮现在脑海中。显然这是一个温度指数。但还有更微妙的指标：汗水是一个指标，闪闪发光的大气波和热色也是一个指标。隐喻在电影中是困难的，这是电影美学的不言而喻的真理。将爱情与玫瑰进行比较在文学中很有效，但它的电影对应物却带来了问题：玫瑰作为隐喻的次要元素，在电影中过于等同。电影院，太多的礼物。其结果是，基于文学模式的电影隐喻往往显得粗糙、静态和强迫。索引符号可能会提供摆脱这种困境的方法。在这里，电影发现了自己独特的隐喻力量，这要归功于框架的灵活性：它能够同时表达很多东西。
The index seems to be one very useful way in which cinema can deal directly with ideas, since it gives us concrete representations or measurements of them. How can we convey the idea of hotness cinematically, for instance? In written language it’s very easy, but on film? The image of a thermometer quickly comes to mind. Clearly that is an index of temperature. But there are more subtle indexes as well: sweat is an index, as are shimmering atmospheric waves and hot colors. It’s a truism of film esthetics that metaphors are difficult in cinema. Comparing love with roses works well enough in literature, but its cinematic equivalent poses problems: the rose, the secondary element of the metaphor, is too equivalent in cinema, too much present. As a result, cinematic metaphors based on the literary model tend to be crude and static and forced. The indexical sign may offer a way out of this dilemma. Here film discovers its own, unique metaphorical power, which it owes to the flexibility of the frame: its ability to say many things at once.
图 3-14。转喻。在克洛德·夏布洛尔 (Claude Chabrol) 的《丽达》( Leda，1959) 中，安德烈·乔斯林 (André Jocelyn) 塑造了一个精神分裂症患者的角色。破裂的镜子中的形象是一个简单、合乎逻辑的转喻。
Figure 3-14. METONYMY. In Claude Chabrol’s Leda (1959), André Jocelyn portrays a schizophrenic character. The image in the cracked mirror is a simple, logical metonymy.
索引的概念也引出了一些关于内涵的有趣想法。从上述讨论中应该清楚，外延和内涵之间的界限并没有明确界定：存在一个连续体。在电影中，就像在书面和口头语言中一样，如果内涵变得足够强大，最终就会被接受为外延意义。事实上，电影的内涵力量很大程度上取决于索引手段。也就是说，它们不是任意的符号，但它们也不相同。
The concept of the index also leads us to some interesting ideas about connotation. It should be clear from the above discussion that the line between denotation and connotation is not clearly defined: there is a continuum. In film, as in written and spoken language, connotations if they become strong enough are eventually accepted as denotative meanings. As it happens, much of the connotative power of film depends on devices that are indexical; that is, they are not arbitrary signs, but neither are they identical.
文学研究中的两个术语彼此密切相关，用于描述电影传达内涵意义的主要方式。“转喻”是一种修辞手法，其中使用相关的细节或概念来调用想法或表示对象。从词源学来看，这个词的意思是“替代命名”（来自希腊语元，涉及转移，以及onoma，姓名）。因此，在文学中，我们可以将国王（以及王权的概念）称为“王冠”，或将警察称为“法律”。“提喻”是一种修辞格，其中部分代表整体或整体代表部分。汽车可以称为“发动机”或“一组车轮”；水手被称为“手”。
Two terms from literary studies, closely associated with each other, serve to describe the main manner in which film conveys connotative meaning. A “metonymy” is a figure of speech in which an associated detail or notion is used to invoke an idea or represent an object. Etymologically, the word means “substitute naming” (from the Greek meta, involving transfer, and onoma, name). Thus, in literature we can speak of the king (and the idea of kingship) as “the crown,” or a policeman as “the law.” A “synecdoche” is a figure of speech in which the part stands for the whole or the whole for the part. An automobile can be referred to as a “motor” or a “set of wheels”; sailors are referred to as “hands.”
图 3-15。比喻。朱丽安娜再次出现在红色沙漠，这一次，工业机械包围并几乎淹没了工业机械，这是代表城市社会“整体”的“部分”。压迫她的不是这艘船或码头边的管道神经节，而是它们所代表的更大的现实。
Figure 3-15. SYNECDOCHE. Giuliana in Red Desert, again, this time surrounded and nearly overwhelmed by industrial machinery, a “part” that stands for the “whole” of her urban society. It isn’t this ship or the dockside ganglion of pipes that oppress her, but the larger reality they represent.
这两种形式在电影中不断重复出现。上面提到的热指数显然是转喻的：相关的细节引发了一个抽象的想法。好莱坞的许多陈词滥调都是提喻（代表军队行进的脚步的特写镜头）和转喻（掉落的日历页、铁路发动机的驱动轮）。事实上，由于转喻手段非常适合电影的利用，因此电影在这方面比文学更有效。相关的细节可以被压缩在框架的范围内，以呈现出非凡的丰富性。转喻是一种电影速记法。
Both of these forms recur constantly in cinema. The indexes of heat mentioned above are clearly metonymical: associated details invoke an abstract idea. Many of the old clichés of Hollywood are synecdochic (close shots of marching feet to represent an army) and metonymic (the falling calendar pages, the driving wheels of the railroad engine). Indeed, because metonymical devices yield themselves so well to cinematic exploitation, cinema can be more efficient in this regard than literature can. Associated details can be compressed within the limits of the frame to present a statement of extraordinary richness. Metonymy is a kind of cinematic shorthand.
图 3-16。比喻。戈达尔的《中国女人》（1967）中的朱丽叶·贝托（Juliet Berto）构建了毛主席的“红宝书”的理论屏障，这些部分代表了整个马克思主义/列宁主义/毛主义意识形态，她所属的“粗俗分子”群体用这些意识形态来保护自己，并由此打算向资产阶级社会发起攻击。
Figure 3-16. SYNECDOCHE. Juliet Berto in Godard’s La Chinoise (1967) has constructed a theoretical barricade of Chairman Mao’s “Little Red Books,” parts that stand for the whole ol Marxist/Leninist/Maoist ideology with which the group of “gauchistes” to which she belongs protect themselves, and from which they intend to launch an attack on bourgeois society.
术语“提喻”和“转喻”——就像“图标”、“索引”和“符号”一样——当然是不精确的。它们是理论结构，可以帮助分析；它们不是严格的定义。例如，这种特殊的提喻可能更适合归类为转喻，其中小红书是相关的细节，而不是代表整体的部分。（该决定本身具有意识形态色彩！）同样，虽然这张图像似乎最容易归类为索引性图像，但其中肯定存在标志性和象征性的元素。
The terms “synecdoche” and “metonymy”—like “Icon,” “Index,” and “Symbol”—are, ol course, imprecise. They are theoretical constructs that may be useful as aids to analysis; they are not strict definitions. This particular synecdoche, for example, might be better classified as a metonymy in which the little red books are associated details rather than parts standing for the whole. (The decision itself has ideological overtones!) Likewise, although this image seems easiest to classify as Indexical, there are certainly elements of the Iconic and Symbolic in it.
正如一般来说，我们对电影内涵的感觉取决于对图像与未选择的图像（范式）以及前后图像（组合）的理解比较一样，我们对文化内涵的感觉也取决于对图像与未选择的图像（范式）和前后图像（组合）的理解比较部分与整体（提喻）以及相关细节与想法（转喻）。电影是一门艺术，是一种延伸和索引的媒介。它的大部分意义不是来自我们所看到（或听到）的东西，而是来自我们没有看到的东西，或者更准确地说，来自我们所看到的与我们没有看到的东西的持续比较过程。这很讽刺，因为乍一看电影似乎是一门显而易见的艺术，经常被批评为“没有留下任何想象空间”。
Just as, in general, our sense of cinema’s connotations depends on understood comparisons of the image with images that were not chosen (paradigmatic) and images that came before and after (syntagmatic), so our sense of the cultural connotations depends upon understood comparisons of the part with the whole (synecdoche) and associated details with ideas (metonymy). Cinema is an art and a medium of extensions and indexes. Much of its meaning comes not from what we see (or hear) but from what we don’t see or, more accurately, from an ongoing process of comparison of what we see with what we don’t see. This is ironic, considering that cinema at first glance seems to be an art that is all too evident, one that is often criticized for “leaving nothing to the imagination.”
事实恰恰相反。在一部具有严格内涵的电影中，图像和声音是非常容易和直接理解的。但很少有电影是严格意义上的；它们情不自禁地具有内涵，“因为说话[电影]部分是为了发明它。” 当然，坚决抵制的观察者可以选择忽视电影的内涵力量，但学会阅读电影的观察者却可以获得多种内涵。
Quite the contrary is true. In a film of strict denotation, images and sounds are quite easily and directly understood. But very few films are strictly denotative; they can’t help but be connotative, “for to speak [film] is partly to invent it.” The observer who adamantly resists, of course, can choose to ignore the connotative power of film, but the observer who has learned to read film has available a multitude of connotations.
例如，阿尔弗雷德·希区柯克（Alfred Hitchcock）在长达半个多世纪的职业生涯中制作了许多非常受欢迎的电影。我们可以将他的评论界和受欢迎的成功归因于他的电影主题——当然，这部惊悚片在观众中引起了深刻的共鸣——但我们如何解释他的模仿者失败的惊悚片呢？事实上，电影的戏剧性及其吸引力并不在于拍摄的内容（即主题的戏剧性），而在于如何拍摄和如何呈现。正如成千上万的评论家所证明的那样，希区柯克是这两项关键任务的杰出大师。电影制作的戏剧性在很大程度上取决于这些密切相关的决策集的脑力劳动。“文化程度高”的电影观众在有意识的层面上欣赏希区柯克高超的电影智慧，而文化程度较低的电影观众则在无意识的层面上欣赏希区柯克的智慧，但这种智慧仍然有其作用。
Alfred Hitchcock, for example, made a number of very popular films in a career that spanned more than half a century. We could ascribe his critical and popular success to the subjects of his films—certainly the thriller strikes a deep responsive chord in audiences—but then how do we account for the failed thrillers of his imitators? In truth, the drama of film, its attraction, lies not so much in what is shot (that’s the drama of the subject), but in how it is shot and how it is presented. And as thousands of commentators have attested, Hitchcock was the master par excellence of these two critical tasks. The drama of filmmaking in large part lies in the brainwork of these closely associated sets of decisions. Highly “literate” filmgoers appreciate Hitchcock’s superb cinematic intelligence on a conscious level, less literate filmgoers on an unconscious level, but the intelligence has its effect, nevertheless.
电影符号学的词汇中还有一个元素需要添加：比喻。在文学理论中，比喻是“措辞的转变”或“意义的改变”；换句话说，这是一种逻辑扭曲，赋予符号的元素——能指和所指——彼此之间一种新的关系。因此，比喻是外延和内涵之间的连接元素。当玫瑰就是玫瑰就是玫瑰时，它就不是别的东西，它作为一个符号的含义是严格的外延性的。但当玫瑰变成别的东西时，就发生了“转变”，这个标志就被赋予了新的含义。到目前为止，我们描述的电影符号学地图是静态的。比喻的概念使我们能够动态地将其视为行动而不是事实。
One more element remains to be added to the lexicon of film semiotics: the trope. In literary theory, a trope is a “turn of phrase” or a “change of sense”; in other words, a logical twist that gives the elements of a sign—the signifier and the signified—a new relationship to each other. The trope is therefore the connecting element between denotation and connotation. When a rose is a rose is a rose it isn’t anything else, and its meaning as a sign is strictly denotative. But when a rose is something else, a “turning” has been made and the sign is opened up to new meanings. The map of film semiotics we have described so far has been static. The concept of the trope allows us to view it dynamically, as actions rather than facts.
正如我们在前面的章节中所指出的，电影的力量的重要来源之一是它可以复制大多数其他艺术的比喻。它还有一套自己的比喻。我们在本章第一部分描述了它们的一般运作方式。给定玫瑰的图像，我们首先只有它的标志性或象征性的外延意义，这是静态的。但是，当我们开始通过比较的比喻来扩展可能性时，图像就变得生动起来：作为一种内涵索引，就可能镜头的范式而言，在电影中关联的组合背景中，因为它被隐喻地用作转喻或提喻。
As we have noted in earlier chapters, one of the great sources of power in film is that it can reproduce the tropes of most of the other arts. There is also a set of tropes that it has made its own. We have described the way they operate in general in the first part of this chapter. Given an image of a rose, we at first have only its iconic or symbolic denotative meaning, which is static. But when we begin to expand the possibilities through tropes of comparison, the image comes alive: as a connotative index, in terms of the paradigm of possible shots, in the syntagmatic context of its associations in the film, as it is used metaphorically as a metonymy or a synecdoche.
图 3-17。比喻。_ 达利和布努埃尔的超现实主义经典作品《一条安达卢的狗》（ Un Chien Andalou ，1928）中的一只被蚂蚁覆盖的手。另一张非常复杂的图像，不容易分析。标志性、索引性和象征性的价值都存在：图像本身就引人注目；它是衡量手的主人的灵魂感染程度的标准；这当然也象征着更普遍的不适。这是转喻，因为蚂蚁是“相关细节”；它也是提喻的，因为手是代表整体的一部分。最后，图像的来源似乎是一个比喻：法语成语“avoir des fourmis dans les mains”的双关语，“手中有蚂蚁”，相当于英语“我的手睡着了”的表达方式”。通过从字面上说明短语的转变，达利和布努埃尔扩展了这一比喻，使共同的经历变成了衰败的显着标志。（我感谢 David Bombyk 的分析。）（MOMA/FSA）
Figure 3-17. TROPE. An ant-covered hand from Dali and Buñuel’s surrealist classic Un Chien Andalou (1928). Another very complex image, not easily analyzed. Iconic, Indexical, and Symbolic values are all present: the image is striking for its own sake; it is a measure of the infestation of the soul of the owner of the hand; it is certainly symbolic of a more general malaise, as well. It is metonymic, because the ants are an “associated detail”; it is also synecdochic, because the hand is a part that stands for the whole. Finally, the source of the image seems to be a trope: a verbal pun on the French idiom, “avoir des fourmis dans les mains,” “to have ants in the hand,” an expression equivalent to the English “my hand is asleep.” By illustrating the turn of phrase literally, Dali and Bunuel extended the trope so that a common experience is turned into a striking sign ol decay. (I am indebted to David Bombyk for this analysis.) (MOMA/FSA)
毫无疑问，还有其他类别的电影符号学有待发现、分析和传播。下图所示的系统绝不意味着是详尽的或一成不变的。符号学绝对不是物理学或生物学意义上的科学。（你不能在符号学中进行实验。）但它是一个合乎逻辑的、常常具有启发性的系统，有助于描述电影如何发挥作用。
There are undoubtedly other categories of film semiotics yet to be discovered, analyzed, propagated. In no sense is the system shown in the chart below meant to be either exhaustive or immutable. Semiotics is most definitely not a science in the sense that physics or biology is a science. (You can’t experiment in semiotics.) But it is a logical, often illuminating system that helps to describe how film does what it does.
电影很难解释，因为它很容易理解。电影的符号学很容易解释，因为它很难理解。介于两者之间的是电影的天才。
Film is difficult to explain because it is easy to understand. The semiotics of film is easy to explain because it is difficult to understand. Somewhere between lies the genius of film.
句法
Syntax
电影没有语法。然而，电影语言中有一些定义模糊的使用规则，而电影的句法——它的系统安排——对这些规则进行排序并表明它们之间的关系。与书面和口头语言一样，重要的是要记住，电影的句法是其使用的结果，而不是它的决定因素。电影句法没有什么预先注定的。相反，它是随着某些设备在实践中被发现既可行又有用而自然演变的。与书面和口头语言的语法一样，电影的语法是一个有机的发展，是描述性的而不是规定性的，并且多年来它已经发生了很大的变化。下面描述的“好莱坞语法”现在听起来可能很可笑，但在三、四十和五十年代初，它是好莱坞电影构建方式的准确模型。
Film has no grammar. There are, however, some vaguely defined rules of usage in cinematic language, and the syntax of film—its systematic arrangement—orders these rules and indicates relationships among them. As with written and spoken languages, it is important to remember that the syntax of film is a result of its usage, not a determinant of it. There is nothing preordained about film syntax. Rather, it evolved naturally as certain devices were found in practice to be both workable and useful. Like the syntax of written and spoken language, the syntax of film is an organic development, descriptive rather than prescriptive, and it has changed considerably over the years. The “Hollywood Grammar” described below may sound laughable now, but during the thirties, forties, and early fifties it was an accurate model of the way Hollywood films were constructed.
图 3-18。转喻手势。马克斯·冯·赛多 (Max von Sydow) 在英格玛·伯格曼 (Ingmar Bergman) 的《狼的时刻》 (l967) 中遭受痛苦……
Figure 3-18. METONYMIC GESTURE. Max von Sydow suffers in Ingmar Bergman’s Hour of the Wolf (l967)…
在书面/口语系统中，句法只涉及我们所谓的线性结构：即单词以链的形式组合在一起形成短语和句子的方式，在电影中我们称之为句法范畴。然而，在电影中，句法还可以包括空间构成，这在英语和法语等语言系统中是没有类似的——我们不能同时说或写几件事。
In written/spoken language systems, syntax deals only with what we might call the linear aspect of construction: that is, the ways in which words are put together in a chain to form phrases and sentences, what in film we call the syntagmatic category. In film, however, syntax can also include spatial composition, for which there is no parallel in language systems like English and French—we can’t say or write several things at the same time.
图 3-19。……还有同一位导演的《耻辱》（1968）。手势是电影意义中最具交流性的方面之一。“运动学”或“肢体语言”基本上是一种索引、转喻的意义系统。在这里，冯·赛多的姿势在每部电影中都传达了相同的基本含义：手遮住脸，使其免受外界影响；膝盖几乎呈胎儿姿势，以保护身体；自我已经收缩成一个保护壳，冯·赛多坐在木楼梯上的框架盒子在《耻辱》的镜头中进一步强调了这种感觉。两张照片中的纹理都支持手势：两个背景——一个是外部，一个是内部——都是粗糙、贫瘠、不吸引人的。镜头之间的差异与相似之处同样有意义。在《狼时》中，冯·叙多的性格相对更加开放、放松：姿势也是如此。在《羞耻》中，角色（在叙述的这一点上）感到羞愧，这种感觉通过更紧凑的姿势和更远的镜头构图而得到强调。
Figure 3-19. … and in the same director’s Shame (1968). Gesture is one of the most communicative facets of film signification. “Kinesics,” or “body language,” is basically an Indexical, metonymic system of meaning. Here, von Sydow’s pose conveys the same basic meaning in each film: the hand covers the face, shields it from the outside world; the knees are pulled up close almost in the fetal position, to protect the body; the ego has shrunk into a protective shell, a sense further emphasized in the shot from Shame by the framed box of the wooden stairway von Sydow is sitting on. Texture supports gesture in both shots: both backgrounds—one exterior, one interior—are rough, barren, uninviting. The differences between the shots are equally as meaningful as the similarities. In Hour of the Wolf, von Sydow’s character is relatively more open, relaxed: so is the pose. In Shame the character (at this point in the narrative) is mortified, a feeling emphasized by both the tighter pose and the more distanced composition of the shot.
因此，电影句法必须包括时间的发展和空间的发展。在电影评论中，通常将空间的修改称为“场景调度”。这个法语短语的字面意思是“放入场景中”。时间的修改被称为“蒙太奇”（来自法语“拼凑”）。正如我们将在第四章中看到的，自从卢米埃尔和梅里爱在二十世纪之交首次探索各自的实际可能性以来，场景调度和蒙太奇这两个概念之间的紧张关系一直是电影美学的引擎。
So film syntax must include both development in time and development in space. In film criticism, generally, the modification of space is referred to as “mise-en-scène.” This French phrase literally means “putting in the scene.” The modification of time is called “montage” (from the French for “putting together”). As we shall see in Chapter 4, the tension between these twin concepts of mise-en-scène and montage has been the engine of film esthetics ever since the Lumières and Méliès first explored the practical possibilities of each at the turn of the twentieth century.
图H.图像解读：图像既是一种视觉现象，又是一种心理现象。光学图案以扫视方式读取；心理体验是文化决定因素总和的结果，并由文化决定因素形成。视觉智力和心理智力都结合在符号的概念中，其中能指（s）与所指（s'）相关。能指更多的是视觉上的而非精神上的；所指的，更多的是精神上的，而不是视觉上的。所有三个层次的阅读——扫视、符号学和文化——然后以各种方式相互结合以产生意义，要么本质上是外延的，要么本质上是内涵的。
DIAGRAM H. READING THE IMAGE: The image is experienced as both an optical and a mental phenomenon. The optical pattern is read saccadically; the mental experience is the result of the sum of cultural determinants, and is formed by it. Both optical and mental intellection combine in the concept of the sign, where signifier (s) is related to signified (s’). The signifier is more optical than mental; the signified, more mental then optical. All three levels ol reading—saccadic, semiotic, and cultural—then combine with each other in various ways to produce meaning, either essentially denotative or essentially connotative.
多年来，场景调度理论往往与电影现实主义密切相关，而蒙太奇则被认为本质上是表现主义的，但这些配对是具有欺骗性的。当然，场景调度似乎表明了对镜头前拍摄对象的高度重视，而蒙太奇则可以让电影制作人更好地控制拍摄对象，但尽管有这些自然倾向，但在很多情况下，蒙太奇可能是两种选择中更现实的一种，而场景调度则更具表现主义色彩。
Over the years, theories of mise-en-scène have tended to be closely associated with film realism, while montage has been seen as essentially expressionistic, yet these pairings are deceptive. Certainly it would seem that mise-en-scène would indicate a high regard for the subject in front of the camera, while montage would give the filmmaker more control over the manipulation of the subject, but despite these natural tendencies, there are many occasions when montage can be the more realistic of the two alternatives, and mise-en-scène the more expressionistic.
举个例子，在从一个主题到另一个主题的平移和剪切之间进行选择的问题。大多数人会说，剪切更具操控性，它打断并重塑了现实，因此平底锅是两种选择中更现实的，因为它保留了空间的完整性。然而，事实上，如果我们判断平移，情况恰恰相反并从观察者的角度进行切割。当我们将注意力从一个主题转移到另一个主题时，我们很少会真正平移。从心理学上来说，剪辑更接近我们的自然感知。我们首先关注一个主题，然后关注另一个主题；我们很少对中间的空间感兴趣，但电影的平移却让我们注意到了这一点。*
Take, for example, the problem of choosing between a pan from one subject to another and a cut. Most people would say that the cut is more manipulative, that it interrupts and remodels reality, and that therefore the pan is the more realistic of the two alternatives, since it preserves the integrity of the space. Yet, in fact, the reverse is true if we judge panning and cutting from the point of view of the observer. When we redirect our attention from one subject to another we seldom actually pan. Psychologically, the cut is the truer approximation of our natural perception. First one subject has our attention, then the other; we are seldom interested in the intervening space, yet the cinematic pan draws our attention to just that.*
图I.理解图像：我们不仅理解图像本身，而且还理解其上下文：与选择类别（范式）和与构造类别（组合）相关。选择的类别有不同的外延或内涵，每种类别的边界都没有明确的界定，其特征是能指与所指之间的关系。在标志性图像中，能指与所指是相同的。在符号中，能指等于所指，但不相同。在转喻和提喻中，能指在某种程度上与所指相似，而在比喻中，能指不等于（明显不同于）所指。这里的关系要脆弱得多。在索引中，能指和所指是一致的。
DIAGRAM I. UNDERSTANDING THE IMAGE: We understand an image not only for itself, but in context: in relation to categories of choice (paradigmatic) and in relation to categories of construction (syntagmatic). The categories of choice are variously denotative or connotative, and each variety, none of whose boundaries are sharply defined, is characterized by the relationship between signifier and signified. In the iconic image, signifier is identical with signified. In symbols the signifier is equal to the signified, but not identical. In metonymies and synecdoches, signifier is similar in some way to signified, while in tropes, the signifier is not equal to (distinctly different from) the signified. Here the relationship is considerably more tenuous. In indexes, signifier and signified are congruent.
组合关系（结构的范畴）要么在空间上，要么在时间上起作用：共时现象同时发生，或者不考虑时间，而历时现象则跨时间发生，或者在时间之内发生。（这里，“共时”和“历时”这两个词具有最简单的含义。它们通常在符号学和语言学中也与更具体的定义一起使用，在这种情况下，共时语言学是描述性的，而历时语言学是历史性的。）
Syntagmatic relationship (categories of construction) operate either in space or in time: synchronic phenomena happen at the same time, or without regard to time, while diachronic phenomena happen across time, or within it. (Here, the words “synchronic” and “diachronic” carry their simplest meanings. They are also used with more specific definitions generally in semiotics and linguistics, in which case synchronic linguistics is descriptive, while diachronic linguistics is historical.)
最后，我们必须注意，该图表中表达的许多概念对于声音和图像都适用，尽管通常程度要小得多。虽然我们确实不会扫视声音，但我们仍然在心理上关注整个听觉体验中的特定声音，就像我们“屏蔽”不需要的或无用的噪音一样。虽然声音似乎比图像更具外延性和标志性，但如果进行必要的改变，仍然可以应用符号、索引、转喻、提喻和比喻的概念。
Finally, we must note that many of the concepts expressed in this chart are true for sounds as well as images, although usually to a considerably lesser extent. While it is true that we do not read sounds saccadically, we nevertheless focus psychologically on particular sounds within the total auditory experience, just as we “block out” unwanted or useless noise. While sound seems far more denotative and iconic than image, it is nevertheless possible to apply the concepts of symbol, index, metonymy, synecdoche, and trope, if the necessary changes are made.
安德烈·巴赞（André Bazin）是 20 世纪 50 年代颇具影响力的法国评论家，他比任何人都更能将场景调度与现实主义、蒙太奇与表现主义之间的联系联系起来。大约在同一时间，五十年代中期，让-吕克·戈达尔正在综合场景调度和蒙太奇这两个概念，这比巴赞的二元对立复杂得多。对于戈达尔来说，场景调度和蒙太奇剥离了伦理和美学内涵：蒙太奇只是在时间上完成了场景调度在空间上的任务。戈达尔认为，两者都是组织原则，说mise-en-scène（空间）比蒙太奇（时间）更“现实”是不合逻辑的。戈达尔在他的文章《蒙太奇，我的美丽》（1956）中将蒙太奇重新定义为场景调度的一个组成部分。
It was André Bazin, the influential French critic of the 1950s, who more than anyone developed the connections between mise-en-scène and realism on the one hand, and montage and expressionism on the other. At about the same time, in the middle fifties, Jean-Luc Godard was working out a synthesis of the twin notions of mise-en-scène and montage that was considerably more sophisticated than Bazin’s binary opposition. For Godard, mise-en-scène and montage were divested of ethical and esthetic connotations: montage simply did in time what mise-en-scène did in space. Both are principles of organization, and to say that mise-en-scène (space) is more “realistic” than montage (time) is illogical, according to Godard. In his essay “Montage, mon beau souci” (1956) Godard redefined montage as an integral part of mise-en-scène.
设置场景既是对时间的组织，也是对空间的组织。这样做的目的是在电影中发现超越物理、塑料现实的心理现实。戈达尔的综合有两个推论：首先，当电影制片人用场景调度来扭曲现实时，场景调度可以像蒙太奇一样具有表现主义色彩；其次，让蒙太奇发挥核心作用的策略可能会更好地服务于心理现实（而不是逼真）。（参见第 5 章。）
Setting up a scene is as much an organizing of time as of space. The aim of this is to discover in film a psychological reality that transcends physical, plastic reality. There are two corollaries to Godard’s synthesis: first, mise-en-scène can therefore be every bit as expressionistic as montage when a filmmaker uses it to distort reality; second, psychological reality (as opposed to verisimilitude) may be better served by a strategy that allows montage to play a central role. (See Chapter 5.)
除了蒙太奇和场景布景的比较所涉及的心理复杂性之外，还有一个使事情变得复杂的感知因素。我们已经注意到，可以在镜头中模仿蒙太奇。同样，蒙太奇可以模仿场景调度。希区柯克在《惊魂记》中臭名昭著的淋浴谋杀序列就是这种现象的一个突出例子。在不到一分钟的屏幕时间内，七十个独立的镜头在心理上融合在一起，形成一种连续的体验：可怕且生动的持刀袭击。整体大于部分之和（见图3-21）。
In addition to the psychological complexities that enter into a comparison of montage and mise-en-scène, there is a perceptual factor that complicates matters. We have already noted that montage can be mimicked within the shot. Likewise, montage can mimic mise-en-scène. Hitchcock’s notorious shower murder sequence in Psycho is an outstanding example of this phenomenon. Seventy separate shots in less than a minute of screen time are fused together psychologically into a continuous experience: a frightening and graphic knife attack. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts (see Figure 3-21).
图 3-20。场景调度还是蒙太奇？这是伯格曼的《面对面》中的一个关键场景，它是从走廊拍摄的，可以看到两个房间的“分屏”视图。伯格曼并没有从一个动作切入另一个动作，而是同时呈现两者，同时将每个动作分开。因此，蒙太奇的交叉辩证成为场景调度的一个组成部分。（图框放大）
Figure 3-20. Mise-en-scéne or montage? A crucial scene in Bergman’s Face to Face, this was shot from a hallway giving a “split screen” view of two rooms. Instead of cutting from the action in one to the action in the other, Bergman presented both simultaneously while keeping the action in each separate. The cross-cutting dialectic of montage is thus made an integral element of mise-en-scéne. (Frame enlargement)
代码
Codes
电影的结构是由其运作的代码以及在其中运作的代码定义的。代码是电影拍摄后产生的关键结构——逻辑关系系统。它们并不是电影制片人有意识地遵守的既存法则。各种各样的代码组合在一起形成了电影表达意义的媒介。有些文化衍生的代码存在于电影之外，电影制作者只是简单地复制（例如，人们的饮食方式）。电影与其他艺术有许多共同的代码（例如，手势，这是戏剧和电影的代码）。还有一些电影独有的代码。（蒙太奇就是最好的例子。）
The structure of cinema is defined by the codes in which it operates and the codes that operate within it. Codes are critical constructions—systems of logical relationship—derived after the fact of film. They are not preexisting laws that the filmmaker consciously observes. A great variety of codes combine to form the medium in which film expresses meaning. There are culturally derived codes—those that exist outside film and that filmmakers simply reproduce (the way people eat, for example). There are a number of codes that cinema shares with the other arts (for instance, gesture, which is a code of theater as well as film). And there are those codes that are unique to cinema. (Montage is the prime example.)
浴缸/淋浴代码_ _ _ _
THE BATHTUB/SHOWER CODE
图 3-21。希区柯克在《惊魂记》（1959）中令人着迷的浴室谋杀案多年来因其令人眼花缭乱的剪辑而臭名昭著，但浴室谋杀案并不是什么新鲜事。（图框放大）
Figure 3-21. Hitchcock’s spellbinding shower murder in Psycho (1959) has become notorious over the years for its vertiginous editing, yet the bathroom murder was not a new idea. (Frame enlargement)
图 3-22。几年前，亨利·乔治·克鲁佐的《恶魔》（ Diabolique，1955）以一个完全安静但同样令人毛骨悚然的谋杀场景震惊了观众。（Paul Meurisse 是受害者。）（Walter Daran。Time/Life Picture Agency。 © Time Inc. 画面放大。）
Figure 3-22. Several years earlier Henri-Georges Clouzot’s Diabolique (1955) had shocked audiences with an altogether quieter but no less eerie murder scene. (Paul Meurisse is the victim.) (Walter Daran. Time/Life Picture Agency. © Time Inc. Frame enlargement.)
图 3-23。《惊魂记》的主演安东尼·帕金斯 (Anthony Perkins) 与赫伯特·罗斯 (Herbert Ross) 的《最后的希拉》 (1973)共同撰写了剧本。琼·哈克特在优雅的船上浴室中试图自杀。
Figure 3-23. Psycho’s star, Anthony Perkins, cowrote the script for Herbert Ross’s The Last of Sheila (1973). JoanHackett attempted suicide in an elegant shipboard bath.
图 3-24。《惊魂记》引发了无数人的敬意。这是布莱恩·德·帕尔玛 (Brian De Palma) 的《盛装杀人》 (1980) 中的安吉·迪金森 (Angie Dickinson)。（图框放大）比较这里的手和图3-35中的手。
Figure 3-24. Psycho spawned numerous homages. Here, Angie Dickinson in Brian De Palma’s Dressed to Kill (1980). (Frame enlargement) Compare the hands here and in Figure 3-35.
图 3-25。谋杀并不是浴缸里发生的唯一活动。这也有利于沉思。在戈达尔的《狂人皮埃罗》（ Pierrot le fou，1965）中，让-保罗·贝尔蒙多（Jean-Paul Belmondo）在浴缸里放松身心，与女儿分享了对画家委拉斯开兹（Velazquez）的一些想法。（图框放大）
Figure 3-25. Murder isn’t the only activity that takes place in tubs. It’s good for contemplation, as well. In Godard’s Pierrot le fou (1965), Jean-Paul Belmondo relaxed in a tub as he shared some thoughts on the painter Velazquez with his daughter. (Frame enlargement)
图 3-26。在让-查尔斯·塔切拉的《表弟，表弟》（1975）中，玛丽-弗朗斯·皮西尔坐在一个空浴缸里陷入沉思。
Figure 3-26. In Jean-Charles Tacchella’s Cousin, cousine (1975), Marie-France Pisier settled into an empty tub deep in thought.
图 3-27。《查理·威尔逊的战争》 （2007 年，迈克·尼科尔斯）中，汤姆·汉克斯因现实世界的新闻而分心，忽略了他的浴友。
Figure 3-27. Tom Hanks, distracted by real-world news, ignoring his bathmate in Charlie Wilson’s War (2007, Mike Nichols).
图 3-28。《闪灵》 (1980)中库布里克的经典深焦构图。闪闪发光的装置和空旷的前景强调了脆弱和恐惧。
Figure 3-28. A classic Kubrick deep-focus composition from The Shining (1980). The gleaming fixtures and empty foreground emphasize vulnerability and fear.
图 3-29。在伊万·雷特曼的《戴夫》（1993）中，凯文·克莱恩饰演总统洗澡。西格妮·韦弗很惊讶。（框架放大。）
Figure 3-29. In a variant, Kevin Kline as president showers in Ivan Reitman’s Dave (1993). Sigourney Weaver is surprised. (Frame enlargement.)
图 3-30。威尔·史密斯在《我是传奇》（2007 年，弗朗西斯·劳伦斯）中的浴缸里找到了避难所。
Figure 3-30. Will Smith finds a refuge in the tub in I Am Legend (2007, Francis Lawrence).
图 3-31。安吉丽娜·朱莉和安东尼奥·班德拉斯沉浸在《原罪》（2001 年，迈克尔·克里斯托弗）中。性在好莱坞浴缸中所扮演的角色比你想象的要少。（照片：Lourdes Grobet © 2001 Metro Goldwyn Mayer。）
Figure 3-31. Angelina Jolie and Antonio Banderas take a soak in Original Sin (2001, Michael Kristofer). Sex plays less of a part in Hollywood bathtubs than you might expect. (Photo: Lourdes Grobet © 2001 Metro Goldwyn Mayer.)
图 3-32。B UBBLE B ATH子代码。没有真实性的裸体暗示。克劳迪娅·卡汀娜 (Claudia Cardinale)，《西部往事》 (1968)；朱莉娅·罗伯茨，《风月俏佳人》 (1990)；塔尼亚·索尔尼尔，《滑行者》（2006）；以及阿尔·帕西诺的《疤面煞星》 (1983)。
Figure 3-32. BUBBLE BATH SUBCODE. The suggestion of nudity without the truth of it. Claudia Cardinale, Once Upon a Time in the West (1968); Julia Roberts, Pretty Woman (1990); Tania Saulnier, Slither (2006); and Al Pacino, Scarface (1983).
图 3-33。您也可以在纪录片中找到浴缸代码。图中，道尔顿·特朗博 (Dalton Trumbo) 在浴缸里工作，手边有香烟和咖啡。（米兹·特朗博，1968 年。）
Figure 3-33. You can find the Bathtub code in documentaries, too. Here Dalton Trumbo at work in his tub, cigarettes and coffee at hand. (Mitzi Trumbo, 1968.)
当然，文化衍生的代码和共享的艺术代码对电影至关重要，但我们最关心的是独特的代码，那些形成电影特定句法的代码。也许“独特”并不是一个完全准确的形容词。即使是最具体的电影代码，即蒙太奇，也不是电影真正独有的。当然，电影比其他艺术更强调和利用它们，但像蒙太奇这样的东西在小说中一直存在。任何讲故事的人都有能力在中途切换场景。“与此同时，回到牧场”显然不是电影的发明。更重要的是，一个多世纪以来，电影艺术对古老的艺术产生了强烈的影响。蒙太奇之类的东西不仅在1900年之前就存在于散文叙事中，而且从那时起，小说家越来越多地受到电影的影响，逐渐学会让他们的叙事变得越来越像电影。
The culturally derived codes and the shared artistic codes are vital to cinema, naturally, but it is the unique codes, those that form the specific syntax of film, that most concern us here. Perhaps “unique” is not a completely accurate adjective. Not even the most specifically cinematic codes, those of montage, are truly unique to cinema. Certainly, cinema emphasizes them and utilizes them more than other arts do, yet something like montage has always existed in the novel. Any storyteller is capable of switching scenes in midstream. “Meanwhile, back at the ranch,” is clearly not an invention of cinema. More important, for more than a century film art has had its own strong influence on the older arts. Not only did something like montage exist prior to 1900 in prose narrative, but also since that time, novelists, increasingly influenced by film, have learned gradually to make their narratives ever more like cinema.
简单来说，关键在于，代码是一种至关重要的便利——仅此而已——给予它们如此多的重视是错误的，以至于我们更关心代码的精确定义而不是对电影的看法。
The point is, simply, that codes are a critical convenience—nothing more—and it would be wrong to give them so much weight that we were more concerned with the precise definition of the code than with the perception of the film.
再次以《惊魂记》中的淋浴场景为例，我们来推导其中的操作代码。这是一个简单的场景（只有两个角色——其中一个几乎看不见——和两个动作——洗澡和谋杀），持续时间很短，但所有三种类型的代码都很明显。源自文化的守则与洗澡和杀人有关。在西方文化中，淋浴是一项具有以下意义的活动：隐私、性、净化、放松、开放和再生等元素。换句话说，希区柯克不可能选择一个更具讽刺意味的地方来强调袭击中的侵犯和性元素。另一方面，谋杀因动机而让我们着迷。然而，隐约察觉到的杀害赛克的凶手并没有明显的动机。这种行为似乎是无端的，几乎是荒谬的——这使得它更加引人注目。从历史上看，开膛手杰克可能会浮现在脑海中，这让我们更加了解谋杀案的性基础。
Taking the shower scene in Psycho once again as an example, let’s derive the codes operating there. It is a simple scene (only two characters—one of whom is barely seen—and two actions—taking a shower and murdering) and it is of short duration, yet all three types of codes are evident. The culturally derived codes have to do with taking showers and murdering people. The shower is, in Western culture, an activity that has elements of privacy, sexuality, purgation, relaxation, openness, and regeneration. In other words, Hitchcock could not have chosen a more ironic place to emphasize the elements of violation and sexuality in the assault. Murder, on the other hand, fascinates us because of motives. Yet the dimly perceived murderer of Psycho has no discernible motive. The act seems gratuitous, almost absurd—which makes it even more striking. Historically, Jack the Ripper may come to mind, and this redoubles our sense of the sexual foundation of the murder.
浴缸/淋浴代码_ _ _ _
THE BATHTUB/SHOWER CODE
图 3-34。浴缸密码的历史可以追溯到雅克·路易·大卫的《马拉之死》（1793），因其亲密的现实主义而令人震惊。（布面油画。65” x 50 1/2”。布鲁塞尔皇家美术博物馆。）
Figure 3-34. The Bathtub code extends as far back as Jacques-Louis David’s The Death of Marat (1793), shocking because of its intimate realism. (Oil on canvas. 65” by 50 1/2”. Royal Museum of Fine Arts, Brussels.)
由于这个特定场景的电影感很强且很短，因此共享代码相对较少。例如，表演代码几乎不起作用，因为镜头太短，没有时间表演，只能模仿一个简单的表情。对角线对于营造迷失方向和活力感非常重要，这与其他绘画艺术是相同的。摄影中也有鲜明的对比和逆光来掩盖凶手。当然，伯纳德·赫尔曼伴奏的音乐密码也存在于电影之外。
Since this particular scene is so highly cinematic and so short, shared codes are relatively minor here. Acting codes hardly play a part, for instance, since the shots are so brief there isn’t time to act in them, only to mime a simple expression. The diagonals that are so important in establishing the sense of disorientation and dynamism are shared with the other pictorial arts. The harsh contrasts and backlighting that obscure the murderer are shared with photography. The musical code of Bernard Herrmann’s accompaniment also exists outside film, of course.
此外，我们还可以追溯文化衍生代码在电影和相关艺术中的使用发展：希区柯克的谋杀场景可能是与马拉在浴缸中被谋杀（历史上、雅克·路易·大卫的画作和彼得·韦斯的戏剧中）、亨利·乔治·克鲁佐的《Les Diaboliques》 （1955）中的浴缸谋杀场景或《The Diaboliques》中的浴缸谋杀场景形成鲜明对比。《最后的希拉》 （1973），由史蒂芬·桑德海姆和安东尼·珀金斯（在《惊魂记》中饰演）编剧，或者是迈克·霍奇斯的《终端人》（1974年）或布莱恩·德·帕尔玛的《盛装杀人》（1980年）中对《惊魂记》的直接致敬，甚至是那个镜头格斯·范·桑特 (Gus Van Sant) 的《惊魂记》(Psycho)的逐镜头翻拍版(1998)。
In addition, we can trace the development of the use of the culturally derived codes in cinema and allied arts: Hitchcock’s murder scene might be contrasted with the murder of Marat in his bath (in history, in the painting by Jacques-Louis David, and in the play by Peter Weiss), the bathtub murder scene in Henri-Georges Clouzot’s Les Diaboliques (1955), or that in The Last of Sheila (1973), written by Stephen Sondheim and Anthony Perkins (who played in Psycho), or the direct homages to Psycho in Mike Hodges’s Terminal Man (1974) or Brian De Palma’s Dressed to Kill (1980), or even the shot-by-shot remake of Psycho by Gus Van Sant (1998).
图 3-35。学院光圈两次拍摄。斯宾塞·屈塞和凯瑟琳·赫本在乔治·丘克的《帕特和迈克》(1952) 中。比……更亲密、更投入。
Figure 3-35. The Academy aperture two-shot. Spencer Tracy and Katharine Hepburn in George Cukor’s Pat and Mike (1952). More intimate and involving than…
正如我们已经指出的，希区柯克的一分钟杰作中的特殊电影代码异常强大。事实上，很难看出该序列的蒙太奇如何在任何其他艺术中复制。场景的快速剪切或许确实是一种独特的电影代码。
As we’ve already noted, the specifically cinematic codes in Hitchcock’s one-minute tour de force are exceptionally strong. In fact, it’s hard to see how the montage of the sequence could be duplicated in any other art. The rapid cutting of the scene may indeed be a unique cinematic code.
希区柯克操纵所有这些代码来达到预期的效果。正是因为它们是代码——因为它们对我们在特定场景的狭隘限制之外具有意义：在电影中，在其他艺术中，在一般文化中——它们影响着我们。代码是传输场景“消息”的媒介。特定的电影代码与许多共享代码一起构成了电影的语法。
Hitchcock manipulates all these codes to achieve a desired effect. It is because they are codes—because they have meaning for us outside the narrow limits of that particular scene: in film, in the other arts, in the general culture—that they affect us. The codes are the medium through which the “message” of the scene is transmitted. The specifically cinematic codes together with a number of shared codes make up the syntax of film.
图 3-36。......宽屏两次拍摄。让-克洛德·布里亚利和安娜·卡琳娜在让-吕克·戈达尔的《女人就是女人》（1961）中。桌上的静物构图很仔细，既填充了画面的中间空间，又连接了人物。
Figure 3-36. … the widescreen two-shot. Jean-Claude Brialy and Anna Karina in Jean-Luc Godard’s A Woman Is a Woman (1961). The still life on the table is carefully composed, both to fill the middle space of the frame and to connect the characters.
场面调度
Mise-en-Scène
电影制片人面临三个问题：拍什么？怎么拍呢？如何呈现镜头？前两个问题的领域是场景调度，最后一个问题的领域是蒙太奇。场景调度通常被认为是静态的，而蒙太奇则被认为是动态的。不是这种情况。因为我们阅读了这个镜头，所以我们积极参与其中。场景调度代码是电影制片人用来改变和修改我们对镜头的解读的工具。由于镜头是一个如此大的意义单位，因此将其组成部分的讨论分为两个部分可能会很有用。
Three questions confront the filmmaker: What to shoot? How to shoot it? How to present the shot? The domain of the first two questions is mise-en-scéne, that of the last, montage. Mise-en-scène is often regarded as static, montage as dynamic. This is not the case. Because we read the shot, we are actively involved with it. The codes of mise-en-scène are the tools with which the filmmaker alters and modifies our reading of the shot. Since the shot is such a large unit of meaning, it may be useful to separate a discussion of its components into two parts.
镶框图像
所有在框架内运作的代码，无论电影的时间轴如何，都与其他绘画艺术共享。这些代码的数量和范围都很大，并且在数千年的时间里，它们在绘画、雕塑和摄影中得到了发展和完善。视觉艺术的基本文本考察了色彩、线条和形式这三个决定因素，当然电影的每一个视觉代码都符合这些标准之一。鲁道夫·阿恩海姆（Rudolf Arnheim）在其极具影响力的研究《艺术与视觉感知》中提出了十个关注领域：平衡、形状、形式、生长、空间、光线、色彩、运动、张力和表达。显然，对影片中运行的代码进行了完整的阐述框架将是一项漫长的工作。然而，我们可以简要描述该框架语法的基本方面。加框图像的两个方面是最重要的：框架施加的限制，以及框架内图像的组成（并且无需考虑它）。
All the codes that operate within the frame, without regard to the chronological axis of film, are shared with the other pictorial arts. The number and range of these codes is great, and they have been developed and refined in painting, sculpture, and photography over the course of thousands of years. Basic texts in the visual arts examine the three determinants of color, line, and form, and certainly each of the visual codes of film fits within one of these rubrics. Rudolf Arnheim, in his highly influential study Art and Visual Perception, suggested ten areas of concern: Balance, Shape, Form, Growth, Space, Light, Color, Movement, Tension, and Expression. Clearly, a full exposition of the codes operating in the film frame would be a lengthy undertaking. We can, however, describe briefly the basic aspects of the syntax of the frame. Two aspects of the framed image are most important: the limitations that the frame imposes, and the composition of the image within the frame (and without necessary regard to it).
图 3-37。米开朗基罗·安东尼奥尼因其对建筑隐喻的敏感而闻名。这张来自《日蚀》 （1962）的自然蒙面镜头既孤立了阿兰·德龙和莫妮卡·维蒂，又引起了人们对维蒂和她身后墙上的肖像之间的比较的注意。
Figure 3-37. Michelangelo Antonioni was well known for his sensitivity to architectural metaphor. This naturally masked shot from Eclipse (1962) both isolates Alain Delon and Monica Vitti and calls attention to the comparison to be made between Vitti and the portrait on the wall behind her.
由于框架决定了图像的极限，因此长宽比的选择暗示了构图的可能性。凭借电影美学这个难以捉摸的主题所特有的自我辩护，早期的理论家们对学院光圈的值（1.33 的比率）进行了雄辩。当宽银幕比例在 20 世纪 50 年代流行时，古典美学家们哀叹他们在学院光圈中感知到的对称性被破坏了，但是，正如我们在第2 章中所演示的，4:3 的比例并没有什么神圣之处。
Since the frame determines the limit of the image, the choice of an aspect ratio suggests the possibilities of composition. With the self-justification that has been endemic to the elusive subject of film esthetics, early theoreticians waxed eloquent over the value of the Academy aperture, the 1.33 ratio. When widescreen ratios became popular in the 1950s, the classical estheticians bemoaned the destruction of the symmetry they perceived in the Academy aperture, but, as we demonstrated in Chapter 2, there was nothing sacred about the ratio of 4:3.
问题不在于哪个比率是“适当的”，而是哪些代码会以何种比率被利用？五十年代中期之前，室内装饰和对话似乎主导了美国和外国的银幕。20 世纪 50 年代引入宽银幕格式后，外景、外景拍摄和动作场面变得越来越重要。这是一个粗略的概括（西部片在 20 世纪 50 年代之前就已存在），但其中有一些有用的事实。是否存在因果关系并不重要在这两个历史发展之间，只有宽银幕才能更有效地利用动作和景观代码。
The question is not which ratio is “proper” but rather which codes yield themselves to exploitation in which ratios? Before the mid-fifties, it seems, interiors and dialogue dominated American and foreign screens. After the introduction of the widescreen formats in the 1950s, exteriors, location shooting, and action sequences grew in importance. This is a crude generalization (Westerns existed before the 1950s), but there is some useful truth to it. It’s not important whether there was a cause-and-effect relationship between the two historical developments, only that wide screens permitted more efficient exploitation of action and landscape codes.
图 3-38。安东尼奥尼痴迷于宽银幕构图。这张来自红色沙漠的镜头展示了他的建筑形式主义。（图框放大）
Figure 3-38. Antonioni was obsessed with widescreen composition. This shot from Red Desert demonstrates his architectural formalism. (Frame enlargement)
正如老好莱坞美学家所建议的那样，CinemaScope 和 Panavision 宽度比（2.2 及以上）确实使拍摄亲密对话变得更加困难。虽然 1.33 屏幕尺寸的经典双镜头倾向于将注意力集中在说话者和听众身上，但非常宽的变形比例无法避免拍摄他们之间或旁边的空间，从而引起人们对他们与周围空间的关系的关注。这既不是“更好”也不是“更差”；它只是改变了两次射击的代码。
CinemaScope and Panavision width ratios (2.2 and above) do make it more difficult, as the old Hollywood estheticians had suggested, to photograph intimate conversations. Whereas the classic two-shot of the 1.33 screen size tended to focus attention on speaker and listener, the very wide anamorphic ratios cannot avoid also photographing the space either between them or beside them and therefore calling attention to their relationship to the space surrounding them. This is neither “better” nor “worse”; it simply changes the code of the two-shot.
电影制作人还可以在电影拍摄过程中通过人工或自然地合成遮蔽图像来改变画面的尺寸。自从 DW Griffith 首次探索框架形状的可能性以来，这一直是框架形状语法的一个重要方面。
The filmmaker can also change the dimensions of the frame during the course of the film by masking the image, either artificially or naturally through composition. This has been an important aspect of the syntax of frame shape ever since D. W. Griffith first explored its possibilities.
与实际画面尺寸同样重要的是电影制片人对画面限制的态度，尽管不太容易被察觉。如果框架的图像是自足的，那么我们可以将其称为“封闭形式”。相反，如果电影制片人以这样一种方式构图，让我们总是下意识地意识到画面之外的区域，那么这种形式就被认为是“开放的”。
Just as important as the actual frame size, although less easily perceived, is the filmmaker’s attitude toward the limit of the frame. If the image of the frame is self-sufficient, then we can speak of it as a “closed form.” Conversely, if the filmmaker has composed the shot in such a way that we are always subliminally aware of the area outside the frame, then the form is considered to be “open.”
开放和封闭的形式与框架中的运动元素密切相关。如果摄影机倾向于忠实地跟随拍摄对象，那么形状就会趋于封闭；反之，则形状趋于封闭。另一方面，如果电影制片人允许——甚至鼓励——主体离开框架并重新进入，形式显然是开放的。画面内的运动和摄像机的运动之间的关系是更复杂的代码之一，特别是电影代码。
Open and closed forms are closely associated with the elements of movement in the frame. If the camera tends to follow the subject faithfully, the form tends to be closed; if, on the other hand, the filmmaker allows—even encourages—the subject to leave the frame and reenter, the form is obviously open. The relationship between the movement within the frame and the movement of the camera is one of the more sophisticated codes, and specifically cinematic.
图 3-39。让·雷诺阿 (Jean Renoir) 的《从溺水中救出的布杜》 (1932) 中的这张照片通过对图像进行渐晕，孤立了即将跳入塞纳河的布杜的孤独人物。遮蔽也具有字面上的功能：在这张照片中，布杜（米歇尔·西蒙饰）是通过望远镜看到的。（图框放大）
Figure 3-39. This shot from Jean Renoir’s Boudu Saved from Drowning (1932) isolates the forlorn figure of Boudu, about to jump into the Seine, by vignetting the image. The masking has a literal function as well: Boudu (Michel Simon) is seen through a telescope in this shot. (Frame enlargement)
好莱坞的经典句法在一定程度上是通过相对紧密封闭的形式来识别的。三、四十年代的好莱坞风格大师试图让拍摄对象永远不离开画面（即使拍摄对象不占据1.33画面的中心也被认为是大胆的）。在六七十年代，像米开朗基罗·安东尼奥尼这样的电影制作人同样忠实于开放的宽银幕形式，因为它强调人与人之间的空间。
Hollywood’s classic syntax was identified in part by a relatively tightly closed form. The masters of the Hollywood style of the thirties and forties tried never to allow the subject to leave the frame (it was considered daring even if the subject did not occupy the center of the 1.33 frame). In the sixties and seventies, filmmakers like Michelangelo Antonioni were equally faithful to the open widescreen form because it emphasizes the spaces between people.
组合语法的大多数元素并不严格依赖于其定义的框架。如果图像像小插图一样在边缘褪色（这本身就是取景代码的次要设备之一），那么诸如内在兴趣、接近度、深度感知、接近角度和照明之类的代码将发挥同样的作用在具有明确限制的框架中。
Most elements of compositional syntax do not depend strictly on the frame for their definition. If the image faded at the edges like a vignette (which itself is one of the minor devices of the framing code), such codes as intrinsic interest, proximity, depth perception, angle of approach, and lighting would work just as well as they do in frames with sharply defined limits.
图 3-40。封闭形式。_ _ 《歌剧院之夜》 （山姆·伍德，1935 年）中臭名昭著的客舱场景一定是好莱坞式封闭形式的顶峰！兄弟俩在框架和客舱里都很局促。
Figure 3-40. CLOSED FORM. The notorious stateroom scene from A Night at the Opera (Sam Wood, 1935) must be the zenith of Hollywood-style closed form! The brothers are cramped in the frame, as well as in the stateroom.
图 3-41。打开表格。_ _ 戈达尔的《已婚女人》（1964）中的马查·梅里尔。出租车向画面左侧移动，梅里尔向画面右侧走去，并回头看向左边；背景中的汽车沿对角线向上移动到画面之外。镜头的设计元素共同让我们意识到画面界限之外的连续空间。（法国电影办公室。）
Figure 3-41. OPEN FORM. Macha Meril in Godard’s A Married Woman (1964). The taxi is moving to the left out of the frame, Meril is walking to the right out of the frame and looking back toward the left; the car in the background is moving diagonally up out of the frame. The design elements of the shot conspire to make us aware of the continuous space beyond the limits of the frame. (French Film Office.)
电影制作人像大多数绘画艺术家一样，在三个维度上进行创作。这并不一定意味着他试图传达三维（或立体）信息。这意味着存在三组组合代码：一组涉及图像的平面（当然，最重要的是，因为图像毕竟是二维的）。其中之一涉及拍摄空间的地理（其平面与地面和地平线平行）。第三个涉及深度感知平面，垂直于框架平面和地理平面。图 3-42直观地展示了这三个组成平面。
The filmmaker, like most pictorial artists, composes in three dimensions. This doesn’t mean necessarily that he is trying to convey three-dimensional (or stereoscopic) information. It means that there are three sets of compositional codes: One concerns the plane of the image (most important, naturally, since the image is, after all, two-dimensional). One deals with the geography of the space photographed (its plane is parallel with the ground and the horizon). The third involves the plane of depth perception, perpendicular to both the frame plane and the geographical plane. Figure 3-42 visualizes these three planes of composition.
当然，这些位面是相互关联的。没有电影制作人精确分析每个单独的飞机如何影响构图，但做出的决定将注意力集中在成对的飞机上。显然，框架平面必须占主导地位，因为这是屏幕上实际存在的唯一平面。然而，该平面的构图通常受到地理平面中的因素的影响，因为除非我们处理动画，否则摄影师或电影摄影师必须为地理平面中的帧平面进行构图。同样，地理平面和深度感知平面是协调的，因为我们在二维表示和三维现实中感知深度的能力很大程度上取决于地理平面中的现象。事实上，深度感知取决于除双眼立体视觉之外的许多重要因素，这就是为什么电影呈现出如此强烈的三维空间幻觉以及立体电影技术相对无用的原因。*
Naturally, these planes interlock. No filmmaker analyzes precisely how each single plane influences the composition, but decisions are made that focus attention on pairs of planes. Clearly, the plane of the frame must be dominant, since that is the only plane that actually exists on the screen. Composition for this plane, however, is often influenced by factors in the geographical plane since, unless we are dealing with animation, a photographer or cinematographer must compose for the frame plane in the geographical plane. Likewise, the geographical plane and the plane of depth perception are coordinated, since much of our ability to perceive depth in two-dimensional representations as well as three-dimensional reality depends on phenomena in the geographical plane. In fact, perception of depth depends on many important factors other than binocular stereoscopic vision, which is why film presents such a strong illusion of three-dimensional space and why stereoscopic film techniques are relatively useless.*
图 3-43 说明了一些强烈影响深度知觉的最重要的心理因素。重叠发生在框架平面中，但其他三个——收敛、相对大小和密度梯度——取决于地理平面。我们已经在第 2 章中讨论了各种镜头类型如何影响深度感知（以及线性失真）。摄影师通过画面内图像的合成来修改、抑制或增强镜头类型的效果。
Figure 3-43 illustrates some of the most important psychological factors strongly influencing depth perception. Overlapping takes place in the frame plane, but the three others—convergence, relative size, and density gradient—depend on the geographical plane. We’ve already discussed in Chapter 2 how various lens types affect depth perception (and linear distortion as well). A photographer modifies, suppresses, or reinforces the effects of lens types through composition of the image within the frame.
以下是组合平面的代码如何相互作用的一些其他示例：
Here are some other examples of how the codes of the compositional planes interact:
图 3-42。三个组合平面。_ _ _ _ _ 这些是图像的平面；摄影空间的地理；和深度知觉轴。
Figure 3-42. THE THREE PLANES OF COMPOSlTlON. These are the plane of the image; the geography of the photographic space; and the axis of depth perception.
图 3-43。深度感知的惯例。_ _ 这里说明了深度感知的四个主要惯例：收敛（道路的边界、相对大小（近球和远球）、密度梯度（左侧的阴影和右侧的线条）和重叠（道路上的球）正确的）。
Figure 3-43. CONVENTIONS OF DEPTH PERCEPTION. Four major conventions of depth perception are illustrated here: convergence (the boundaries of the road, relative size (the near and far balls), density gradient (of shade on the left and lines on the right), and overlapping (the balls on the right).
接近度和比例是重要的子代码。舞台演员永远铭记着他们。显然，主题越接近，它看起来就越重要。结果，剧院里的演员总是面临着被剧团其他成员“抢风头”的危险。当然，在电影中，导演可以完全控制位置，而反转角度有助于纠正平衡。
Proximity and proportion are important subcodes. Stage actors are forever mindful of them. Obviously, the closer the subject, the more important it seems. As a result, an actor in the theater is always in danger of being “upstaged” by other members of the company. In film, of course, the director has complete control over position, and reverse angles help to redress the balance.
图 3-44 是《公民凯恩》 （1941）中的一个经典镜头，为我们提供了一个更复杂的例子来说明接近度和比例的重要性。凯恩走进后面的房间。他的妻子躺在中间的床上；一瓶安眠药在前景中赫然耸现。这三者通过它们在框架中的位置连接起来。颠倒顺序，药瓶就会消失在镜头的背景中。
Figure 3-44, a classic shot from Citizen Kane (1941), gives us a more sophisticated example of the significance of proximity and proportion. Kane enters the room at the rear; his wife is in bed in the midground; a bottle of sleeping medicine looms large in the foreground. The three are connected by their placement in the frame. Reverse the order and the medicine bottle would disappear into the background of the shot.
巴洛克与文艺复兴后期绘画的构图区别之一是地理平面从“方形”方向向倾斜方向的转变。造成这种情况的原因有几个，一是为了追求更逼真的效果：倾斜构图强调绘画的空间，而对称的文艺复兴构图标准则强调其设计。然而，最终的效果是增加了设计的心理戏剧性：地理斜线转化为框架平面的对角线，这被解读为本质上比水平和垂直更活跃。在这里，与前面的示例一样，不同平面中的组成因素之间存在关系。
One of the aspects of composition that differentiates Baroque from late Renaissance painting is the shift from the “square” orientation of the geographic plane to the oblique. There were several reasons for this—one was the quest for greater verisimilitude: the oblique composition emphasized the space of the painting, whereas the symmetrical Renaissance compositional standard emphasized its design. The net effect, however, was to increase the psychological drama of the design: geographical obliques translate into the plane of the frame as diagonals, which are read as inherently more active than horizontals and verticals. Here, as in the earlier examples, there is a relationship between compositional factors in separate planes.
最终，地理平面和深度平面将信息“馈送到”框架平面。这在绘画和摄影中更是如此，它们不具备电影将物理移动到图像空间的能力，但在电影中通常也是如此。框架平面是唯一的“真实”平面。因此，大多数构图元素都是在这个平面上实现的。
Eventually the geographic and depth planes “feed” information to the plane of the frame. This is truer in painting and photography, which don’t have the ability film does to move physically into the pictorial space, but it is still generally true in cinema as well. The frame plane is the only “real” plane. Most elements of composition, therefore, realize themselves in this plane.
与预期相反，空框并不是白板。甚至在图像出现之前，我们就在框架的潜在空间中投入了某些经过科学测量的品质：例如，我们自然倾向于将深度解读到二维设计中。潜在的期望决定内在的兴趣。图 3-45 和 3-46 展示了这一点。在 3-45 中，两条垂直线的长度完全相同，但左侧的线看起来更长。这是因为我们将顶部和底部的角度理解为代表角，左边后退，右边侵入。如果两条线看起来相等，我们就会计算出左边的线一定更长，因为它“更远”。在图3-46中，楼梯是上升的，哪个是下降的？“正确”答案是A上升，B下降。当然，诀窍在于动词，因为楼梯总是向上和向下。但由于西方人倾向于从左到右阅读，所以我们看到楼梯A上升，楼梯B下降。
The empty frame, contrary to expectations, is not a tabula rasa. Even before the image appears, we invest the potential space of the frame with certain qualities, ones which have been measured scientifically: our natural tendency to read depth into the two-dimensional design, for instance. Latent expectations determine intrinsic interest. Figures 3-45 and 3-46 demonstrate this. In 3-45, both verticals are precisely the same length, yet the left-hand line looks much longer. This is because we read the angles at top and bottom as representative of corners, the left receding, the right intruding. If both lines seem to be equal, we then calculate that the line on the left must be longer, since it is “farther away.” In Figure 3-46, which stairway ascends and which descends? The “correct” answers are that A ascends and B descends. The trick is in the verbs, of course, since stairs always go both up and down. But since Westerners tend to read from left to right, we see stair A ascending and stair B descending.
图 3-44。威尔斯的《公民凯恩》 (1941)中的多萝西·科明戈尔（阴影中）、奥森·威尔斯和约瑟夫·科顿。讲述故事的不是镜头的材料，而是镜头的设计。
Figure 3-44. Dorothy Comingore (in shadow), Orson Welles, and Joseph Cotten in Welles’s Citizen Kane (1941). It is not the material of the shot but its design that tells the story.
因此，甚至在图像出现之前，框架就被赋予了意义。下比上更“重要”，左先右，下稳定，上不稳定；从左下角到右上角的对角线从稳定“上升”到不稳定。水平线也将比垂直线给予更多的权重：面对同等长度的水平线和垂直线，我们倾向于将水平线解读为更长，这是由框架的尺寸强调的现象。
So, even before the image appears, the frame is invested with meaning. The bottom is more “important” than the top, left comes before right, the bottom is stable, the top unstable; diagonals from bottom left to top right go “up” from stability to instability. Horizontals will also be given more weight than verticals: confronted with horizontal and vertical lines of equal length, we tend to read the horizontal as longer, a phenomenon emphasized by the dimensions of the frame.
当图像确实出现时，形式、线条和颜色就会被框架中的这些潜在值所影响。形状、线条和颜色也有其固有的重量和方向值。如果图像设计中存在锐利的线条，我们倾向于从左到右沿着它们阅读。一个具有“轻”内在意义的物体（凯恩夫人的药瓶）可以通过形状被赋予“重”的意义。
When the image does appear, form, line, and color are impressed with these latent values in the frame. Form, line, and color also have their own inherent values of weight and direction. If sharp lines exist in the design of the image, we tend to read along them from left to right. An object with a “light” inherent significance (Mrs. Kane’s medicine bottle) can be given “heavy” significance through shape.
当然，颜色增加了一个全新的维度。希区柯克在《玛妮》（1964）中以女主人公亮黄色钱包的特写镜头开始。场景的其他颜色值是中性的。感觉就是钱包带着女人而不是相反，这正是希区柯克想要的效果，考虑到黄色凸起包含玛妮刚刚偷的钱，而且正如我们后来看到的那样，她的生活被她的盗窃癖所主宰。在我们以叙述方式了解这些之前，我们“知道”它。（玛妮也是其他类型颜色主导的一个很好的例子，因为电影的主题是颜色象征主义：玛妮患有恐惧症。）
And color, of course, adds an entirely new dimension. Hitchcock begins Marnie (1964) with a close shot of his heroine’s bright yellow pocketbook. The other color values of the scene are neutral. The sense is of the pocketbook carrying the woman rather than vice versa, just the effect Hitchcock wants, considering that the yellow bulge contains the money Marnie had just stolen and that her life, as we later see, is dominated by her kleptomania. Before we learn any of this narratively, we “know” it. (Marnie is also an excellent example of other types of color dominance, since the subject of the film is color symbolism: Marnie suffers from rosophobia.)
图 3-45。穆勒错觉。_ _ _ _ _ _ 两条垂直线的长度相同，但左侧的线看起来更长。我们将顶部和底部的角度理解为角，左边后退，右边侵入。如果两条线看起来相等，我们认为左边的线一定更长，因为它“更远”。
Figure 3-45. THE MÜLLER-LYER ILLUSION. Both verticals are the same length, yet the left-hand line looks much longer. We read the angles at top and bottom as corners, the left receding, the right intruding. If both lines seem to be equal, we think the line on the left must be longer, since it is “further away.”
图 3-46。楼上/楼下的幻觉。_ 哪个楼梯上升，哪个楼梯下降？由于西方人倾向于从左到右阅读，所以我们看到楼梯 A 上升，楼梯 B 下降。
Figure 3-46. UPSTAIRS/DOWNSTAIRS ILLUSION. Which stairway ascends and which descends? Since Westerners tend to read from left to right, we see stair A ascending and stair B descending.
图 3-47。奥逊·威尔斯 (Orson Welles) 的《阿卡丁先生》(Mr. Arkadin ) (1955)中的米沙·奥尔 (Mischa Auer )：典型的威尔斯作品倾斜。桌子的线从左向右向下移动让我们更加迷失方向。画面中的观察者紧张，伸长脖子观看。低角度的拍摄增加了我们的不祥预感。最重要的是，放大的眼睛的比喻通过高顶礼帽的圆圈和上面的光的呼应，与典型的韦尔斯式讽刺相结合。这里的“欺骗”是放大镜是供我们使用的，而不是奥尔的。（框架放大）。
Figure 3-47. Mischa Auer in Orson Welles’s Mr. Arkadin (1955): a typically tilted Welles composition. That the line of the table moves down from left to right disorients us even further. The observer in the frame strains, stretches his neck to see. The low angle of the shot increases our sense of foreboding. Most important, the trope of the magnified eye is doubled and redoubled with typically Wellesian irony by the echoing circles of the top hat and the light above. The “cheat” here is that the magnifying glass is positioned for our use, not Auer’s. (Frame enlargement).
图 3-48。多重曝光是电影中最不自然的代码之一（我们在现实生活中很少同时看到两个图像），但它也可能是最有意义的代码之一。这里是奥森·威尔斯不同电影中的三张多重曝光，按照复杂程度递增。第一个来自《公民凯恩》，简单地将苏珊·亚历山大（多萝西·科明戈尔饰）与她在媒体上的形象联系起来，这是双重曝光代码的常见用法。（框架放大。）
Figure 3-48. Multiple exposure is one of the most unnatural codes of cinema (we seldom see two images at the same time in real life) but it can also be one of the most meaningful. Here, three multiple exposures from various films by Orson Welles, in increasing order of complexity. The first, from Citizen Kane, simply connects Susan Alexander (Dorothy Comingore) with her image in the press, a common use of the double exposure code. (Frame enlargement.)
图 3-49。第二个来自《伟大的安伯森一家》（1942），暗示了现实的两个层面。（框架放大）。
Figure 3-49. The second, from The Magnificent Ambersons (1942), suggests two levels of reality. (Frame enlargement).
图 3-50。第三个来自《上海淑女》（1947），出自该片中著名的镜像序列：我们能在噩梦中幸存吗？（框架放大。）
Figure 3-50. The third, from The Lady of Shanghai (1947), is from the famous mirror sequence in that film: will we survive the nightmare? (Frame enlargement.)
图 3-51。主光和补光。_ _ _ _ 主光通常与相机-拍摄对象轴成 45° 角，提供主要照明源。较小的补光可以柔化这种经典好莱坞照明技术中的阴影。
Figure 3-51. KEY LIGHTS AND FILL LIGHTS. The key light, usually at a 45° angle to the camera-subject axis, provides the main source of illumination. The smaller fill light softens the shadows in this classic Hollywood lighting technique.
形式、线条和色彩的元素都有自己的内在利益，在复杂的系统中相互抵消、加强、对位或平衡，每一个元素都与我们对框架的潜在期望以及深度和构图的感觉相悖。平面设计相结合。
Elements of form, line, and color all carry their own intrinsic interests, significant weights that counteract, reinforce, counterpoint, or balance each other in complex systems, each read against our latent expectations of the frame and with the senses of composition in depth and planar design combined.
多个图像（分屏）和叠加（双重曝光等）虽然很少使用，但可以将固有权重乘以两倍、三倍、四倍或更多倍。纹理虽然在谈论电影美学时不常被提及，但也很重要，不仅就主题的固有纹理而言，而且就图像的纹理（或颗粒）而言。一个例子就足够了：我们有学会将颗粒感与放大和纪录片联系起来。因此，电影制片人可以指挥这个代码。颗粒状图像表示“真实”图像。扩大的颗粒及其作为理解障碍的重要性为安东尼奥尼 1966 年的电影《放大》提供了基本隐喻，这是一部对感知困难的经典研究。
Multiple images (split screen) and superimpositions (double exposures, et cetera), although they are seldom used, can multiply the intrinsic weights by factors of two, three, four, or more. Texture, although it is not often mentioned when speaking of film esthetics, is also important, not only in terms of the inherent texture of the subject but also in terms of the texture—or grain—of the image. One illustration will suffice: we have learned to associate graininess with enlargement, and with documentary. The filmmaker therefore has this code at his command. A grainy image signifies a “truthful” one. The grain of enlargement and its significance as a barrier to comprehension provided the basic metaphor of Antonioni’s 1966 film Blow-Up, a classic study of the difficulty of perception.
图 3-52。“界面”的灯光组合：( A )主灯。这里使用了两个主灯。(B) 背光。(C) 补光。(D) 主光和补光。(E) 背光和补光。(F) 主光和背光。(G) 最终构图：主光、补光和背光。
Figure 3-52. LIGHTING COMBINATIONS FROM “THE INTERFACE”: (A) Key light. Two key lights were used here. (B) Back light. (C) Fill light. (D) Key light and fill light. (E) Back light and fill light. (F) Key light and back light. (G) The final composition: key, fill, and back lights.
图 3-53。好莱坞灯光。_ _ 玛格丽特·奥布莱恩和朱迪·加兰在文森特·明内利的《圣路易斯见我》(1944) 中。布景充满活力，光线充足。即使在失焦的后面房间里，也只有最微弱的阴影。由于这是一部特艺彩色胶片，因此光线比黑白胶片更强。
Figure 3-53. HOLLYWOOD LIGHTING. Margaret O’Brien and Judy Garland in Vincente Minnelli’s Meet Me in St. Louis (1944). The set is vibrantly, thoroughly lit. There are only the faintest hints of shadows, even in the back room, which is out of focus. Since this was a Technicolor film, the lighting is even stronger than it might have been for black-and-white.
也许电影制片人可以用来修改形式、线条和颜色的含义及其内在兴趣的最重要的工具是灯光。在电影胶片相对不敏感的时代（20 世纪 60 年代之前），人工照明是必需的，电影制片人一如既往地将必要性作为美德。二十年代的德国表现主义者借用了绘画中的明暗对比法则来达到戏剧效果——这使他们能够强调设计而不是逼真。经典的好莱坞电影风格想要更自然的效果，因此开发了一种平衡的“主”灯和“补”灯系统（见图3-52），该系统提供彻底但不明显的照明，从而在观察者和拍摄对象之间呈现出最小的障碍。在最好的情况下，这个复杂的系统是能够产生一些非凡的、微妙的效果，但它本质上是不现实的；我们很少观察到具有非常高的光照水平和精心平衡的填充的自然场景，这标志着好莱坞风格（这在今天的戏剧和电视制作中一直存在）。
Perhaps the most important tool the filmmaker can use to modify the meanings of form, line, and color, and their intrinsic interests, is lighting. In the days when filmstock was relatively insensitive (before the 1960s), artificial lighting was a requisite, and filmmakers made a virtue of necessity—as always. The German Expressionists of the twenties borrowed the code of chiaroscuro from painting to dramatic effect—it allowed them to emphasize design over verisimilitude. The classical Hollywood cinematographic style wanted a more natural effect and so developed a system of balanced “key” lights and “fill” lights (see Figure 3-52) that provided thorough but not overt illumination and therefore presented a minimal barrier between observer and subject. At its best, this sophisticated system was capable of some extraordinary, subtle effects, yet it was inherently unrealistic; we seldom observe natural scenes that have both the very high light level and the carefully balanced fill that mark the Hollywood style (and that is perpetuated today in both theatrical and television productions).
图 3-54。突出显示。让-皮埃尔·梅尔维尔和让·谷克托的恐怖片《孩子们》 (1950)。眼睛特别亮。
Figure 3-54. HIGHLIGHTING. Jean-Pierre Melville and Jean Cocteau’s Les Enfants terribles (1950). The eyes are specially lit.
快速电影胶片的发展为灯光规范提供了新的自由度，如今大多数电影摄影师都追求逼真而不是经典的好莱坞平衡。
The development of fast filmstocks permitted a new latitude in the code of lighting, and today most cinematographers work for verisimilitude rather than classic Hollywood balance.
不用说，所有适用于摄影的灯光代码也适用于电影。全正面照明会冲淡拍摄对象；头顶照明占主导地位；从下面射来的灯光使它显得阴郁；突出显示可以引起人们对细节的注意（最常见的是头发和眼睛）；逆光可以主导主体或突出主体；侧光能够产生戏剧性的明暗对比效果。
Needless to say, all the lighting codes that operate in photography operate in film as well. Full front lighting washes out a subject; overhead lighting dominates it; lighting from below makes it lugubrious; highlighting can call attention to details (hair and eyes most often); backlighting can either dominate a subject or highlight it; sidelighting is capable of dramatic chiaroscuro effect.
长宽比；开放式和封闭式；框架、地理和深度平面；深度知觉；接近度和比例；对颜色、形状和线条的内在兴趣；重量和方向；潜在的期望；倾斜与对称构图；质地; 和照明。这些是静态胶片帧内运行的主要代码。
Aspect ratio; open and closed form; frame, geographic, and depth planes; depth perception; proximity and proportion; intrinsic interest of color, form, and line; weight and direction; latent expectation; oblique versus symmetric composition; texture; and lighting. These are the major codes operating within the static film frame.
然而，就历时镜头而言，我们才刚刚开始。
In terms of the diachronic shot, however, we have just begun.
图 3-55。背光是取自绘画的更有趣的照明代码之一。这里有一个相对较早的绘画例子，康斯坦斯·玛丽·夏彭蒂耶 (Constance Marie Charpentier) 的《奥涅山谷的夏洛特英里》（Mile Charlotte du val d'Ognes）（约 180l）。光源突出了拍摄对象的头发和衣服的褶皱。虽然正面看不到光源，但细节依然清晰，阴影柔和优雅。（布面油画，60 1/2” x 50 5/8”，大都会艺术博物馆，艾萨克·D·弗莱彻夫妇收藏。艾萨克·D·弗莱彻遗赠，1917 年。）
Figure 3-55. Backlighting is one of the more interesting lighting codes taken from painting. Here, a relatively early example from painting, Constance Marie Charpentier’s Mile Charlotte du val d’Ognes (c. 180l). The light source highlights the subject’s hair and the folds of her dress. Although there is no perceivable light source from the front, details are nevertheless evident and the shadows are soft and elegant. (Oil on canvas, 60 1/2” by 50 5/8”, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Mr. and Mrs. Isaac D. Fletcher Collection. Bequest of Isaac D. Fletcher, 1917.)
图 3-56。让-吕克·戈达尔 (Jean-Luc Godard) 是一位对这段代码很感兴趣的电影制片人。到了这张照片的《周末》（1968）时，他已经将逆光镜头抽象到了剪影的极致。光线刺眼、大胆，压倒了主体。为了寻找镜头中的细节，我们必须努力，这让我们感觉，面对明亮的窗户，就像偷窥者一样——这正是戈达尔想要的效果。让·雅纳 (Jean Yanne) 和米雷耶·戴尔 (Mireille Dare) 出演《周末》(1968)。（框架放大。）
Figure 3-56. Jean-Luc Godard is one filmmaker who has been intrigued by this code. By the time of Weekend (1968), from which this shot comes, he had abstracted the backlit shot to the extreme of silhouette. The lighting is harsh, bold, and overwhelms the subject. In order to search out detail in the shot we have to work, which makes us feel, faced with the bright window, not unlike voyeurs—exactly the effect Godard wants. Jean Yanne and Mireille Dare in Weekend (1968). (Frame enlargement.)
图 3-57。伍迪·艾伦在曼哈顿拍摄的这张同样刺眼的逆光照片（1979）中获得了完全不同的感觉。在现代艺术博物馆花园举行的鸡尾酒会上，黛安·基顿和艾伦的身影一眼就能辨认出来。
Figure 3-57. Woody Allen achieved an entirely different feel in this equally harshly backlit shot from Manhattan (1979). The silhouettes of Diane Keaton and Allen are instantly recognizable at a cocktail party in the garden of the Museum of Modern Art.
图 3-58。除了宽银幕建筑构图之外，安东尼奥尼还对焦点代码着迷。在这里，在珊瑚礁沙漠中，莫妮卡·维蒂进入焦点失焦的画面（就像她的角色一样）。（框架放大。）
Figure 3-58. In addition to widescreen architectural composition, Antonioni was fascinated by the focus code. Here, in Reef Desert, Monica Vitti enters the frame out of focus (just like her character). (Frame enlargement.)
历时镜头
电影制片人在镜头方面使用了大量术语。现在起作用的因素包括距离、焦点、角度、运动和视角。其中一些元素也在静态框架内运行，但所有这些元素都更适合作为动态质量来讨论。射击距离是最简单的变量。所谓的正常镜头包括全景镜头、四分之三镜头、中景镜头（或中间镜头）和头肩镜头——所有这些都是根据拍摄对象的数量来定义的。特写镜头、远景镜头和超远景镜头完善了距离范围。
Filmmakers use a wealth of terminology in regard to the shot. The factors that now come into play include distance, focus, angle, movement, and point of view. Some of these elements also operate within the static frame, but all are more appropriately discussed as dynamic qualities. Shot distance is the simplest variable. So-called normal shots include the full shot, three-quarter shot, medium shot (or mid-shot), and head-and-shoulders shot—all defined in terms of the amount of subject viewed. Closeups, long shots, and extreme long shots complete the range of distances.
请注意，这些术语与所用镜头的焦距没有任何关系。正如我们在第 2 章中看到的，除了根据相机与拍摄对象的距离来定义之外，镜头还以其镜头命名。还要注意的是，在实践中这些术语的使用是宽松的。一个人的特写镜头就是另一个人的“细节镜头”，迄今为止，还没有哪个电影学院进行过深思熟虑，决定中景镜头变成远景镜头，或者远景镜头转变为极远景镜头的精确点。然而，在一定限度内，这些概念是有效的。
Note that none of these terms has anything to do with the focal length of the lens used. As we saw in Chapter 2, in addition to being defined in terms of the distance of the camera from the subject, shots are also named for their lenses. Note, too, that in practice these terms are loosely used. One person’s closeup is another’s “detail shot,” and no Academy of film has (so far) sat in deep deliberation deciding the precise point at which a medium shot becomes a long shot, or a long shot metamorphoses into an extreme long shot. Nevertheless, within limits, the concepts are valid.
一部主要以特写镜头拍摄的电影——例如卡尔·德莱叶的《圣女贞德受难记》 （1928）——剥夺了我们的背景，因此让人迷失方向，产生幽闭恐惧症。效果可能是惊人的。另一方面，一部电影主要以长镜头拍摄——例如罗伯托·罗西里尼后来的许多历史文章——强调背景而非戏剧，强调辩证而非个性。镜头距离的代码很简单，但在很大程度上它控制着我们可以使用胶片的许多其他代码中的哪些。
A film shot mainly in closeups—Carl Dreyer’s The Passion of Joan of Arc (1928), for example—deprives us of setting and is therefore disorienting, claustrophobic. The effect can be striking. On the other hand, a film shot mainly in long shot—many of Roberto Rossellini’s later historical essays, for instance—emphasizes context over drama and dialectic over personality. The code of shot distance is simple, but to a large extent it controls which of the many other codes of film we may use.
图 3-59。镜头构图。_ _ 实际上，射击距离比术语所暗示的要特殊得多。例如，A 和 B 都介于特写镜头和细节镜头之间。两者都给了我们半张女人的脸，但在 A 中，脸部几乎占据了整个画面，而在 B 中，它是三镜头的一部分。框架的长宽比也是一个重要的考虑因素。C 和 D 或多或少都是中镜头，但 C 在范围比率方面与 D 在标准学院比率方面具有不同的效果。C 比 D 包含更多的动作；D更像是一个特写。构图也是一个主要元素。镜头 E 和 F 都必须被归类为长镜头——同一位女演员，同一位导演。在每幅作品中，朱丽叶塔·马西纳或多或少占据了画面高度的四分之三。然而在《E》中，费里尼创作了一个镜头，其中其他设计元素——道路、雕像、地平线——将人们的注意力集中在马西纳身上。从心理上来说，她在这里的形象更令人印象深刻。在F中，构图（和她的姿势）致力于淡化她的存在。（框架放大。）
Figure 3-59. SHOT COMPOSITION. In practice, shot distance is much more idiosyncratic than the terminology suggests. Both A and B, for example, are somewhere in between closeups and detail shots. Both give us half a woman’s face, yet in A the face takes up nearly the whole frame while in B it is part of a three-shot. The aspect ratio of the frame is an important consideration, too. Both C and D are, more or less, mid-shots, yet C, in the scope ratio, has a different effect from D, in the standard Academy ratio. C includes a lot more action than D; D is more like a closeup. Composition is a major element, as well. Shots E and F both must be classified as long shots—same actress, same director. In each, Giulietta Masina takes up three-quarters of the height of the frame, more or less. Yet in E, Fellini has composed a shot in which the other design elements—the road, the statues, the horizon—work to focus attention on Masina. Psychologically, the image of her is more impressive here. In F, composition (and her posture) works to de-emphasize her presence. (Frame enlargements.)
图 3-60。小津安二郎的《夏末》（1961）中典型的低角度镜头。这个角度看起来并不那么令人不安，因为拍摄对象坐在地板上。（纽约客电影公司。）
Figure 3-60. A typical low-angle shot from Yasujiro Ozu’s The End of Summer (1961). The angle doesn’t seem so disconcerting because the subjects are seated on the floor. (New Yorker Films.)
焦点是镜头语法中下一个最重要的变量。焦点的确定有两个轴：第一个选择是深焦点，其中前景、中景和背景都是相对清晰的焦点；浅焦点，其中焦点强调一个地面而不是其他地面。浅焦显然可以让电影制片人更好地控制图像。另一方面，深度聚焦是场景调度的主要美学标志之一。（当所有三个地面都聚焦时，“将事物放入场景中”会更容易，因为场景会更大，更包容。）（参见图 2-18 和 2-19。）
Focus is the next most important variable in the syntax of the shot. There are two axes in the determination of focus: the first choice is between deep focus, in which foreground, middle ground, and background are all relatively sharp focus, and shallow focus, in which the focus emphasizes one ground over the others. Shallow focus obviously allows the filmmaker greater control over the image. Deep focus, on the other hand, is one of the prime esthetic hallmarks of mise-en-scène. (It is much easier to “put things in the scene” when all three grounds are in focus, since the scene is then much larger, more accommodating.) (See Figures 2-18 and 2-19.)
第二个焦点轴是锐焦点和柔焦点之间的连续体。镜头的这个方面与纹理有关。柔焦通常与所谓的浪漫情绪相关。锐利的焦点与逼真度更密切相关。这些都是一般性的概括，而具体的事例常常与之相矛盾。（一如既往，规则就是用来打破的。） 柔焦与其说是浪漫，不如说是安抚。它平滑图像的识别细节并使其远离。
The second axis of focus is the continuum between sharp and soft focus. This aspect of the shot is related to texture. Soft focus is generally associated with so-called romantic moods. Sharp focus is more closely associated with verisimilitude. These are generalizations that specific instances often contradict. (As always, the rules are made to be broken.) Soft focus is not so much romantic as it is mollifying. It smoothes out the identifying details of an image and distances it.
图 3-61。跟踪与缩放。这十帧来自平行跟踪和变焦镜头，说明了两种技术之间的差异。在这两个系列中，女人都走向摄像机，第一帧和第五帧之间的距离大约为 50 码。首先使用 55 毫米镜头拍摄赛道。（因此帧 T4 和 Z4 是相同的。）然后拍摄变焦以对应于轨道。变焦时主体和背景之间的关系显着不同。随着镜头从长焦（205 毫米）焦距变为广角（28 毫米），深度感从抑制变为夸张，视角也略有缓和。在跟踪拍摄中，拍摄对象与相机之间的距离从一帧到另一帧都是恒定的，并且建筑物在背景中足够远，因此帧之间不会发生很大变化。在变焦过程中，拍摄对象与相机之间的距离不断变化，背景建筑物的相对大小在长焦镜头中被放大，在广角镜头中被拉远或最小化。还要注意，阴影的角度在缩放时会发生变化。（比较图 2-10。）
Figure 3-61. TRACKING VERSUS ZOOMING. These ten frames from parallel tracking and zoom shots illustrate the differences between the two techniques. In both series, the woman is walking towards the camera, covering a distance of approximately fifty yards between frame I and frame 5. The track was shot first, with a 55 mm lens. (Thus frames T4 and Z4 are identical.) The zoom was then shot to correspond to the track. The relationship between subject and background is dramatically different in the zoom. As the lens changes from telephoto (205 mm) to wide-angle (28 mm) focal lengths, depth perception changes from suppressed to exaggerated, and perspective undergoes a slight moderation as well. In the tracking shot, the distance between subject and camera is constant from one frame to another, and the building is far enough in the background so as not to change greatly between frames. In the zoom, the distance between subject and camera is constantly changing, and the relative size of the background building is magnified in the telephoto shots and distanced, or minimized in the wide-angle frame. Notice, too, that the angle of the shadow changes in the zoom. (Compare Figure 2-10.)
图 3-62。移动相机。_ _ _ _ 在让-吕克·戈达尔的《一加一》 (1968) 片场。右边典型的摄像机是电影中的“道具”。（红色和黑色旗帜不是标准设备。）相机平台由框架外的重量平衡。在中间的地面上可以看到为相机铺设的轨道，而在最左边几乎看不见。在前景中，第三台摄像机安装在一辆特殊的卡车上。
Figure 3-62. THE MOVING CAMERA. On the set of Jean-Luc Godard’s One Plus One (1968). The typical camera at right is a “prop” in the film. (The red and black flags are not standard equipment.) The camera platform is counterbalanced by weights out of the frame. In the middle ground can be seen tracks laid for a camera that is barely visible at the extreme left. In the foreground, a third camera is mounted on a special truck.
当然，焦点是静态画面和历时镜头的函数。它与构图平面密切相关，因为它允许集中在单一基础上。但它也倾向于运动。通过在拍摄过程中保持相对较浅的焦点并改变焦点，电影制片人可以将画面的内在兴趣从一个地面转移到另一个地面，这在某种程度上类似于平移、变焦或跟踪镜头的效果，但在画面内进行并且无需移动相机。
Surely focus is a function of the still frame as well as of the diachronic shot. It is intimately associated with the compositional planes, since it permits concentration on a single ground. But it also tends toward movement. By maintaining relatively shallow focus and changing focus during the shot, the filmmaker can shift the intrinsic interest of the frame from one ground to another, which in a way parallels the effect of the pan, zoom, or tracking shot but does so within the frame and without moving the camera.
镜头中的焦点变化有两种基本类型：跟随焦点，改变焦点以允许相机将移动的拍摄对象保持在焦点上；以及机架聚焦（rack focus），其中改变焦点以将注意力从一个主题转移到不同地面的另一个主题上。追焦是好莱坞风格的基本要素之一，因其保持对拍摄对象的注意力的能力而受到赞赏。机架焦点是现代、侵入式风格的标志之一。那么，焦点就是将构图代码与运动代码联系起来的代码之一。
Focus changes within the shot are of two basic sorts: follow focus, in which the focus is changed to permit the camera to keep a moving subject in focus; and rack focus, in which the focus is changed to direct attention away from one subject and toward another in a different ground. Follow focus was one of the basics of the Hollywood style, admired for its ability to maintain attention on the subject. Rack focus is one of the hallmarks of the modern, intrusive style. Focus, then, is one of the codes that connect the codes of composition with those of movement.
图 3-63。卷。_ 平移、倾斜和轨道是常见的电影代码，但滚动却很少见。原因很明显：平移、倾斜和跟踪镜头模仿常见的日常动作，但我们很少“转动”我们的头（侧向倾斜），因此这通常是一个引人注目的视角。虽然镜头通常以滚动角度拍摄（参见图 3-47 和 3-48 中奥森·威尔斯电影中的插图），但滚动运动并不常见。在这里，弗雷德·阿斯泰尔在一个未经编辑的镜头中表演了整个舞蹈动作，在斯坦利·多南的《皇家婚礼》（1951）中逐渐沿着墙壁向上移动，穿过天花板，然后沿着对面的墙壁向下移动。精确编排的程序是在安装在鼓上的装置上完成的。家具和相机都已固定好。当阿斯泰尔从地板移动到墙壁，从墙壁移动到天花板时，布景转动，摄像机也随之转动。
Figure 3-63. ROLL. Pans, tilts, and tracks are common enough cinematic codes, but rolls are rare. The reason is obvious: pans, tilts, and tracking shots mimic common, everyday movements, but we seldom “roll” our heads (tilt them sideways), so this is often a striking perspective. While shots are often made at a rolled angle (see the illustrations from Orson Welles films in Figures 3-47 and 3-48) the movement of rolling is unusual. Here, Fred Astaire performs an entire dance routine in one unedited shot, gradually moving up the wall, across the ceiling, and down the opposite wall in Stanley Donen’s Royal Wedding (1951). The precisely choreographed routine was accomplished on a set mounted in a drum. The furniture and the camera were secured. As Astaire moved from floor to wall, from wall to ceiling, the set turned and the camera turned with it.
图 3-64。斯坦利·库布里克在《2001：太空漫游》中使用类似的设备拍摄了许多不寻常的镜头。这张特殊的照片是展示该设备的一个场景。空乘人员在特殊路径上走了一圈，据说是用尼龙搭扣拖鞋支撑着。（图框放大）
Figure 3-64. Stanley Kubrick used a similar apparatus for many unusual shots in 2001:A Space Odyssey. This particular shot was a setpiece to show off the device. The flight attendant walked full circle, supposedly held up by her Velcro slippers on the special path. (Frame enlargement)
历时镜头的第三个方面——角度——也向后延伸至静态构图，向前延伸至镜头的运动。由于相机和拍摄对象之间的关系存在于三维空间中，因此存在三组独立的角度来决定拍摄。
The third aspect of the diachronic shot—angle—also reaches back toward static composition and forward toward the movement of the shot. Because the relationship between camera and subject exists in three-dimensional space, there are three sets of separate angles that determine the shot.
图 3-65。茂瑙为《日出》 (1927) 拍摄的布景。长途电车之旅在电影史上占有一席之地。在这种情况下，跟踪镜头纯粹是逼真的：除了在轨道上乘坐电车之外，没有其他方法！（M0MA/FSA）。
Figure 3-65. Murnau’s set for Sunrise (1927). The long tram ride has earned a place in film history. In this case, the tracking shot is purely verisimilitudinous: there is no other way to ride a tram than on tracks! (M0MA/FSA).
图 3-66。马克斯·奥菲尔斯 (Max Ophüls) 特别喜欢移动摄像机。这是《La Ronde》 （1950 年）中一首长抒情诗的剧照，其中使用了起重机镜头。安东·沃尔布鲁克（左），西蒙·西涅莱（Simone Signoret）在旋转木马上。（现代艺术博物馆/英国金融服务管理局。）
Figure 3-66. Max Ophüls was especially fond of the moving camera. This is a still from a long lyrical, and involved crane shot in La Ronde (1950). Anton Walbrook at left, Simone Signoret on the carousel. (MOMA/FSA.)
图 3-67。如果说跟踪镜头对于穆尔瑙来说是合乎逻辑和现实的，对于奥菲尔斯来说是抒情和浪漫的，那么到 1968 年，它就成为了让-吕克·戈达尔 (Jean-Luc Godard) 的智力分析工具（同时也是一个大笑话）。这一帧来自《周末》中长达七分钟的交通拥堵跟踪镜头的中间部分，戈达尔的镜头缓慢而无情地经过一排看似无穷无尽的停着的汽车。司机和乘客不停地按喇叭、互相争吵、打架、停下来临时野餐、从一辆车到另一辆车玩球（如图所示），或者在拖车安装的帆船上测试他们的装备。道路两旁每隔一定距离排列的白杨树将这张宏伟的连续镜头分成了几个片段，这些片段充当了单独的取景装置。（框架放大。）
Figure 3-67. If the tracking shot was logical and realistic for Murnau, lyrical and romantic for Ophüls, it became, by 1968, a tool of intellectual analysis (as well as a grand joke) for Jean-Luc Godard. This frame comes from the middle of the seven-minute-long tracking shot of the traffic jam in Weekend Godard’s camera moves slowly and inexorably past a seemingly endless line of stopped autos. Drivers and passengers honk incessantly, argue with each other, fight, stop for an impromptu picnic, play ball from car to car (as here), or test their gear on trailer-mounted sailboats. The poplar trees that line the road at regular intervals divide this magnificent continuous shot into segments that function as separate framing devices. (Frame enlargement.)
图 3-68。迈克尔·斯诺的《波长》（1967）将跟踪镜头视为一种结构法则，即电影的主题。这是四十五分钟变焦镜头中间的一帧。影片结束时，斯诺的相机已经移至钉在椅子上方墙上的照片中间的特写镜头。图片？当然是波浪！（MOMA/FSA。框架放大。）
Figure 3-68. Michael Snow’s Wavelength (1967) treated the tracking shot as a structural law, the subject of the film. This is a frame from about the middle of the forty-five minute zoom. By the end of the film, Snow’s camera has moved into a closeup of the middle of the photograph tacked to the wall above the chair. The image? Waves, of course! (MOMA/FSA. Frame enlargement.)
我们已经在上一节中讨论了其中一个，即接近角（正方形对称或倾斜）。要理解三种角度之间的关系，可视化穿过相机的三个假想轴可能会很有用（图 2-25）。航向轴（垂直）也是接近角的轴；它要么是方形的，要么是倾斜的。倾斜轴（从左到右水平）决定了拍摄的高度：头顶、高角度、视线水平和低角度是此处使用的基本术语。不言而喻，高角度拍摄会削弱拍摄对象的重要性，而低角度拍摄则会强调其力量。有趣的是，眼睛水平的镜头是最不引人注目的，但并不总是那么容易定义。日本电影制片人小津安二郎以其持续的低角度风格而闻名，但小津并没有真正试图扭曲他的图像的基本设计：他只是从坐在榻榻米上的日本观察者的视线水平进行拍摄垫。当然，“眼睛水平”取决于观看者的眼睛。即使在欧洲和美国电影中，视线高度之间的细微差异虽然不会立即显着，但也会在电影的整个过程中产生重大影响。
We have already discussed one of these, the angle of approach (squarely symmetrical or oblique), in the previous section. To understand the relationships among the three types of angle, it may be useful to visualize the three imaginary axes that run through the camera (Figure 2-25). The pan axis (vertical) is also the axis of the angle of approach; it is either square or oblique. The tilt axis (horizontal from left to right) determines the elevation of the shot: overhead, high-angle, eye-level, and low-angle are the basic terms used here. It goes without saying that high-angle shots diminish the importance of the subject while low-angle shots emphasize its power. Interestingly, the eye-level shot, the least obtrusive, is not always so easily defined. The Japanese filmmaker Yasujiro Ozu is well known for the constant low-angle of his style, yet Ozu wasn’t really trying to distort the basic design of his image: he was merely shooting from the eye level of a Japanese observer seated on a tatami mat. “Eye level,” of course, depends on the eye of the beholder. Even in European and American cinema, the subtle differences among eye levels, although not immediately remarkable, can have significant effects over the course of a film.
图 3-69。迈克尔·斯诺 (Michael Snow) 的终极平移/俯仰/滚动机器，配有摄像机，用于拍摄中央区 (La Région Centrale)。斯诺从右侧岩石后面操作相机，以免出现在照片中。（现代艺术博物馆/英国金融服务管理局。）
Figure 3-69. Michael Snow’s ultimate pan/tilt/roll machine, with camera, set up to shoot La Région Centrale. Snow operated the camera from behind the rock at right so as not to appear in the picture. (MOMA/FSA.)
第三个角度变量，滚动（从前到后的水平），由相机围绕最后一个剩余轴（与镜头轴平行的水平轴）的移动确定。可能是因为该轴代表了观察者（或相机）与拍摄对象之间的形而上学联系，也可能是因为滚动破坏了地平线的稳定性，所以相机很少绕该轴旋转。我想到的唯一常见的滚动运动是有时用来模仿在汹涌的大海中从船上看到的地平线的运动。滚动运动（或静态镜头的倾斜地平线）是相机角度的唯一变化，不会显着改变我们的注意力焦点。平移或倾斜是改变图像；滚动只是改变原始图像。
The third angle variable, roll (horizontal from front to back), is determined by the movement of the camera around the last remaining axis, the horizontal that parallels the axis of the lens. Possibly because this axis represents the metaphysical bond between the observer (or camera) and the subject, possibly because roll destroys the stability of the horizon, the camera is very seldom revolved around this axis. The only common roll movement that comes to mind is that sometimes used to mimic the movements of the horizon as seen from the boat in heavy seas. Roll movement (or the oblique horizon of a static shot) is the only change of camera angle that does not significantly alter our focus of attention. To pan or to tilt is to change images; to roll is simply to alter the original image.
摄影机不仅围绕这三个轴旋转，而且还从一个点移动到另一个点：因此“跟踪”镜头（也称为“卡车”或“移动车”镜头）和“起重机”镜头。正如第 2 章中所讨论的，变焦镜头模仿了上轨或后轨的效果，但并不精确。变焦时，由于相机不动，不同平面内物体之间的关系保持不变；没有进入场景的感觉；即使图像被放大，我们的视角仍然保持不变。然而，在赛道上，我们确实进入了场景。物体之间的空间关系发生了变化，我们的视角也发生了变化。尽管变焦通常是比跟踪拍摄更便宜的替代方案，但它的效果却令人奇怪地疏远：我们似乎在靠近而不是靠近，这令人迷失方向，因为我们在现实生活中没有这样的经验可供比较。
The camera not only revolves around these three axes, it is also moved from one point to another: hence “tracking” shots (also called “trucking” or “dolly” shots) and “crane” shots. The zoom shot, as discussed in Chapter 2, mimics the effect of a track in or track back, but not precisely. In the zoom, since the camera does not move, the relationships among objects in different planes remain the same; there is no sense of entering into the scene; our perspective remains constant, even if the image is enlarged. In the track, however, we do move physically into the scene; the spatial relationships among objects shift, as does our perspective. Although the zoom is often a less expensive alternative to the tracking shot, its effect is strangely distancing: we seem to move closer without getting any nearer, and that is disorienting, since we have no such experience in real life for comparison.
图 3-70。格蕾丝·凯利和詹姆斯·斯图尔特在希区柯克的《后窗》（1954）中。摄影师斯图尔特在格林威治村第十街的公寓里一动不动。庭院对面大楼的“CinemaScope”观景窗引起了他的兴趣。（仔细看！）他深深地融入了他们讲述的故事中。电影制作的隐喻？当然是“观点”研究。（现代艺术博物馆/英国金融服务管理局。）
Figure 3-70. Grace Kelly and James Stewart in Hitchcock’s Rear Window (1954). Stewart, a photographer, is immobilized in his apartment on Tenth Street in Greenwich Village. The “CinemaScope” picture windows of the building across the courtyard intrigue him. (Look closely!) He becomes deeply involved in the stories they tell. A metaphor for filmmaking? Certainly a study in “point of view.” (MOMA/FSA.)
正如深焦和浅焦的支持者之间以及场景调度和蒙太奇的拥护者之间的争论不断发展一样，移动摄影机也有其拥护者和反对者。因为跟踪镜头不断改变我们的视角，所以它显着增加了我们对深度的感知。更重要的是，移动摄像机具有固有的伦理维度。它可以以两种本质上不同的方式使用（例如焦点移动、平移和倾斜）：跟踪拍摄对象或改变拍摄对象。第一种选择强烈强调电影主题的中心地位；第二个将兴趣从主题转移到相机，从物体转移到电影制片人。正如安德烈·巴赞所指出的，这些都是伦理问题，因为它们决定了艺术家、主体和观察者之间的人际关系。
Just as debates have evolved between proponents of deep focus and shallow focus, and between champions of mise-en-scène and montage, so, too, the moving camera has its adherents and detractors. Because it continually changes our perspective, the tracking shot significantly increases our perception of depth. More important, the moving camera has an inherent ethical dimension. It can be used in two essentially different ways (like focus shifts, pans, and tilts): either to follow the subject or to change it. The first alternative strongly emphasizes the centrality of the subject of the film; the second shifts interest from subject to camera, from object to filmmaker. As André Bazin has pointed out, these are ethical questions, since they determine the human relationships among artist, subject, and observer.
尽管一些美学家坚持认为，移动摄影机因为它引起了电影制作人的注意，在某种程度上不如固定摄影机道德，但这与早期场景调度和蒙太奇之间以及深焦和浅焦之间的二分法一样是似是而非的区别。跟踪或起重机拍摄不一定需要将兴趣从拍摄对象转移到相机；相反，它可以引起人们对两者之间关系的关注，这可以说更现实，也更道德，因为事实上存在着一种关系。
Although some estheticians insist that the moving camera, because it calls attention to the filmmaker, is somehow less ethical than the stationary camera, this is as specious a differentiation as the earlier dichotomies between mise-en-scène and montage and between deep and shallow focus. A tracking or crane shot need not necessarily shift interest from subject to camera; it can, rather, call attention to the relationship between the two, which is arguably both more realistic and more ethical, since there is in fact a relationship.
图 3-71。在希区柯克的《魔咒》中这个令人难忘的第一人称视角镜头中，格利高里·派克把他的对话者淹死在一杯牛奶中，我们分享了观点和经历。（框架放大。）
Figure 3-71. Gregory Peck drowns his interlocutor in a glass of milk—and we share the viewpoint and the experience—in this memorable pov shot from Hitchcock’s Spellbound. (Frame enlargements.)
事实上，许多最好、最抒情的跟踪镜头都相当于电影中的做爱，就像电影制片人求爱，然后与他的拍摄对象结合一样；曲目成为了关系，镜头成为了电影制片人和主题的综合体，大于各个部分的总和。
Indeed, many of the best and most lyrical tracking shots are the cinematic equivalents of making love, as the filmmaker courts, then unites with his subject; the track becomes the relationship, and the shot a synthesis of filmmaker and subject, greater than the sum of its parts.
FW Murnau 和 Max Ophüls 在移动摄像机的历史上占据着重要地位。他们对它的使用本质上是人文主义的——为他们的主题创造一种抒情的庆祝，并让观众更深入地参与其中。斯坦利·库布里克（Stanley Kubrick）是一位与跟踪镜头密切相关的电影制片人，他也使用镜头移动来吸引观众，但以一种更冷漠、更理智的方式。*迈克尔·斯诺 (Michael Snow) 是一位重要的抽象电影制片人和艺术家，他在一系列三部开创性的电影中深入探索了移动摄像机的巨大潜力。
F. W. Murnau and Max Ophüls loom large in the history of the moving camera. Their use of it was, essentially, humanistic—to create a lyrical celebration of their subjects and to involve their audiences more deeply. Stanley Kubrick, a filmmaker closely identified with tracking shots, also used camera movement to involve his audience, but in a colder, more intellectual way.* Michael Snow, an important abstract filmmaker and artist, explored in great depth—in a series of three seminal films—the significa-tory potential of the moving camera.
斯诺的《波长》（1967）是一部令人着迷的变焦镜头，持续四十五分钟，它把我们从一个相当大的纽约阁楼的整体图像带到了最后一张挂在墙上的照片的细节镜头。大房间的另一端。↔（1968-69，也称为“前后”）探索了最简单的从左到右再返回平移的潜力，斯诺在一间空荡荡的教室里架起相机，然后在大约 75° 的扇区上连续快速地平移周期范围从每分钟十五个周期到每分钟六十个周期。斯诺的杰作《中央地区》（ La Region Centrale，1970-71）持续了三个多小时，我们对相机四面八方的完整空间球体的痴迷“地图”。斯诺为他的相机建造了一个伺服控制头，将其安装在魁北克北部一个偏远多岩石的地区，并控制其隐藏在山后的运动模式。摄影机俯冲、旋转、回旋、旋转、倾斜、之字形、扫掠、弧线，并以多种模式呈现八字形，而除了贫瘠的风景、地平线和太阳之外，什么也看不见。其效果是将相机从拍摄对象和摄影师身上彻底解放出来。它周围的全球空间成为斯诺复杂运动模式的原材料。运动就是一切。
Snow’s Wavelength (1967) is an obsessive zoom, lasting forty-five minutes, which takes us from an image of a rather large New York loft in its entirety to, in the end, a detail shot of a photograph hanging on the wall at the opposite end of the large room. The potential of the simplest pan from left to right and back again is explored in ↔ (1968–69, also called Back and Forth) Snow set up his camera in an empty classroom, then panned continuously and quickly over a sector of about 75° and in periods ranging from fifteen cycles per minute to sixty cycles per minute. La Region Centrale (1970–71), Snow’s masterwork lasting more than three hours, gives us an obsessive “map” of the complete sphere of space that surrounds the camera on all sides. Snow constructed a servomechanism control head for his camera, set it up in a remote and rocky region of northern Quebec, and controlled its patterns of movement hidden behind a hill. The camera swoops, swirls, gyrates, twirls, tilts, zigzags, sweeps, arcs, and performs figure eights in a multitude of patterns while nothing is visible except the barren landscape, the horizon, and the sun. The effect is the thorough liberation of the camera from both subject and photographer. The global space that surrounds it becomes raw material for Snow’s complex patterns of movements. Movement is all.
斯诺的图像自由、抽象的品质让我们直接考虑五个镜头变量中的最后一个：视角。与前四个不同，这更多的是形而上学而不是几何学的问题。例如，中央区的观点是它没有观点，或者更确切地说，它的观点是抽象的和全球性的。然而，大多数叙事电影确实表现出某种主观观点。这从长镜头、深焦和静态相机的客观观点到特写、浅焦和移动相机的更主观的方法有所不同。我们已经注意到移动摄像机具有道德方面的问题。观点问题是这一道德准则的核心，批评家和符号学家现在才开始专门研究这一现象。
The liberated, abstract quality of Snow’s images leads us directly to a consideration of the last of the five shot variables: point of view. Unlike the first four, this is more a matter of metaphysics than of geometry. The point of La Région Centrale, for example, is that is has no point of view, or rather that its point of view is abstract and global. Most narrative films, however, do show some sort of subjective point of view. This varies from the objective point of view of long shots, deep focus, and static camera, to the more subjective approach of closeups, shallow focus, and moving camera. We’ve already noted that the moving camera has an ethical aspect to it. The question of point of view is at the heart of this ethical code, and critics and semioticians are only now beginning to investigate the phenomenon specifically.
考虑到我们在第一章中建立的艺术体验的结构，电影伦理——电影制片人、主题、艺术品和观众之间关系的质量和形式——是基本的：所有其他关于电影的想法都必须源于它并与之相关。回到它。
Considering the structure of the artistic experience we set up in Chapter 1, the ethics of film—the quality and shape of the relationships among filmmaker, subject, artwork, and audience—is elemental: all other ideas about film must stem from it and relate back to it.
在散文叙事中，观点更容易描述：小说要么由故事中的某人（第一人称叙述者）叙述，要么由故事外的某人（全知叙述者）叙述。第一人称叙述者可以是事件中的主要人物或次要人物；全知的叙述者有时被发展为一个单独的人物，有时则没有人物，除非他代表了作者的人物。总的来说，电影可以很好地复制这些虚构的模型。
Point of view is easier to describe in prose narrative: novels are either narrated by someone in the story—the first-person narrator—or by someone outside it—the omniscient narrator. The first-person narrator may be either a major or a minor figure in the events; the omniscient narrator is sometimes developed as a separate character, sometimes characterless, except insofar as he represents the character of the author. In its totality, film can fairly well duplicate these fictional models.
大多数电影和大多数小说一样，都是从全知的角度讲述的。我们看到和听到作者想让我们看到和听到的一切。但当我们谈到第一人称模式时——事实证明，这种模式在散文小说中非常有用，因为事件与感知事件的叙述者的性格或角色之间可以产生共鸣——电影中就会出现问题。让电影角色讲述故事是很容易的。困难在于我们既能看到也能听到正在发生的事情。实际上，在小说中我们只是听到了它。正如我们之前提到的，罗伯特·蒙哥马利的《湖中女士》（1945）是电影中严格遵守第一人称规则的最著名的例子，也是其失败的最明显的证明。
Most films, like most novels, are told from an omniscient point of view. We see and hear whatever the author wants us to see and hear. But when we come to the first-person mode—which has proved so useful in prose fiction because of the resonances that can be developed between events and the character or persona of the narrator who perceives them—problems arise in film. It’s easy enough to allow a film character to narrate the story. The difficulty is that we see what is happening as well as hear it. In the novel, in effect, we only hear it. As we’ve noted earlier, Robert Montgomery’s Lady in the Lake (1945) is the most famous example of rigid adherence to the first-person rule applied to cinema—and the most obvious demonstration of its failure.
图 3-72。标题框架取自 Orson Welies 的杰作，为Touch of Evil (1958) 的开头奠定了基础。几分钟之内，我们就知道了我们需要知道的一切。（框架放大。）
Figure 3-72. The title frame from Orson Welies’s tour de force establishing track at the beginning of Touch of Evil (1958). In a few minutes, we know all that we need to know. (Frame enlargement.)
在《怯场》（1950）中，阿尔弗雷德·希区柯克懊恼地发现，电影中的第一人称视角即使被敷衍使用也充满了问题。在那部电影中，希区柯克让他的一个角色讲述了一段闪回和谎言。观众在屏幕上看到了谎言，当他们后来发现这是假的时，他们做出了愤怒的反应。他们无法接受图像撒谎的可能性，尽管他们很愿意相信角色撒谎了。屏幕图像被赋予了不可改变的有效性光环。
In Stage Fright (1950), Alfred Hitchcock discovered, to his chagrin, that the first-person point of view in film is fraught with problems even when it is used perfunctorily. In that film, Hitchcock had one of his characters narrate a flashback—and lie. Audiences saw the lie on screen, and when they later found out that it was false they reacted angrily. They weren’t able to accept the possibility that the image would lie, although they would have been quite willing to believe that the character had lied. The screen image is vested with an immutable aura of validity.
到了 20 世纪 40 年代初期，好莱坞已经形成了一种非常流畅、高效且易于理解的观点习惯。定场镜头——远景镜头——既定地点，通常是时间，有时还有其他必要的信息。希区柯克是定场镜头的大师。例如，《后窗》 （1954）的开场镜头和轨道告诉我们我们在哪里，为什么我们在那里，我们和谁在一起，现在发生了什么，发生了什么让我们到达那里，其他角色是谁故事是，甚至提出故事发展的可能方式——一切都毫不费力、快速，而且无需言语！散文的段落被浓缩成几秒钟的电影时间。
By the early 1940s, Hollywood had evolved a very smooth, efficient, and clearly understood idiom of point of view. The establishing shot—a long shot—established place, often time, and sometimes other necessary information. Hitchcock was a master of the establishing shot. The opening pan and track of Rear Window (1954), for example, tells us where we are, why we are there, whom we are with, what is going on now, what has happened to get us there, who the other characters of the story are, and even suggests possible ways the story might develop—all effortlessly and quickly and without a spoken word! Paragraphs of prose are condensed into seconds of film time.
好莱坞的对话风格同样有效：我们通常从两个发言者的镜头开始（确定的双镜头），然后随着每个参与者不同的说话和聆听而转向单镜头的蒙太奇。通常这些都是“越肩”镜头，这是代码的有趣用途，因为它暗示了演讲者的观点，但在物理上又与之分离——你正在看他的肩膀！从（大约）第二个角色的角度看第一个角色的镜头通常称为反角度镜头。这种持续而亲密的射击-反击技术的节奏常常令人陶醉：我们围绕着谈话。
The Hollywood dialogue style is equally efficient: we normally begin with a shot of both speakers (an establishing two-shot), then move to a montage of one-shots as each of the participants variously speaks and listens. Often these are “over-the-shoulder” shots, an interesting use of the code, since it suggests the speaker’s point of view but is also physically separate from it—you’re looking over his shoulder! The shot of the first character from (approximately) the second character’s point of view is usually termed a reverse-angle shot. The rhythms of this insistent and intimate shot-countershot technique are often intoxicating: we surround the conversation.
这是终极的全知风格，因为它使我们能够从理想的角度看待一切。更现代的技术往往强调相机的独立性和个性，可能使我们能够“看到一切”，但总是从一个单独的、独特的角度来看。例如，安东尼奥尼的摄像机经常保留角色尚未进入或已经离开的场景。其效果是强调环境而不是人物和行动，强调背景而不是内容。我们可以将其称为“第三人称”视角：摄像机似乎常常呈现出自己的个性，与角色的个性分开。
This is the ultimate omniscient style, since it allows us to see everything from the ideal perspective. More contemporary techniques, which tend to emphasize the separateness and individuality of the camera, may allow us to “see everything,” but always from a separate, distinct point of view. Antonioni’s camera, for instance, often holds on a scene that a character has either not yet entered or already left. The effect is to emphasize environment over character and action, context over content. We might call this the “third-person” point of view: the camera often seems to take on a personality of its own, separate from those of the characters.
无论是好莱坞还是现代的全知风格，视角镜头（缩写为“POV”）都有其用途。而配乐旁白往往能够强化人物看待事件的视角感。然而，心理上持续存在的、始终存在的形象削弱了这种观点。在印刷品中，我们不需要总是“看”一个场景：作家并不总是描述或叙述，他们经常解释或理论化。然而，在电影中，由于图像的存在，总是存在描述的元素——即使配乐同时用于解释、理论或讨论。这是散文叙事和电影叙事之间最显着的区别之一。显然，规避电影图像这种持续的描述性本质的唯一方法就是完全消除它，在这种情况下，配乐可以复制书面语言的抽象、分析潜力。让-吕克·戈达尔在六十年代末的高度理论化的电影中尝试了这种技术。有时，当我们听配乐上的歌词时，屏幕只是黑的。
In either omniscient style—the Hollywood or the modern—the point-of-view shot (abbreviated “POV”) has its uses. And soundtrack narration is often able to strengthen the sense of the character’s perspective of events. Yet the psychologically insistent, ever-present image attenuates this perspective. In print we need not always be “looking” at a scene: writers don’t always describe or narrate, they often explain or theorize. In film, however, because of the presence of the image, there is always the element of description—even when the soundtrack is used concurrently for explanation, theorizing, or discussion. This is one of the most significant differences between prose narrative and film narrative. Clearly, the only way to circumvent this insistent descriptive nature of the film image is to eliminate it entirely, in which case the soundtrack can duplicate the abstract, analytical potential of written language. Jean-Luc Godard experimented with just this technique in his highly theoretical films of the late sixties. Sometimes the screen is simply black, while we listen to the words on the soundtrack.
图 3-73。为了以一条长长的、雄伟的、神秘的轨道一直延伸到窗户并穿过窗户来结束《乘客》 ，安东尼奥尼设置了这个复杂的设备——有点像斯坦尼康、天空摄像机和高架轨道的组合。操作员将悬挂在起重机上的摄像机引导到窗栅上，然后在将摄像机连接到起重机上时将窗栅打开，以便它可以移动到庭院中。今天你能用 CGI 做到这一点吗？或许。观看时会不会同样令人兴奋？不。
Figure 3-73. To end The Passenger with a long, majestic, and mysterious track up to and through a window, Antonioni set up this complicated apparatus—sort of a combination of a Steadicam, Skycam, and overhead track. The operator guided the camera, suspended from a crane, up to the window grill, which grips then opened while attaching the camera to the crane so that it could move out into the courtyard. Could you do this today with CGI? Maybe. Would it be as exhilarating to watch? No.
声音
Sound
虽然从电影叙事的角度来看，图像的事实是一种劣势，但声音的事实——它的始终存在——却是一个明显的优势。克里斯蒂安·梅茨指出了电影中的五个信息渠道：（1）视觉形象；(2)印刷品及其他图形；（三）讲话；（4）音乐；(5)噪音(声音效果)。有趣的是，这些渠道大多数是听觉而非视觉。检查这些通道的通信方式，我们发现其中只有两个是连续的——第一个和第五个。其他三个是间歇性的——它们被打开和关闭——而且很容易想象一部没有印刷品、演讲或音乐的电影。
While the fact of the image is a disadvantage of a kind in terms of point of view in film narrative, the fact of sound—its ever-presence—is a distinct advantage. Christian Metz identifies five channels of information in film: (1) the visual image; (2) print and other graphics; (3) speech; (4) music; and (5) noise (sound effects). Interestingly, the majority of these channels are auditory rather than visual. Examining these channels with regard to the manner in which they communicate, we discover that only two of them are continuous—the first and the fifth. The other three are intermittent—they are switched on and off—and it is easy to conceive of a film without either print, speech, or music.
这两个连续的通道本身以截然不同的方式进行通信。我们通过引导注意力来“阅读”图像；我们不会解读声音，至少不会以同样有意识的方式。声音不仅无所不在，而且是全方位的。因为它是如此普遍，所以我们倾向于忽视它。图像的操纵方式有很多种，而且操纵性也比较明显；对于声音来说，即使是有限的操纵也是模糊的，往往会被忽视。
The two continuous channels themselves communicate in distinctly separate ways. We “read” images by directing our attention; we do not read sound, at least not in the same conscious way. Sound is not only omnipresent but also omnidirectional. Because it is so pervasive, we tend to discount it. Images can be manipulated in many different ways, and the manipulation is relatively obvious; with sound, even the limited manipulation that does occur is vague and tends to be ignored.
声音的普遍性是它最吸引人的品质。它的作用是实现空间和时间。它对于创建语言环境至关重要；基于特定位置的混响时间、谐波等的“房间音调”是其标志。当静止图像变得生动起来时添加了配乐，可以营造出时间流逝的感觉。从功利主义的角度来看，声音通过创造连续性的基础来支持图像来显示其价值，而图像通常会受到更多有意识的关注。言语和音乐自然受到关注，因为它们具有特定的含义。但配乐的“噪音”——“音效”——是最重要的。这才是声音环境真正构建的地方。
It is the pervasiveness of sound that is its most attractive quality. It acts to realize both space and time. It is essential to the creation of a locale; the “room tone,” based on the reverberation time, harmonics, and so forth of a particular location, is its signature. A still image comes alive when a soundtrack is added that can create a sense of the passage of time. In a utilitarian sense, sound shows its value by creating a ground base of continuity to support the images, which usually receive more conscious attention. Speech and music naturally receive attention because they have specific meaning. But the “noise” of the soundtrack—“sound effects”—is paramount. This is where the real construction of the sound environment takes place.
但对于有价值的艺术来说，“噪音”和“效果”确实是糟糕的标签。也许我们可以将配乐的这一方面称为“环境声音”。在当代音乐中，尤其是在被称为“具体音乐”的运动中，人们已经感受到并注意到了环境声音的影响。甚至录制的语音也受到了这种新能力的影响。在广播的伟大时代，“声音效果”仅限于那些可以物理产生的效果。合成器、多轨录音以及现在计算机操作的数字化声音的出现，使得音效技术人员或现在所谓的“拟音艺术家”能够重新创造无限范围的自然声音和全新的人造声音。
But “noise” and “effects” are poor labels indeed for a worthy art. Possibly we could term this aspect of the soundtrack “environmental sound.” The influence of environmental sound has been felt—and noticed—in contemporary music, especially in that movement known as “musique concrète.” Even recorded speech has been affected by this new ability. In the great days of radio, “sound effects” were limited to those that could be produced physically. The advent of synthesizers, multitrack recording, and now computer-manipulated digitized sound has made it possible for the sound effects technicians, or “Foley artists,” as they are now called, to recreate an infinite range of both natural and entirely new artificial sounds.
许多最好的现代有声戏剧（主要出现在唱片和公共广播电台中）已经认识到过去简单地称为声音效果的非凡潜力。加里森·凯勒 (Garrison Keillor) 几乎凭一己之力将广播综艺节目的传统保留了三十多年，他在《草原家庭伴侣》的每一集中都强调了音效程序。他知道这是广播艺术的核心。罗伯特·克鲁维奇（Robert Krulwich）无疑是过去三十年来最具创造力的广播评论员，他对 SFX 艺术也同样重视，将丰富的效果融入到他的评论挂毯中。当代音乐也颂扬这种以前平淡无奇的艺术。
Much of the best modern sound drama (which has appeared mainly on records, and public radio stations) has recognized the extraordinary potential of what used to be known simply as sound effects. Garrison Keillor, who has almost single-handedly kept the tradition of the radio variety show alive for more than thirty years, makes a point of featuring sound effects routines on every episode of A Prairie Home Companion. He knows it’s the heart of the radio art. Robert Krulwich, certainly the most creative radio commentator of the last thirty years, has an equal regard for the SFX art, weaving rich effects into his commentary tapestries. Contemporary music also celebrates this formerly pedestrian art.
电影也认识到声音的基本价值。例如，在有声电影的早期，音乐剧在视觉上非常精致。巴斯比·伯克利构思了复杂的音乐思想视觉表现来吸引观众的兴趣。然而，现在最有力的电影音乐形式是简单的音乐会。配乐承载着电影；图像为它服务。
Film, too, has recognized sound’s essential value. In the early days of the sound film, Musicals, for instance, were extraordinary elaborate visually. Busby Berkeley conceived intricate visual representations of musical ideas to hold an audience’s interest. Now, however, the most powerful film musical form is the simple concert. The soundtrack carries the film; the images serve it.
我们也可以按照这种思路来构想非音乐电影。在英国，广播剧的历史比美国要长，从20 世纪 50 年代的Goon Shows到1970 年代Monty Python 的 Flying Circus，听觉戏剧的传统一直保持着。
We can conceive of nonmusical cinema in this vein as well. In England, where radio drama lasted longer than in the U.S., a tradition of aural drama was maintained from the Goon Shows of the 1950s through Monty Python’s Flying Circus of the 1970s.
在美国，自歌舞杂耍时代以来，许多最好的喜剧几乎完全是听觉的：从大师杰克开始本尼、乔治·伯恩斯和弗雷德·艾伦，这种生机勃勃但默默无闻的传统为我们带来了尼科尔斯和梅、梅尔·布鲁克斯和比尔·考斯比；Firesign 剧院和阿尔伯特·布鲁克斯复杂的“电影”结构；以及比利·克里斯托、乌比·戈德堡、杰瑞·宋飞、史蒂文·赖特和路易斯·布莱克的作品。最近的许多喜剧都扩展了古老杂耍传统的界限：听觉艺术家已经转向更复杂的模式。
In the United States much of the best comedy has been almost exclusively aural since the days of vaudeville: beginning with the masters Jack Benny, George Burns, and Fred Allen, this exuberant if unsung tradition has given us Nichols and May, Mel Brooks, and Bill Cosby; the complex “cinematic” constructions of the Firesign Theatre and Albert Brooks; and the work of Billy Crystal, Whoopi Goldberg, Jerry Seinfeld, Steven Wright, and Louis Black. Much of recent comedy extends the boundaries of the old vaudeville tradition: aural artists have moved into more complex modes.
图 3-74。罗伯特·奥特曼对电影业的精彩讽刺《玩家》（1992）以长卷轴跟踪镜头开始，与茂瑙、威尔斯或戈达尔的镜头相媲美：确定地点、设置动作、介绍人物、经过一些附带的小戏剧，讲一些内部笑话，凝视窗户，设定前提，并以后现代的方式谈论其前身，同时向他们致敬，尽管奥特曼自己的镜头超越了他的前辈，带着漫不经心的距离机智，仿佛在说，“长跟踪镜头，就像长句子一样，将球员与其他人分开。” （框架放大。）
Figure 3-74. Robert Altman’s magnificent satire of the film industry, The Player (1992), begins with a reel-long tracking shot that is the equal of Murnau’s, Welles’s, or Godard’s: establishing the location, setting up the action, introducing the characters, passing by small incidental dramas, tossing off inside jokes, peering in windows, setting up the premise, and, postmodernly talking about its antecedents at the same time that it pays homage to them, even while Altman’s own shot surpasses those of his predecessors, distanced with insouciant wit, as if to say, “long tracking shots, like long sentences, separate the players from the rest.” (Frame enlargement.)
在电影领域，弗朗西斯·福特·科波拉（Francis Ford Coppola）引人入胜的《对话》（ The Conversation，1974）对于听觉影像的影响就如同八年前的《放大》（ Blow-Up，1966）对于图像影像的影响一样。虽然配乐当然可以支持比所给予的更大的强调，但它不能轻易地与图像分开。我们用来讨论音轨代码的大部分语言都涉及声音和图像之间的关系。齐格弗里德·克拉考尔（Siegfried Kracauer）提出了“实际”声音和“评论”声音之间的区别，“实际”声音在逻辑上与图像相关，而“评论”声音则没有。场景中的人的对话是真实的，场景外的人的对话是评论性的。（像理查德·莱斯特这样在声音方面很精深的电影制作人，他的电影的部分特点是经过精心制作配乐，经常使用镜头中人物的评论性对话，但不是场景动作的一部分。）
In cinema, Francis Ford Coppola’s fascinating The Conversation (1974) did for the aural image what Blow-Up (1966) had done for the pictorial image eight years earlier. While the soundtrack can certainly support greater emphasis than it has been given, it cannot easily be divorced from images. Much of the language we employ to discuss the codes of soundtracks deals with the relationship between sound and image. Siegfried Kracauer suggests the differentiation between “actual” sound, which logically connects with the image, and “commentative” sound, which does not. Dialogue of people in the scene is actual, dialogue of people not in the scene is commentative. (A filmmaker sophisticated in sound, such as Richard Lester, whose films were characterized in part by highly worked soundtracks, often used commentative dialogue of people who were in the shot, but not part of the action of the scene.)
导演兼理论家卡雷尔·雷斯兹使用的术语略有不同。对于撰写了有关编辑的标准文本的 Reisz 来说，所有声音都分为“同步”和“异步”。同步声音在框架内有其来源（编辑器必须努力使其同步）。异步声音来自帧外。
Director and theorist Karel Reisz used slightly different terminology. For Reisz, who wrote a standard text on editing, all sound is divided into “synchronous” and “asynchronous.” Synchronous sound has its source within the frame (the editor must work to synchronize it). Asynchronous sound comes from outside the frame.
结合这两个连续体，我们得到第三个连续体，*其极点是“平行”声音和“对位”声音。平行声音是真实的、同步的、与图像相联系的。对位声音是评论性的、异步的、与图像相对或对位的。无论我们处理的是语音、音乐还是环境声音，这都没有什么区别：这三者有时都是平行或对位、实际或评论、同步或异步的。
Combining these two continua, we get a third,* whose poles are “parallel” sound and “contrapuntal” sound. Parallel sound is actual, synchronous, and connected with the image. Contrapuntal sound is commentative, asynchronous, and opposed to or in counterpoint with the image. It makes no difference whether we are dealing with speech, music, or environmental sound: all three are at times variously parallel or contrapuntal, actual or commentative, synchronous or asynchronous.
平行声音和对位声音之间的区别也许是控制因素。这种音带与图像逻辑上的配合或反对的概念提供了声音的基本审美辩证法。好莱坞的声音风格是强烈平行的。三十年代电影的纲领性音乐甚至对最简单的场景都进行了推动、强调、强调、表征和限定，从而使最单调和最引人注目的图像完全被几乎连续的音乐曲目的作曲家所设计的情感所渗透。埃里希·沃尔夫冈·科恩戈尔德和马克斯·施泰纳是这些情感主导乐曲中最著名的两位作曲家。
The differentiation between parallel and contrapuntal sound is perhaps the controlling factor. This conception of the soundtrack as working logically either with or against the image provides the basic esthetic dialectic of sound. The Hollywood sound style is strongly parallel. The programmatic music of thirties movies nudged, underlined, emphasized, characterized, and qualified even the simplest scenes so that the dullest images as well as the most striking were thoroughly pervaded by the emotions designed by the composers of the nearly continuous music track. Erich Wolfgang Korngold and Max Steiner were the two best-known composers of these emotionally dominating scores.
在实验性的 20 世纪 60 年代和 1970 年代，对位声音给电影音乐风格带来了讽刺的边缘。通常，配乐被视为与图像相同但又不同。例如，玛格丽特·杜拉斯（Marguerite Duras）尝试了与图像完全分离的评论性配乐，如《印度之歌》（1975）。今天观看 20 世纪 70 年代的美国电影，你可能会对音乐的匮乏感到震惊：当时的电影制作人不想依赖连续的音乐曲目提供的情感基础 - 他们希望将你的注意力集中在他们的图像上。
In the experimental 1960s and 1970s, contrapuntal sound gave an ironic edge to the style of film music. Often the soundtrack was seen as equal, but different from, the image. Marguerite Duras, for example, experimented with commentative soundtracks completely separate from the image, as in India Song (1975). Watching American films from the 1970s today, you may be struck by the paucity of music: filmmakers then did not want to depend on the emotional groundbase a continuous music track provides—they wanted to focus your attention on their images.
20 世纪 80 年代，好莱坞回归程序化音乐。约翰·威廉姆斯是 20 世纪 70 年代末和 80 年代许多大片的配乐作曲家，从《大白鲨》（1975 年）和《星球大战》（1977 年）到《小鬼当家》（1990 年）和《侏罗纪公园》（1993 年），他定义了一代人的音乐主题,正如他的著名前任所做的那样。但音乐仍然被用来评论。例如，《摇滚》为电影制片人提供了了解现代思想和情感的即时钥匙，乔治·卢卡斯的《美国涂鸦》（1973 年）、劳伦斯·卡斯丹的《大寒》（1983 年）或约翰·休斯的任何电影都清楚地证明了这一点。
In the 1980s, Hollywood returned to programmatic music. John Williams, composer of the soundtracks for many of the blockbusters of the late 1970s and 1980s from Jaws (1975) and Star Wars (1977) to Home Alone (1990) and Jurassic Park (1993), has defined the musical themes of a generation, just as his notable predecessors had done. But music is still used commentatively as well. Rock, for example, offers filmmakers a repertoire of instant keys to modern ideas and feelings, as George Lucas’s American Graffiti (1973), Lawrence Kasdan’s The Big Chill (1983), or any of the films of John Hughes demonstrated clearly.
图 3-75。阿方索·卡隆在《人类之子》中运用了几个富有创意的追踪镜头。（2006）。在最后的跟踪镜头中，克莱夫·欧文和克莱尔·霍普·阿什蒂在精确定时的爆炸和大量动作中穿过战区。（框架放大。）
Figure 3-75. Alfonso Cuarón employed several inventive tracking shots in Children of Men. (2006). Here in the final tracking shot Clive Owen and Clare-Hope Ashitey make their way through a war zone with precisely timed explosions and much action. (Frame enlargements.)
具有讽刺意味的是，音乐——曾经是配乐中最有力的异步和评论性元素——现在在现实生活中变得如此普遍，以至于电影制作人可以保持与实际声音的严格同步性，同时仍然制作出完整的音乐曲目。无处不在的 Walkman、Boom Box 和 iPod 让生活变成了音乐剧。
Ironically, music—which used to be the most powerfully asynchronous and commentative element of the soundtrack—has now become so pervasive in real life that a filmmaker can maintain strict synchronicity of actual sound and still produce a complete music track. The ubiquitous Walkman, Boom Box, and iPod have made life a Musical.
剪辑
Montage
在美国，将电影镜头组合在一起的工作被称为“剪辑”或“编辑”，而在欧洲，该术语被称为“蒙太奇”。美国用语暗示了修剪过程，即消除不需要的材料。米开朗基罗曾经将雕塑描述为削掉不需要的石头，以发现大理石块中雕塑的自然形状。一个人编辑或削减原材料。然而，“蒙太奇”暗示了一种从原材料开始的建筑行动。事实上，三四十年代好莱坞剪辑的经典风格在八十年代部分复兴——法国人称之为经典剪纸——实际上以其流畅、流畅和精简为标志。自二十世纪二十年代的德国表现主义者和爱森斯坦以来，欧洲蒙太奇一直以综合过程为特征：电影被视为被构建而不是被编辑。行动的两个术语表达了对此的两种基本态度。
In the U.S. the word for the work of putting together the shots of a film is “cutting” or “editing,” while in Europe the term is “montage.” The American words suggest a trimming process, in which unwanted material is eliminated. Michelangelo once described sculpture similarly as paring away unneeded stone to discover the natural shape of the sculpture in a block of marble. One edits or cuts raw material down. “Montage,” however, suggests a building action, working up from the raw material. Indeed, the classic style of Hollywood editing of the thirties and forties, revived in part in the eighties—what the French call découpage classique—was in fact marked by its smoothness, fluidity, and leanness. And European montage, ever since the German Expressionists and Eisenstein in the twenties, has been characterized by a process of synthesis: a film is seen as being constructed rather than edited. The two terms for the action express the two basic attitudes toward it.
场景调度的特点是复杂性的融合，而蒙太奇却出奇地简单，至少在物理层面上是如此。只有两个将两张胶片放在一起的方法：一种可以将它们重叠（双重曝光、溶解、多个图像），或者一种可以将它们首尾相连。对于图像来说，第二种选择几乎完全占据主导地位，而声音则更容易第一种选择，以至于这种活动有自己的名字：混合。
Whereas mise-en-scène is marked by a fusion of complexities, montage is surprisingly simple, at least on the physical level. There are only two ways to put two pieces of film together: one can overlap them (double exposure, dissolves, multiple images), or one can put them end to end. For images, the second alternative dominates almost exclusively, while sounds lend themselves much more readily to the first, so much so that this activity has its own name: mixing.
一般来说，“蒙太奇”有三种不同的使用方式。在保持其基本含义的同时，它还有更具体的用法：
In general parlance, “montage” is used in three different ways. While maintaining its basic meaning, it also has the more specific usages of:
一个辩证的过程，从相邻镜头的原始两个含义中创造出第三个含义；和
a dialectical process that creates a third meaning out of the original two meanings of the adjacent shots; and
将多个短镜头编织在一起以在短时间内传达大量信息的过程。
a process in which a number of short shots are woven together to communicate a great deal of information in a short time.
最后一个只是一般蒙太奇的一个特例。辩证的过程是任何蒙太奇所固有的，无论是有意识的还是无意识的。
This last is simply a special case of general montage; the dialectical process is inherent in any montage, conscious or not.
经典剪纸，好莱坞的建筑风格，逐渐发展出一系列广泛的规则和规定：例如，总是从定场镜头开始，然后从概括中缩小范围；或者，使用主镜头和反向角度编辑对话场景的严格经验法则。好莱坞语法的所有剪辑实践都旨在允许镜头之间的无缝过渡，并将注意力集中在手头的动作上。有助于保持行动的即时性和流畅性的东西是好的；没有什么是不好的。
Découpage classique, the Hollywood style of construction, gradually developed a broad range of rules and regulations: for example, the practice of beginning always with an establishing shot, then narrowing down from the generalization; or, the strict rule of thumb for editing dialogue scenes with master shots and reverse angles. All the editing practices of the Hollywood grammar were designed to permit seamless transitions from shot to shot and to concentrate attention on the action at hand. What helped to maintain immediacy and the flow of the action was good; what did not was bad.
事实上，任何一种蒙太奇最终都是根据它所拍摄的动作来定义的。静态图片可以仅根据后续镜头的节奏组合在一起。历时镜头本质上是活跃的，要求在剪辑中考虑镜头内的运动。跳剪，自然的运动被打断，提供了一个有趣的例子，展示了经典剪纸和当代剪辑处理问题的对比方式。
In fact, any kind of montage is in the end defined according to the action it photographs. Still pictures can be put together solely with regard to the rhythm of the succeeding shots. Diachronic shots, inherently active, demand that the movements within the shot be considered in the editing. The jump cut, where the natural movement is interrupted, provides an interesting example of the contrasting ways in which découpage classique and contemporary editing treat a problem.
在好莱坞电影中，“隐形剪辑”是目标，跳切被用作压缩停滞时间的手段。例如，一个人从一端进入一个大房间，必须走到另一端的一张桌子前。跳切可以通过消除大部分穿过长房间的动作来保持节奏，但它必须不引人注目。好莱坞语法法则坚持认为，多余的死区时间可以通过切换到场景的另一个元素（桌子本身、房间里的其他人）或通过充分改变摄像机角度来平滑，以便第二个镜头明显来自一个场景。不同的相机位置。简单地剪掉不允许从单一角度拍摄不需要的镜头。根据好莱坞的规则，这种效果将是令人不安的。
In Hollywood cinema, “invisible cutting” was the aim, and the jump cut was used as a device to compress dead time. A man enters a large room at one end, for instance, and must walk to a desk at the other end. The jump cut can maintain tempo by eliminating most of the action of traversing the long room, but it must do so unobtrusively. The laws of Hollywood grammar insist that the excess dead time be smoothed over either by cutting away to another element of the scene (the desk itself, someone else in the room) or by changing camera angle sufficiently so that the second shot is clearly from a different camera placement. Simply snipping out the unwanted footage from a single shot from a single angle is not permitted. The effect, according to Hollywood rules, would be disconcerting.
Figure 3-76. Kubrick’s transcendent match cut. (Frame enlargements.)
然而，现代风格允许更大的自由度。在《屏息》（1959）中，让-吕克·戈达尔在镜头中段的跳切让一些美学家大吃一惊。这些削减没有任何功利价值，而且令人不安。戈达尔本人在后来的电影中很少再使用这种手法，但他的“不合语法”的结构被吸收到了一般的蒙太奇风格中，并且现在允许跳剪以获得节奏效果。即使是简单的功利性跳剪也被简化了：从单个镜头（单个角度）编辑，它可以通过一系列快速溶解来平滑。
Modern style, however, permits far greater latitude. In Breathless (1959), Jean-Luc Godard startled some estheticians by jump cutting in mid-shot. The cuts had no utilitarian value and they were disconcerting. Godard himself seldom returned to this device in later films, but his “ungrammatical” construction was absorbed into general montage stylistics, and jump cuts are now allowed for rhythmic effect. Even the simple utilitarian jump cut has been streamlined: edited from a single shot (single angle), it can be smoothed by a series of quick dissolves.
理查德·莱斯特 (Richard Lester) 生动的 20 世纪 60 年代电影，尤其是他的音乐剧《艰难的一天之夜》(A Hard Day's Night ) (1964)，救命！（1965）和《去论坛路上发生的一件有趣的事》（1966）——流行的跳切、快速且“不合语法”的剪辑。随着时间的推移，他傲慢的编辑风格成为一种常态，现在全世界每晚都会在 MTV 的数百个音乐视频和无数的广告中庆祝。因为这些视频图像现在主宰了我们的生活，所以很难理解这些技术在 20 世纪 60 年代看起来是多么新鲜和富有创意。由于这种风格现在在电视中如此普遍，莱斯特至少在某种意义上必须被视为自 DW 格里菲斯以来最有影响力的电影造型师。除了变形之外，理查德·莱斯特 (Richard Lester) 在 20 世纪 60 年代首次尝试过当代音乐录影带的所有技巧。（但是，关于当代的内容并不多甲壳虫乐队及其同事在 20 世纪 60 年代并未首先探索这些音乐。）
The lively 1960s films of Richard Lester—especially his Musicals A Hard Day’s Night (1964), Help! (1965), and A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1966)—popularized jump cuts, rapid and “ungrammatical” cutting. Over time, his brash editorial style became a norm, now celebrated every night around the world in hundreds of music videos on MTV and in countless commercials. Because these video images now dominate our lives it’s hard to understand how fresh and inventive these techniques seemed in the 1960s. Because this style is now so pervasive in television, Lester must be counted as—at least in one sense—the most influential film stylist since D. W. Griffith. Except for morphs, there are few techniques of contemporary music videos that Richard Lester didn’t first try in the 1960s. (But then, there isn’t much about contemporary music that the Beatles and their colleagues didn’t first explore in the 1960s.)
图 3-77。拼贴蒙太奇。_ _ 由于数字编辑而越来越受欢迎的一种不寻常的代码是拼贴画。电影制片人过去曾尝试过这种技术，但当这项工作必须在光学打印机上费力地完成时，既昂贵又耗时；现在只需拖放即可。诺曼·杰维森在《托马斯皇冠事件》 （1968）（左）中有效地运用了这一技巧。迈克尔·瓦德利 (Michael Wadleigh) 的《伍德斯托克》 (Woodstock，1970) 著名地使用分屏来容纳数英里长的镜头（尽管分屏与拼贴不太一样）。当配乐引领图像时，拼贴特别有用，就像新闻报道中经常发生的那样：右图，2008 年 PBS Newshour教育报道的屏幕。（另请参见图 2-72 和 3-78。）
Figure 3-77. COLLAGE MONTAGE. One unusual code that is gaining in popularity due to digital editing is the collage. Filmmakers had experimented with it in the past, but when the work had to be painstakingly accomplished on the optical printer it was expensive and time-consuming; now it’s a matter of drag and drop. Norman Jewison employed the technique effectively in The Thomas Crown Affair (1968), left. Michael Wadleigh’s Woodstock (1970) famously used a split-screen to accommodate miles of footage (although split-screen isn’t quite the same as collage). Collage is especially useful when the soundtrack leads the image, as it often does in news coverage: right, a screen from a 2008 PBS Newshour report on education. (See also Figures 2-72 and 3-78.)
需要注意的是，镜头编辑时实际上有两个过程。第一个是两个镜头的连接。然而，同样重要的是确定任何单个镜头的长度，因为它与该镜头之前和之后的镜头有关，并且与镜头的动作有关。经典剪纸要求对镜头进行剪辑，以便剪辑不会干扰镜头的中心动作。如果我们绘制每个镜头的动作，以便得到先上升然后下降的曲线，好莱坞语法要求在曲线高潮后不久进行剪辑。然而，像米开朗基罗·安东尼奥尼这样的导演却扭转了逻辑，在高潮过后很长一段时间以及整个余波期间都保留了这个镜头。《旅客》（1975）的最后一个镜头就是一个很好的例子。
It’s important to note that there are actually two processes going on when shots are edited. The first is the joining of the two shots. Also important, however, is determining the length of any individual shot, both as it relates to shots that precede and follow it and as it concerns the action of the shot. Découpage classique demands that a shot be cut so that the editing doesn’t interfere with the central action of the shot. If we plot the action of each shot so that we get a rising then a falling curve, Hollywood grammar demands a cut shortly after the climax of the curve. Directors like Michelangelo Antonioni, however, reversed the logic, maintaining the shot long after the climax, throughout the period of aftermath. The last shot of The Passenger (1975) is an excellent example.
剪辑的节奏价值可能在“加速蒙太奇”代码中得到最好的体现，其中通过两个主题之间逐渐缩短的镜头交替（通常在追逐场景中）来增强对场景的兴趣并达到高潮。克里斯蒂安·梅茨指出，加速蒙太奇是一种独特的电影代码（尽管查尔斯·艾夫斯的敌对铜管乐队提供了这种音乐交叉的例证）。加速蒙太奇指向第二种编辑类型。
The rhythmic value of editing is probably best seen in the code of “accelerated montage,” in which interest in a scene is heightened and brought to a climax through progressively shorter alternations of shots between two subjects (often in chase scenes). Christian Metz pointed to accelerated montage as a uniquely cinematic code (although Charles Ives’s antagonistic brass bands provided an illustration of this kind of cross-cutting in music). Accelerated montage points in the direction of a second type of editing.
蒙太奇不仅用于在场景中的镜头之间创建连续性，还用于弯曲电影的时间线。“平行”蒙太奇允许电影制片人在两个故事之间交替，这两个故事可能是也可能不是它们之间相互关联、交叉。（加速蒙太奇是一种特殊类型的平行蒙太奇。）闪回和闪进允许离题和预测。“复杂”蒙太奇允许在不特别考虑时间顺序的情况下叙述一个序列：一个动作可以重复，镜头可以乱序编辑。蒙太奇代码的每一个扩展都着眼于在蒙太奇本身中创建简单的时间顺序之外的东西，这是经典剪纸连续剪辑中很少强调的一个因素。
Montage is used not only to create a continuity between shots in a scene but also to bend the time line of a film. “Parallel” montage allows the filmmaker to alternate between two stories that may or may not be interrelated, cross-cutting between them. (Accelerated montage is a special type of parallel montage.) The flashback and the flash-forward permit digressions and forecasts. “Involuted” montage allows a sequence to be narrated without particular regard for chronology: an action can be repeated, shots can be edited out of order. Each of these extensions of the montage codes looks toward the creation of something other than simple chronology in the montage itself, a factor very little emphasized in classic découpage continuity cutting.
图 3-78。拼贴蒙太奇。_ _ 李安为绿巨人浩克（2003）设计了一幅拼贴画，呼应了电影中角色所面对的多个屏幕。这个想法还让人想起连环漫画的基本框架技术。
Figure 3-78. COLLAGE MONTAGE. For Hulk (2003) Ang Lee devised a collage that echoed the multiple screens the characters confronted in the film. The conceit also recalled the essential framing technique of comic strips.
最常见的辩证手段可能是匹配剪辑，它通过重复一个动作或一种形式，或者重复场景调度，将两个不同的场景联系起来。斯坦利·库布里克 (Stanley Kubrick) 在《2001 年太空漫游》(2001: A Space Odyssey )（1968 年）中制作的匹配剪辑，将一根在空中旋转的史前骨头和一个在太空中旋转的二十一世纪的空间站联系起来，这可能是历史上最雄心勃勃的匹配剪辑，因为它试图将两者结合起来史前史与人类学的未来同时存在，因为它通过强调骨骼和空间站作为工具和人类能力的延伸的功能，在切口本身中创造了特殊的意义。
Possibly the most common dialectic device is the match cut, which links two disparate scenes by the repetition of an action or a form, or the duplication of mise-en-scène. Stanley Kubrick’s match cut in 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), between a prehistoric bone whirling in the air and a twenty-first-century space station revolving in space, is possibly the most ambitious match cut in history, since it attempts to unite prehistory with the anthropological future at the same time as it creates a special meaning within the cut itself by emphasizing the functions of both bone and space station as tools, extensions of human capabilities.
蒙太奇的代码可能不像场景调度的代码那么明显，但这并不意味着它们一定不那么复杂。很少理论家们不仅区分了平行蒙太奇、连续蒙太奇、加速蒙太奇、闪回和复杂蒙太奇。20 年代，VI Pudovkin 和 Sergei Eisenstein 将蒙太奇理论扩展到了这些本质上的实际问题之外。普多夫金确定了蒙太奇的五种基本类型：对比、平行、象征、同时性和主题。然后，他发展了一种镜头之间相互作用的理论，被称为“关系编辑”或“链接”。另一方面，爱森斯坦则将镜头之间的关系视为碰撞而不是联系，并进一步完善了该理论以处理单个镜头元素之间以及整个镜头本身之间的关系。他称之为“景点蒙太奇”。第五章对这两位理论家进行了更详细的讨论。
The codes of montage may not be as obvious as the codes of mise-en-scène, but that doesn’t mean that they are necessarily less complex. Few theorists have gone further than differentiating among parallel montage, continuity montage, accelerated montage, flashbacks, and involuted montage. In the 1920s, both V. I. Pudovkin and Sergei Eisenstein extended the theory of montage beyond these essentially practical concerns. Pudovkin identified five basic types of montage: contrast, parallelism, symbolism, simultaneity, and leitmotif. He then developed a theory of the interaction between shots variously called “relational editing” or “linkage.” Eisenstein, on the other hand, saw the relationship between shots as a collision rather than a linkage, and further refined the theory to deal with the relationships between elements of individual shots as well as the whole shots themselves. This he called the “montage of attractions.” Both theorists are discussed in greater detail in Chapter 5.
六十年代末，克里斯蒂安·梅茨试图综合所有这些不同的蒙太奇理论。他构建了一个图表，试图表明八种类型的蒙太奇是如何逻辑连接的。梅斯的类别存在许多问题，但该系统确实有其自身的优雅，并且它确实描述了蒙太奇的大多数主要模式。
In the late sixties, Christian Metz attempted to synthesize all these various theories of montage. He constructed a chart in which he tried to indicate how eight types of montage were connected logically. There are a number of problems with Metz’s categories, yet the system does have an elegance all its own and it does describe most of the major patterns of montage.
请注意，梅茨对叙事元素（语法）感兴趣，这些元素可以存在于镜头内以及镜头之间，这是一个重要的改进，因为正如我们已经指出的，许多类型的蒙太奇效果可以在一个镜头内完成，而无需实际剪辑。例如，如果摄像机从一个场景平移到另一个场景，那么这两个场景就会相互关联，就像将它们剪切在一起一样。
Note that Metz is interested in narrative elements—syntagmas—that can exist within shots as well as between them, an important refinement since, as we have already indicated, the effects of many types of montage can be accomplished within a shot without actually cutting. If the camera pans, for example, from one scene to another, those two scenes exist in relationship to each other just as they would if they were cut together.
梅斯的宏伟设计乍一看似乎令人望而生畏，但仔细研究后却揭示出真实而有用的逻辑。他首先将自己限制在电影的独立片段中。这些必须是自主镜头——完全独立于它们之前和之后发生的事情——或者是他所说的“语法”——彼此之间具有有意义关系的单元。（我们可能称这些为“场景”或“序列”，但梅茨保留了这些术语来表示单个类型的组合。）在这个二元系统的每个阶段，都会进行进一步的区分：第一个括号区分自主镜头和相关镜头，显然这是对蒙太奇类型进行分类的主要因素。一个镜头要么与其周围的镜头相关，要么无关。
Metz’s grand design may seem forbidding at first glance, but it reveals a real and useful logic when studied. He begins by limiting himself to autonomous segments of film. These must be either autonomous shots—which are entirely independent of what comes before and after them—or what he calls “syntagmas”—units that have meaningful relationships with each other. (We might call these “scenes” or “sequences,” but Metz reserves those terms for individual types of syntagma.) At each stage of this binary system, a further differentiation is made: the first bracket differentiates between autonomous shots and related shots, clearly the primary factor in categorizing types of montage. Either a shot is related to its surrounding shots, or it is not.
第二个括号区分按时间顺序运行的语法和不按时间顺序运行的语法。换句话说，剪辑要么按时间顺序讲述一个故事（或发展一个想法），要么不按时间顺序讲述一个故事（或发展一个想法）。现在，在第三个层面上，差异出现了。梅斯确定了两个独立的非时间顺序组合的类型、并列和括号。然后，他区分了两种类型的时间顺序语法：语法描述或叙述。如果它进行叙述，它可以线性或非线性地进行。如果它是线性的，那么它要么是一个场景，要么是一个序列。最后，如果它是一个序列，那么它要么是情景性的，要么是普通的。
The second bracket differentiates between syntagmas that operate chronologically and those that do not. In other words, editing either tells a story (or develops an idea) in chronological sequence, or it does not. Now, on the third level, the differentiations branch out. Metz identifies two separate types of achronological syntagmas, the parallel and the bracket. Then he differentiates between two types of chronological syntagmas: either a syntagma describes or it narrates. If it narrates, it can do so either linearly or nonlinearly. If it does so linearly, it is either a scene or a sequence. And finally, if it is a sequence, it is either episodic or ordinary.
最终结果是一个由八种类型的蒙太奇或八种语法组成的系统。自主镜头 (1) 也称为序列镜头（尽管 Metz 也在这里放置了某些类型的插入片段——短的、孤立的片段）。上面已经讨论了并行语法（2）作为众所周知的并行编辑现象。然而，括号组合 (3) 是梅茨自己的发现或发明。他将其定义为“一系列非常简短的场景，代表电影中作为同一秩序或现实的典型例子给出的事件，但没有以任何方式按时间顺序将它们相互关联”[Metz，第 17 页]。126]。
The end result is a system of eight types of montage, or eight syntagmas. The autonomous shot (1) is also known as the sequence shot (although Metz also places certain kinds of inserts—short, isolated fragments—here). The parallel syntagma (2) has been discussed above as the well-known phenomenon of parallel editing. The bracket syntagma (3), however, is Metz’s own discovery—or invention. He defines it as “a series of very brief scenes representing occurrences that the film gives as typical examples of a same order or reality, without in any way chronologically locating them in relation to each other” [Metz, p. 126].
这很像一个典故系统。一个很好的例子可能是戈达尔开始拍摄《已婚女人》 （1964）时所用的图像集。他们都提到了当代对性的态度。事实上，戈达尔在他的许多电影中似乎特别喜欢括号语法，因为它让电影表现得像文学散文。
This is rather like a system of allusions. A good example might be the collection of images with which Godard began A Married Woman (1964). They all alluded to contemporary attitudes toward sex. Indeed, Godard in many of his films seemed to be particularly fond of the bracket syntagma, since it allows film to act something like the literary essay.
描述性语法 (4) 只是描述。其元素之间的关系是空间关系而不是时间关系。几乎任何建立序列（例如在《后窗》中已经讨论过的序列）都是描述性句法的一个很好的例子。替代语法 (5) 与平行语法非常相似，不同之处在于平行语法提供两个没有叙事联系的独立场景或序列，而替代语法提供具有叙事联系的平行或交替元素。这里的效果是同时性的，就像在追逐场景中，蒙太奇在追逐者和被追赶者的镜头之间交替。
The descriptive syntagma (4) merely describes. The relation between its elements is spatial rather than temporal. Almost any establishing sequence (such as the one already discussed in Rear Window) is a good example of the descriptive syntagma. The alternate syntagma (5) is very much like the parallel syntagma except that the parallel syntagma offers two separate scenes or sequences that do not have a narrative connection, while the alternate syntagma offers parallel or alternating elements that do. The effect here is of simultaneity, as in chase scenes in which the montage alternates between shots of pursuer and pursued.
如果事件不是同时发生，它们就会以线性顺序一个接一个地发生，这给我们带来了梅斯剩下的三类蒙太奇：场景（6）和两种类型的序列——情景（7）和普通（8） 。在电影批评的词汇中，场景和序列的概念之间一直存在很大的混乱，而梅茨精心设计的系统对于他提供的精确定义很有价值。梅斯从戏剧用语中得到了他对场景的定义。在场景中，事件的连续性——线性叙事——是连续的。在序列中，它被分解了。它仍然是线性的，仍然是叙事性的，仍然是按时间顺序排列的，仍然与其他元素相关，但它不是连续的。
If events do not happen simultaneously, they happen one after the other, in linear sequence, and this brings us to Metz’s remaining three categories of montage: the scene (6) and two types of sequence—episodic (7) and ordinary (8). There has always been a great deal of confusion in the vocabulary of film criticism between the concepts of scene and sequence, and Metz’s elaborate system is valuable for the precise definitions he offers. Metz takes his definition of scene from theatrical parlance. In the scene, the succession of events—the linear narrative—is continuous. In the sequence, it is broken up. It is still linear, it is still narrative, it is still chronological, it is still related to other elements, but it is not continuous.
图表J. M ETZ的句法类别。
DIAGRAM J. METZ’S SYNTAGMATIC CATEGORIES.
梅斯最后对情景序列和普通序列的区分有点武断。在情节序列中，不连续性是有组织的；在普通序列中它不是。那么，情节序列的一个很好的例子就是《公民凯恩》中的一个，奥森·威尔斯在其中通过早餐桌上的一系列连续情节描绘了凯恩婚姻的逐渐恶化。事实上，我们可以称其为“场景序列”，这是情景序列的一个主要特征——它的元素被组织起来，使得每个元素似乎都有自己的身份。
Metz’s last differentiation, between the episodic sequence and the ordinary sequence, is a bit arbitrary. In the episodic sequence the discontinuity is organized; in the ordinary sequence it is not. A good example, then, of the episodic sequence is the one in Citizen Kane in which Orson Welles portrays the progressive deterioration of Kane’s marriage by a set of successive episodes at the breakfast table. In fact, we might call this a “sequence of scenes,” and this is a major characteristic of the episodic sequence—that its elements are organized so that each of them seems to have an identity of its own.
其中一些差异可能仍然不清楚。对于大多数电影观众来说，括号语法和描述性语法的概念非常接近，以至于区分似乎似是而非。平行句法和交替句法存在同样的困难，情节和普通序列也是如此。然而，尽管存在问题，梅斯的系统仍然是一个有用的指南，可以帮助我们了解迄今为止相对未知的领域：电影叙事不断变化的、复杂的句法。无论他的八个类别看起来是否有效，他定义的差异化因素都非常重要并且值得重复：
Some of these differentiations might still not be clear. For most film viewers, the concepts of the bracket syntagma and the descriptive syntagma are so close that differentiation may seem specious. Parallel syntagma and alternate syntagma present the same difficulty, as do episodic and ordinary sequences. Yet, despite its problems, Metz’s system remains a helpful guide to what is, as yet, relatively uncharted territory: the ever-shifting, complex, and intricate syntax of film narrative. Whether or not his eight categories seem valid, the factors of differentiation that he defines are highly significant and bear repeating:.
电影片段要么是自主的，要么不是。
Either a film segment is autonomous or it is not.
要么是按时间顺序排列的，要么不是。
Either it is chronological or it is not.
要么是描述性的，要么是叙述性的。
Either it is descriptive or it is narrative.
要么是线性的，要么不是。
Either it is linear or it is not.
要么连续，要么不连续。
Either it is continuous or it is not.
要么是有组织的，要么没有组织。
Either it is organized or it is not.
我们只需描述电影的标点符号即可完成对场景调度和蒙太奇语法的快速考察。由于标点符号很突出并且定义简单，因此它们通常在电影语言的讨论中占有重要地位。毫无疑问，它们很有用，就像书面语言中的逗号一样。
We have only to describe the punctuation of cinema to complete this quick survey of the syntax of mise-en-scène and montage. Because punctuation devices stand out and are simply defined, they often take pride of place in discussions of cinematic language. They are useful, no doubt, as are, well, commas, for example, in written language.
最简单的标点符号类型是无标记剪切。一幅图像结束，另一幅图像开始。“淡入淡出”引起人们对结尾或开头的注意，“虹膜”（早期电影制作人的最爱，现已不再使用）也是如此。“擦拭”是一种图像以各种令人眼花缭乱的方式（翻转、旋转、推倒、螺旋、时钟指针）去除另一图像的方法，在三四十年代是一种流行的方式。眼镜店提供了数十种擦拭巾图案的目录。现在，它在电影中主要用于怀旧效果，尽管它在电视中找到了新的生命，数字 CGI 允许主题出现新的变化——现在甚至是变形。
The simplest type of punctuation is the unmarked cut. One image ends, another begins. The “fade” calls attention to the ending or the beginning, as does the “iris” (a favorite of early filmmakers that has now fallen into disuse). The “wipe,” in which one image removes another in a dizzying variety of ways (flips, twirls, pushovers, spirals, clock hands), was a favorite in the thirties and forties. Optical houses offered catalogues of scores of patterns for wipes. Now it is used in film mainly for nostalgic effect, although it has found new life in television, where digital CGI permit new variations on the theme—now even morphs.
“字幕”是无声电影中重要的标点符号，至今仍偶尔使用。自从弗朗索瓦·特吕弗在《四百击》 （1959）中使用“定格”效果以来，“定格”变得流行起来。（顺便说一句，特吕弗是电影标点符号界的 CS 刘易斯。）20 世纪 60 年代和 1970 年代的电影制作人对一些旧形式进行了现代化改造，褪色为彩色而不是黑色（英格玛·巴格曼）或剪切为空白的彩色帧（戈达尔）。聚焦进出（进入的效果镜头开始时慢慢聚焦，或最后失焦）并行褪色，安东尼奥尼喜欢在聚焦的拍摄对象进入画面之前在失焦的背景上开始拍摄。
“Intertitles” were an important mark of punctuation in the silent cinema and are still used on occasion today. The “freeze frame” has become popular since it was used to such effect by François Truffaut in The 400 Blows (1959). (Truffaut, by the way, was the C. S. Lewis of film punctuation.) Filmmakers in the 1960s and 1970s modernized some of the old forms, fading to colors instead of black (Ingmar Bargeman) or cutting to blank, colored frames (Godard). Focusing in and out (the effect of going slowly in focus at the beginning of the shot, or out of focus at the end) paralleled fading, and Antonioni was fond of beginning a shot on an out-of-focus background before an in-focus subject moved into the frame.
图 3-79。这个由四个镜头组成的序列是阿尔弗雷德·希区柯克的《西北偏北》（1959 年）中的双重溶解。乍一看，这似乎只是一个高度经济的过渡，从前一个在联合国大楼的场景，罗杰·桑希尔（加里·格兰特饰）被误认为是杀人犯，到在华盛顿中央情报局的一次会议上，这一事件的转变正在讨论。希区柯克从他引人注目的头顶镜头中开始，拍摄了像蚂蚁一样的桑希尔从联合国秘书处的平板（A 中几乎看不见）跑到 B 中的建筑物铭牌。由于希区柯克巧妙地使用了镜面作为标志，因此它可以反映国会大厦，从而识别城市以及“公司”，并巧妙地节省了额外的镜头。
Figure 3-79. This sequence of four shots is a double dissolve from Alfred Hitchcock’s North by Northwest (1959). At first it seems no more than a highly economical transition from the previous scene at the UN building, in which Roger Thornhill (Cary Grant) has been mistaken for a murderer, to a conference at the CIA in Washington, at which this turn of events is discussed. Hitchcock segues from his striking overhead shot of the antlike Thornhill running away from the slab of the UN Secretariat (barely visible in A) to the building nameplate in B. Since Hitchcock has had the wit to use a mirrored surface for the sign, it can reflect the Capitol building, thus identifying the city as well as the “company” and neatly saving an extra shot.
然后他消失在 D 中的报纸标题中，它告诉我们（I）时间已经过去，（2）桑希尔的身份已被确认，（3）他迄今为止尚未被捕。该报纸由情报机构负责人持有。希区柯克从报纸上抽身，继续讨论会议场景。
He then dissolves to the newspaper headline in D, which tells us that (I) time has passed, (2) Thornhill has been identified, and (3) he has so far eluded capture. The newspaper is being held by the head of the intelligence agency. Hitchcock pulls back from the paper and goes on with the conference scene.
然而，与此同时，在这个优雅的小溶解中，有一些丰富的隐喻信息，因为，如果我们分析这些静止图像，我们可以看到中央情报局将自己强加于联合国，国会大厦是中央情报局的反映（或者说情报机构已经将自己置于政府所在地之上），最后，中央情报局产生了报纸头条，除了传达必要信息之外，还包括：“国家恐惧联合”和“尼克松向西方承诺”将留在柏林。”
At the same time, however, there is some rich metaphorical information in this elegant little dissolve, for, if we analyze these still images, we can see that the CIA imposes itself on the UN, that the Capitol is a reflection of the CIA (or that the intelligence agency has superimposed itself over the seat of government), and finally, that the CIA gives birth to the newspaper headlines that include, in addition to the one conveying the necessary information: “National Fears Tieup” and “Nixon Promises West Will Remain in Berlin.”
五十年后？……好吧，你来打电话。“我们[仍然]都在同一个字母汤里。” （框架放大。）
Fifty years later? … Well, you make the call. “We’re [still] all in the same alphabet soup.” (Frame enlargements.)
图 3-80。特吕弗具有里程碑意义的定格让《四百击》突然而古怪地停了下来。（框架放大。）
Figure 3-80. Truffaut’s landmark freeze frame brings The 400 Blows to an abrupt and quizzical stop. (Frame enlargement.)
所有这些不同的标记都是句点。终点。淡出/淡入可能表明存在关系，但它不是直接链接。然而，叠加淡出和淡入的渐隐确实有联系。如果电影中的这个时期目录中有一个逗号，那就是溶解。有趣的是，叠化有多种用途：它通常用于延续或引导闪回；它也被用在带有跳接的连续蒙太奇中，同时它可以代表很长一段时间的流逝，特别是当它是连续的时。它是电影中标点符号的一种，它在将图像混合在一起的同时又将它们连接起来。
All these various marks are periods. End points. A fade out/fade in may suggest a relationship, but it is not a direct link. The dissolve, however, which superimposes fade out and fade in, does connect. If there is a comma in film amongst this catalogue of periods, it is the dissolve. Interestingly, the dissolve serves a multitude of purposes: it is commonly employed to segue or lead into a flashback; it is also used in continuity montage with the jump cut, while at the same time it can represent the passage of long periods of time, especially when it is sequential. It is the one mark of punctuation in cinema that mixes images at the same time that it conjoins them.
现在我们已经研究了电影的技术和语言，并将这种媒介置于其他艺术的背景下，现在是时候回顾一下这种非凡的新交流方式的历史了。
Now that we’ve examined the technology and the language of film, and set the medium in the context of the other arts, it’s time to review the history of this remarkable new way of communicating.
4
电影史的形态
4
The Shape of Film History
Creating an Art: Lumiérère versus Méliès
The Silent Feature: Realism versus Expressionism
Hollywood: Genre versus Auteur
Neorealism and After: Hollywood versus the World
The New Wave and the Third World:
Entertainment versus Communication
The Postmodern Sequel: Democracy, Technology, End of Cinema
Beyond Cinema: Metafiction, Metareality
“It soon became evident that there was considerable potential profit in the invention.”
“从现在开始，‘电影’只是一种原材料，是媒体艺术家可能的选择之一。”
“From now on, ‘film’ is simply a raw material, one of the possible choices available to the media artist.”
电影/电影/电影院
Movies/Film/Cinema
法国理论家喜欢区分“电影”和“电影”。“电影”是艺术的一个方面，涉及它与周围世界的关系。“电影”涉及艺术的美学和内部结构。在英语中，我们有第三个词来表示“电影”和“电影院”——“电影”——它为活动的第三个方面提供了一个方便的标签：其作为经济商品的功能。当然，这三个方面是密切相关的：一个人的“电影”就是另一个人的“电影”。但总的来说，我们对艺术使用这三个名称的方式与这种区别非常相似：“电影”就像爆米花一样，是用来消费的；“电影”就像爆米花一样，是用来消费的；“电影”就像爆米花一样，是用来消费的。“电影”（至少在美国人的说法中）是高雅艺术，充满美学气息；“电影”是我们使用的最通用的术语，含义也最少。
French theorists are fond of making the differentiation between “film” and “cinema.” The “filmic” is that aspect of the art that concerns its relationship with the world around it; the “cinematic” deals with the esthetics and internal structure of the art. In English, we have a third word for “film” and “cinema”—“movies”—which provides a convenient label for the third facet of the activity: its function as an economic commodity. These three aspects are closely interrelated, of course: one person’s “movie” is another’s “film.” But in general we use these three names for the art in a way that closely parallels this differentiation: “movies,” like popcorn, are to be consumed; “cinema” (at least in American parlance) is high art, redolent of esthetics; “film” is the most general term we use with the fewest connotations.
电影/电影/电影院的历史丰富而复杂，尽管只跨越了一个世纪。电影史有几十年甚至几十年的历史。部分原因在于电影现象的爆炸性本质——作为一种交流媒介，它立即被很多人所理解；部分原因在于过去一百年来技术的几何级数进步以及经济周期，这要求电影发展或消亡。
This history of movies/film/cinema is rich and complex, although it spans only a century. Film history is a matter of decades and half-decades. Partly this is a result of the explosive nature of the phenomenon of film—as a medium of communication it was immediately apprehensible to large numbers of people; partly it is a matter of the geometric progression of technology in the last one hundred years coupled with economic cycles, which demanded that film develop or die.
在我们谈论三种方法——电影、电影和电影——的同时，我们应该记住，每种方法都有一个对应的内容。相应的功能范围，从左边的纪录片和纪实电影，到占据中间地带的大规模商业叙事电影，再到右边的前卫和“艺术”电影。这一历史讨论的主要部分将集中在中间立场，因为正是在这里，电影的政治和经济产生了最重要的影响。
At the same time that we speak of three approaches—movies, film, and cinema—we should remember that within each approach there is a corre sponding spectrum of function, ranging from documentary and nonfiction on the left, through the massive commercial narrative cinema that occupies the middle ground, on to avant-garde and “art” film on the right. The major part of this historical discussion will dwell on the middle ground, since it is here that the politics and economics of film have had their most significant effect.
过去三百年的小说艺术形式的历史与过去一百年的电影发展存在着有趣的相似之处。首先，两者都是大众艺术，依赖大量消费者来实现经济运作。每一个都起源于新闻业——即作为一种记录媒介。每一种艺术都经历了以发明和新鲜为标志的早期阶段，并很快达到了主导其他艺术的主导地位。每一个都发展出了一个服务于广泛受众的流派系统。最后，每一个都进入了后期的巩固期，其特点是对精英审美价值观的关注超过了大众娱乐的审美价值观，因为它受到了新媒体（小说的电影，电影的电视）的挑战。
Interesting parallels exist between the history of the art form of the novel during the course of the past three hundred years and the development of film during the past one hundred years. Both are, above all, popular arts that depend on large numbers of consumers to function economically. Each began with roots in journalism—that is, as a medium of record. Each developed through an early stage marked by invention and freshness, and soon reached a commanding position in which it dominated other arts. Each evolved a system of genres that served a wide range of audiences. Finally, each entered into a later period of consolidation, identified by a stronger concern for elite, esthetic values over those of popular entertainment, as it was challenged by a new medium (film for the novel, television for film).
正如小说为电影提供了丰富的素材一样，现在电影也为电视和视频提供了丰富的素材。事实上，可能不再可能对这三种叙事娱乐形式进行明确区分。在商业上，小说、电影和电视比以往任何时候都更加紧密地交织在一起。
Just as novels have fed films, providing a rich lode of material, so now films feed television and video. Indeed, it may no longer be possible to make explicit differentiations among these three forms of narrative entertainment. Commercially, the novel, movies, and television are more closely intertwined than ever before.
然而，电影的发展在两个重要方面与小说的先例有所不同。在散文叙事能够获得广泛的受众之前，必须发展一种读写文化。电影没有这样的先决条件。另一方面，电影是高度技术化的。虽然小说依赖于印刷技术，但印刷技术相对简单，小说形式的发展只受到技术发展的轻微影响。我们可以说，小说的历史是受众密集型的，也就是说，它与受众能力的发展密切相关；而电影的历史是技术密集型的，它不太依赖于受众的能力，而是依赖于观众的能力。技术能力。
The development of film differed, however, in two important respects from the precedent of the novel. Before prose narrative could reach a wide popular audience, it was necessary for a culture of literacy to develop. Film had no such prerequisite. On the other hand, film is highly technological. Although the novel depends on the technology of printing, that technology is comparatively simple, and the development of the form of the novel has been affected only in minor ways by technological developments. We can speak of the history of the novel as being audience-intensive—that is, it is closely linked with the development of its audience’s capabilities—while the history of film is technology-intensive—it does not depend on audience capability so much as technical capability.
所有电影史都标志着无声时期和有声时期之间的明显划分。虽然任何比这个简单分叉更复杂的结构都是任意的，但尝试更高的精度是有用的。下面概述的八个时期中的每一个时期都有其自身的连贯性。尽管我们自然地倾向于通过审美差异（“电影”）来识别这些时期，但有趣的是请注意，它们是通过经济发展（“电影”）来更准确地定义的。
All histories of film mark the obvious division between silent and sound periods. While any structure more complex than this simple bifurcation is arbitrary, it is useful to attempt greater precision. Each of the eight periods outlined below has its own coherence. Although we tend naturally to identify these periods by esthetic differences (“cinema”), it is interesting to note that they are more accurately defined by economic developments (“movies”).
电影的史前时期包括电影摄影术所有前身的发展，以及其他艺术某些方面的演变，这些方面在应用于电影时会产生重大影响（例如，维多利亚时代情节剧的品质，或者电影的价值观）。肖像摄影）。
The period of film’s prehistory includes the development of all the precursors of the Cinématographe as well as the evolution of certain aspects of the other arts that have a significant effect when applied to film (the qualities of Victorian melodrama, for example, or the values of the photographic portrait).
1896 年至 1912 年间，电影从一种杂耍噱头发展成为一种成熟的经济艺术。这一时期的结束以长片的出现为标志。
The years between 1896 and 1912 saw cinema evolve from a sideshow gimmick into a full-fledged economic art. The end of this period is marked by the advent of the feature-length film.
1913年至1927年是无声长片时期。
The years 1913 to 1927 comprise the silent feature period.
1928 年至 1932 年间，世界电影处于转型状态。这个时期对我们来说并没有什么不寻常的审美兴趣，但它确实在经济和技术上表明自己是一个重要的阶段。
Between 1928 and 1932, world cinema was in a state of transition. This interval holds no unusual esthetic interest for us, but it does suggest itself economically and technologically as a significant stage.
1932年至1946年是好莱坞的“黄金时代”；在这个时代，电影取得了最大的经济成功。
The period from 1932 to 1946 was the “Golden Age” of Hollywood; during this era, the movies had their greatest economic success.
第二次世界大战结束后，电影立即开始面临电视的挑战。1947 年至 1959 年的特点就是这种反应，同时国际主义也在不断增长。从美学上来说，即使不是从经济上来说，好莱坞现在也不再具有垄断地位。
Immediately after World War II, film began to confront the challenge of television. The years 1947 to 1959 were characterized by this response, concurrent with a growing internationalism. Esthetically, if not economically, Hollywood now no longer had a monopoly.
六十年代初期法国新浪潮的兴起标志着电影史第七个时期（1960-80 年）的开始。技术创新、电影制作经济学的新方法以及对电影政治和社会价值的新认识结合起来，在东欧、拉丁美洲、非洲、亚洲甚至美国形成了无数的“新浪潮”和西欧。
The growth of the New Wave in France in the early sixties signaled the beginning of the seventh period of film history, 1960–80. Technological innovations, a new approach to the economics of film production, and a new sense of the political and social value of film combined to form numerous “new wavelets” in Eastern Europe, Latin America, Africa, Asia, and eventually even the United States and Western Europe.
1980 年似乎是标志着世界电影史“新浪潮”时期结束和我们所谓的“后现代”电影开始的最佳时机。在当今时代，电影最好被视为各种娱乐和传播媒体的一部分，这些媒体显然以各种形式的视频为主。作为包括录音制品、录像带、光盘、各种印刷品以及广播、卫星和有线电视在内的群体的一员，电影不再发挥以前那样的经济杠杆作用。电影仍然是这些其他形式媒体的著名典范，但越来越多的电影必须在这个广泛的背景下被理解。戏剧故事片制作只是这个新媒体世界的众多方面之一。
1980 seems as good a point as any to mark the end of the “New Wave” period of world film history and the beginning of what we might call “postmodern” film. During this present era, movies are best seen as part of a varied panoply of entertainment and communications media clearly dominated by video in all its forms. As a member of the group that includes audio recordings, videotapes, and discs, and various types of print as well as broadcast, satellite, and cable television, film no longer exercises the economic leverage it once did. Movies still serve as prestigious models for these other forms of media, but increasingly film must be understood in this broad context. Theatrical feature filmmaking is simply one of the numerous facets of this new media world.
事实上，我们长期以来一直需要一个术语来表示视听通信和娱乐的普遍生产。这种未命名但普遍存在的形式是否是在胶片或磁带上制作的，或者光盘，模拟或数字；无论它是通过剧院、广播、“窄播”、有线电视、卫星、光盘、磁带还是互联网传播——我们对它的核心体验都是一样的。现在，当我们谈论电影/电影/电影时，我们通常是指推断所有这些不同的媒体形式。
Indeed, we have long needed a term to indicate the generalized production of audiovisual communications and entertainment. Whether this unnamed but pervasive form is produced on filmstock or magnetic tape or disc, analogically or digitally; whether it is distributed through theaters, via broadcast, “narrowcast,” cable, satellite, disc, tape, or internet—our core experience of it amounts to the same thing. Now, when we speak about movies/film/cinema we usually mean to infer all of these various media forms.
当代电影可以被视为各种力量的综合体，这些力量似乎在某个时间或另一个时间主导了电影的公式。然而，对于理解电影史来说，最重要的是了解这些社会、政治、经济、文化、心理和审美因素如何与其他因素形成动态关系。电影史最好被理解为广泛矛盾的产物。从最具体到最一般的各个层面都可以看到这一点。
Contemporary film can be seen as a synthesis of the forces that have each at one time or another seemed to dominate the cinematic formula. It is most important to an understanding of film history, however, to see how each of these social, political, economic, cultural, psychological, and esthetic factors involves the others in a dynamic relationship. Film history is best comprehended as the product of a wide range of contradictions. This can be seen on every level, from the most specific to the most general.
例如，演员的表演就是角色与演员本人性格之间冲突的结果。有时个性占主导地位，有时角色占主导地位，但无论哪种情况，总和都是第三件事，一个逻辑结论——表演——然后成为更大的单元——电影——中涉及的元素之一。同样，一部特定的电影也是许多对立的产物：导演与编剧、剧本的理想与拍摄的实际情况、阴影与光线、声音与图像、人物与情节等等。然后，每部电影都成为更大的对立体系中的一个元素：类型与剧本的个性形成鲜明对比；工作室风格与个人导演风格在逻辑上是对立的；主题倾向与媒介的具体物理现实形成对比。最后，这些较大的元素中的每一个都涉及一个或多个矛盾，这些矛盾共同赋予了电影的通史其整体形状和实质。
An actor’s performance, for example, is the result of the conflict between the role and the actor’s own persona. At times the personality dominates, at times the character, but in either case the sum is a third thing, a logical conclusion—performance—which then becomes one of the elements involved in the larger unit, the film. A particular film, likewise, is the product of a number of oppositions: director versus screenwriter, the ideal of the script versus the practical realities of shooting, shadow versus light, sound versus image, character versus plot, and so on. Each film then becomes an element in the larger systems of oppositions: genre contrasts with the individuality of scripts; studio styles are in logical opposition to personal directorial styles; thematic tendencies contrast with the concrete physical reality of the medium. Finally, each of these larger elements is involved in one or more contradictions that together give the general history of film its overall shape and substance.
应该记住的是，电影史上的现象很少能用简单的因果关系来正确描述。为了讨论的目的，下面对电影史的简要概述是根据所涉及的三个主要力量进行组织的：经济学、政治学（包括心理学和社会学）和美学。但这些因素最终都不占主导地位。如果电影本质上是一种经济产品，那么仍然有许多电影制片人不顾市场现实而工作，并设法生存下来。如果某些类型的电影最好从其政治和社会影响的角度来看待，请记住，这些影响的原因可能根本不是政治的，而是个人和审美的。
What should be remembered is that in very few cases are phenomena in film history correctly described in terms of simple cause and effect. For the purposes of discussion, the brief survey of film history that follows has been organized according to the three principal forces involved: economics, politics (including psychology and sociology), and esthetics. But none of these factors is ultimately dominant. If film is essentially an economic product, nevertheless there have been numerous filmmakers who have worked without any regard to the realities of the marketplace and have managed to survive. If certain types of film are best seen in terms of their political and social effects, remember that the causes of these effects may not be political at all, but rather personal and esthetic.
简而言之，我们的目标不应该是简单地决定电影史上“什么导致了什么”，而是理解“什么导致了什么”。与什么有关。” 对于电影史上每一个有趣的现象，都有几种看似合理的解释。这些解释中哪一个是正确的并不那么重要，重要的是看看它们之间以及它们与周围世界的关系如何。
In short, our aim should not be to decide, simplistically, “what caused what” in the history of film, but rather to gain an understanding of “what is related to what.” For every interesting phenomenon in film history, there are several plausible explanations. It’s not so important which of these explanations is true, as it is to see how they relate to each other and to the world around them.
与任何艺术一样，电影反映了社会契约的变化，尤其是由于其包罗万象和大众化的性质。这就是为什么首先看看媒介的经济和技术基础（经济学家和历史学家称之为“基础设施”），然后讨论艺术的一些主要政治、社会和心理影响（它的“基础设施”）是有用的。结构”），最后以对电影美学史（其“上层建筑”）的回顾作为结束。
Like any art, only more so because of its all-encompassing and popular nature, film reflects changes in the social contract. That is why it is useful to look first at the economic and technological foundations of the medium (what economists and historians call its “infrastructure”), then to discuss some of the major political, social, and psychological implications of the art (its “structure”), and finally to conclude with a survey of the history of film esthetics (its “superstructure”).
电影史的这三个方面中的任何一个都可以轻松地作为一本厚书的组织原则。以下只是所涉及的一些主要问题的最简单概述。此外，电影并没有独立于其他艺术和媒体而发展。它的历史应该结合其他媒体的发展（见第 6 章）以及与旧艺术发展的关系（见第 1 章）来看待。
Any one of these three aspects of film history could easily serve as the organizing principle for a hefty volume. What follows is only the barest outline of some of the major issues involved. Moreover, film has not developed independently of the other arts and media. Its history should be seen in context with the growth of the other media (see Chapter 6) and in relationship to developments in the older arts (see Chapter 1).
“电影”：经济学
“Movies”: Economics
与构成现代电气和电子通信方式的大多数其他技术创新相比，电影更重要的是一项公共发明。与电话、电报甚至无线不同，电影依赖于一系列小发明，每项发明都归因于不同的发明者。即使是单个概念也有多个作者。
More so than most of the other technological innovations that form the panoply of modern electric and electronic modes of communication, film was a communal invention. Unlike the telephone, telegraph, or even wireless, film depended on a whole series of small inventions, each attributable to a different inventor. Even single concepts had multiple authors.
在美国，托马斯·爱迪生通常因发明电影而受到主要赞誉，事实上，许多重要的开发工作都是在他的新泽西实验室进行的。但考虑到爱迪生所展现的才能以及对生产可行的相机/投影仪系统所涉及问题的明显理解，令人惊讶的是他个人并没有取得更多成就。英国人威廉·肯尼迪·劳里·迪克森是爱迪生该项目的首席实验员。早在 1889 年，他就展示了一种粗略的投影系统。然而，爱迪生更感兴趣的是生产一种私人观看系统，而不是为大型团体娱乐投射图像的系统。他称他的个人观看器为“电影放映机”。早年就已投入生产1890 年代，最早的短节目之一是著名的Fred Ott 的《喷嚏》，它很快就成为杂耍和嘉年华的常见节目。
In the U.S. Thomas Edison is usually given major credit for inventing the movies, and indeed, much of the important work of development was performed in his New Jersey laboratories. But considering Edison’s demonstrated talents and obvious understanding of the problems involved in producing a workable camera/projector system, what is surprising is that he personally didn’t achieve more. An Englishman, William Kennedy Laurie Dickson, was the chief experimenter working on the project for Edison. He demonstrated a crude system of projection as early as 1889. However, Edison was more interested in producing a private viewing system than one to project an image for the entertainment of large groups. He called his individual viewer the “Kinetoscope.” It was in production in the early 1890s—one of the first short programs was the famous Fred Ott’s Sneeze—and it soon became a common fixture of side shows and carnivals.
电影放映机启发了许多欧美发明家和商人运用他们的才能来解决剩余的问题。在英国，法国人路易斯·奥古斯丁·勒·普林斯 (Louis Augustin Le Prince) 和英国人威廉·弗里斯·格林 (William Friese-Greene) 在 1880 年代末都开发了可行的便携式相机/投影系统，尽管他们没有取得任何成果。
The Kinetoscope inspired a number of European and American inventors and businessmen to apply their talents to the solution of the remaining problems. In England, the Frenchman Louis Augustin Le Prince and the Englishman William Friese-Greene both developed workable portable camera/projection systems in the late 1880s, although nothing came of them.
大观众投影的主要问题的关键是间歇运动机制。1895 年，法国的路易斯·卢米埃尔 (Louis Lumière) 和奥古斯特·卢米埃尔 (Auguste Lumière) 以及美国的托马斯·阿马特 (Thomas Armat) 发明了这种装置。阿马特将其卖给了爱迪生。卢米埃尔影院投入制作，并于 1895 年 12 月 28 日在巴黎卡普辛大道 14 号大咖啡馆的地下室向付费观众放映了第一批放映的电影。第二年，卢米埃尔电影摄影机在欧洲大多数主要城市进行了展示。爱迪生于 1896 年 4 月 23 日在纽约第 34 街和第六大道交叉口的科斯特和比尔音乐厅首次正式公开表演大屏幕公共电影院。
The key to the main problem of projection for a large audience was the intermittent motion mechanism. Louis and Auguste Lumière in France and Thomas Armat in America came up with this device in 1895. Armat sold out to Edison. The Lumières went into production and, on December 28, 1895, in the basement of the Grand Café, number 14 Boulevard des Capucines, Paris, showed the first projected films to a paying audience. During the next year, the Lumière Cinématographe was demonstrated in most major European cities. Edison’s first formal public performance of large-screen communal cinema took place on April 23, 1896, at Koster and Bial’s Music Hall, 34th Street and Sixth Avenue, New York.
卢米埃兄弟决定专注于为大型团体放映电影，这一决定产生了深远的影响。如果技术的发展沿着爱迪生所制定的路线发展，结果将是一种更像电视的媒介，可以私人体验，最终在家里，就像留声机一样。这种截然不同的发行和放映模式无疑会影响到电影的制作类型。碰巧的是，爱迪生的电影放映机很快就让位于卢米埃的电影放映机（以及爱迪生非常相似的电影放映机），公共电影的未来至少在接下来的 80 年里得到了保证。现在，随着录像机、DVD、个人录像机的发展，私人的、个性化的电影放映机模式又重新流行起来。
The Lumières’ decision to concentrate on the projection of film for large groups had a far-reaching effect. If the development of the technology had progressed along the lines Edison had laid down, the result would have been a medium much more like television, experienced privately, eventually in the home, like the phonograph. This quite different mode of distribution and exhibition would undoubtedly have affected the types of films produced. As it happened, Edison’s Kinetoscope rather quickly yielded to the Lumières’ Cinématographe (and Edison’s very similar Kinetograph projector) and the future of public, communal cinema was assured for at least the next 80 years. Now, with the development of VCRs, DVDs, and personal video recorders, the private, individualized Kinetoscope mode has been revived.
在接下来的一两年里，许多竞争对手加入了这个领域。意大利人 Filoteo Alberini 在 1896 年之前就已获得多项重要专利；在德国，Max 和 Emil Skladanowsky 开发了 Bioskop；在英国，卢米埃首映后几周内，罗伯特·W·保罗（Robert W. Paul）就开始放映电影（用他的爱迪生机器）。1896 年和 1897 年，电影放映机、爱迪生电影放映机和类似机器的使用得到广泛普及。
During the next year or two, a number of competitors joined the field. The Italian Filoteo Alberini had taken out several significant patents before 1896; in Germany, Max and Emil Skladanowsky developed their Bioskop; in England, Robert W. Paul was projecting films (with his version of the Edison machine) within weeks after the Lumières’ premiere. In 1896 and 1897, the use of the Cinématographe, Edison’s Kinetograph, and similar machines spread widely.
很快人们就发现，这项发明具有可观的潜在利润。在美国，迪克森离开了爱迪生的工作，组建了（与合作伙伴）美国 Mutscope 和 Biograph 公司，该公司不仅生产了比爱迪生电影放映机更好的西洋镜机器（Mutscope），而且还生产了更好的投影仪。传记公司很快就统治了美国电影。J.斯图尔特·布莱克顿（J. Stuart Blackton）与迪克森一样都是英国人，他创立了 Vitagraph 公司。Biograph 和 Vita-graph 的办公室都位于纽约的剧院附近（Biograph 位于第五大道附近的东 14 街，Vitagraph 位于切尔西区），这让他们很容易接触到舞台演员——他们会在演出前偷偷地花一个下午的时间进行拍摄。报道剧院的“真实”工作。
It soon became evident that there was considerable potential profit in the invention. In the U.S., Dickson left Edison’s employ to form (with partners) the American Mutoscope and Biograph Company, which not only produced a better peepshow machine (the Mutoscope) than Edison’s Kinetoscope but a better projector as well. The Biograph Company was soon to dominate American film. J. Stuart Blackton, of English origins like Dickson, formed the Vitagraph Company. Both the Biograph and the Vita-graph offices were located near New York’s theatrical neighborhoods (Biograph on East 14th Street near Fifth Avenue, Vitagraph in the Chelsea district), which gave them easy access to stage actors—who would surreptitiously spend an afternoon filming before reporting to “real” work in the theater.
图 4-1。电影在格林威治村拍摄。_ 电影业的大部分早期历史都集中在纽约的格林威治村附近，这里长期以来一直是文学和艺术中心。WKL 迪克森 (WKL Dickson) 第一次拜访托马斯·爱迪生 (Thomas Edison) 位于第五大道和第十三街 (1) 的发电机办公室。美国 Mutscope and Biograph Co. 在百老汇 841 号的一座办公楼 (2) 开设了商店，然后搬到了第五大道以东第十四街的一栋上流社会建筑 (3)。格里菲斯经常在西十二街拍摄 (4)。老圣丹尼斯酒店 (5) 为众多电影制片人提供了办公空间，亚历山大·格雷厄姆·贝尔 (Alexander Graham Bell) 于 1877 年在这里展示了他的第一个可用电话系统。新线影院 (New Line Cinema) 的第一个办公室位于大学广场 (University Place) 和第十三街 (6) 交汇处的一家酒吧和烧烤店上方。爱迪生的第一次公开表演在北边几个街区的第六大道 (7) 举行。梅尔·布鲁克斯、保罗·马祖斯基、布莱恩·德·帕尔玛、苏珊·萨兰登和蒂姆·罗宾斯等电影制片人都曾选择在该地区居住（尽管大多数人最终搬到了洛杉矶）。即使在今天，这些街道上仍然经常挤满了电影制片人在外景拍摄，百老汇的旧阁楼建筑已成为新媒体公司的圣地。
Figure 4-1. FILM IN GREENWICH VILLAGE. Much of the early history of the film industry centered in New York’s Greenwich Village neighborhood, long a literary and artistic center. W. K. L. Dickson first visited Thomas Edison in his office at his dynamo at Fifth Avenue and Thirteenth Street (1). The American Mutoscope and Biograph Co. set up shop in an office building at 841 Broadway (2), then moved to a brownstone on Fourteenth Street east of Fifth Avenue (3). Griffith often shot on West Twelfth Street (4). The old St. Denis Hotel (5), where Alexander Graham Bell demonstrated his first working telephone system in 1877, has provided office space for numerous filmmakers. New Line Cinema’s first office was located above a bar and grill at University Place and Thirteenth Street (6). Edison’s first public performance took place a few blocks north on Sixth Avenue (7). Such filmmakers as Mel Brooks, Paul Mazursky, Brian De Palma, Susan Sarandon, and Tim Robbins have chosen to live in the area at one time or another (although most eventually moved to L.A.). Even today, these streets are regularly filled with filmmakers shooting on location, and the old loft buildings on Broadway have become a mecca for new media companies.
在法国，舞台魔术师乔治·梅里爱 (Georges Méliès) 看到了这种媒介的幻觉力量并投入制作，而查尔斯·帕代 (Charles Pathé) 则开始了一场残酷的运动，以统治这个新兴行业。百代相当成功。与他的竞争对手不同，百代能够找到大量资本支持，他用这些资本建立了近乎垄断的垂直整合。
In France, Georges Méliès, a stage magician, saw the illusionary power of the medium and entered production, while Charles Pathé began a ruthless campaign to dominate the fledgling industry. Pathé was fairly successful. Unlike his competitors, Pathé was able to find large amounts of capital backing, which he used to establish a near monopoly, vertically integrated.
图 4-2。美国 Mutscope and Biograph Co. 准备拍摄一场舞台活动，四台摄像机同时转动，他们不可能错过任何事情。（现代艺术博物馆/英国金融服务管理局。）
Figure 4-2. The American Mutoscope and Biograph Co. set up to film a stage event With four cameras rolling they are not likely to miss anything. (MOMA/FSA.)
他控制着法国电影业，从设备制造到电影制作（在他位于万塞讷的大型工作室）再到发行和放映，在二十世纪初期，他的影响力也广泛传播到其他国家。结果，法国电影在第一次世界大战之前的几年里占据了世界银幕的主导地位。1914 年之前，百代仅在美国发行的电影数量就相当于整个美国电影业发行量的两倍。由于其他更美观的原因，意大利在那些年的影响也很广泛。
He controlled the French film industry from the manufacture of equipment to the production of films (in his large studio at Vincennes) to distribution and exhibition, and his influence was widely felt in other countries as well, during the early years of the twentieth century. As a result, French film dominated world screens in the years prior to the First World War. Before 1914, Pathé commonly distributed twice as much film in the U.S. alone as did the whole American industry. For other, more esthetic reasons, Italian influence in those years was also widespread.
到1905年，电影院的概念确立了。1897 年，卢米埃家族开设了第一家专门用于电影放映的机构。1902 年，托马斯·L·塔利的电子剧院（预言位于洛杉矶）成为美国第一家电影院。几年之内，这个概念迅速传播开来。到 1908 年，全国已有超过 5000 家“Nickelodeons”（“Nickel”是因为这是入场费；“odeon”来自希腊语，指用于展示音乐和戏剧节目的小建筑）。最后一个链接在制造、生产、分销、展览的链条已经完成。然而，没有公司或个人能够完全控制该系统。
By 1905 the concept of the film theater was established. In 1897 the Lumières had opened the first establishment devoted strictly to the showing of movies. In 1902 Thomas L. Tally’s Electric Theatre (prophetically located in Los Angeles) became the first American film theater. Within a few years, the concept spread rapidly. By 1908 there were more than five thousand “Nickelodeons” across the country (“nickel” because that was the price of admission; “odeon” from the Greek for a small building used for the presentation of musical and dramatic programs). The last link in the chain—manufacture, production, distribution, exhibition—was complete. No company or individual had complete control over the system, however.
托马斯·爱迪生着手纠正这一疏忽。1897 年，他开始了一系列针对闯入者的诉讼。阿马特觉得自己被爱迪生出卖了，于是开始了自己的法律诉讼。比奥格拉夫拥有一些自己的重要专利，准备反诉。在电影业的第一个十年里，总共提起了五百多项法律诉讼。1909 年 1 月，电影专利公司成立，这些问题得以暂时解决，该公司是由九家主要制片商（爱迪生、比奥格拉夫、维塔格拉夫、埃萨奈、塞利格、鲁宾、卡勒姆、梅里爱和百代）以及分销商乔治·克莱恩 (George Kleine) 组成的垄断财团。
Thomas Edison set out to rectify that oversight. In 1897 he had begun a long series of suits against interlopers. Armat, who felt he had been double-crossed by Edison, started his own legal proceedings. Biograph, who had some important patents of their own, prepared countersuits. In all, more than five hundred legal actions were instituted during the first decade of the film industry. These were temporarily resolved with the foundation in January 1909 of the Motion Picture Patents Company, a monopoly consortium of the nine major producers—Edison, Biograph, Vitagraph, Essanay, Selig, Lubin, Kalem, Méliès, and Pathé—with the distributor George Kleine.
所有专利都被集中起来，爱迪生获得了所有制作的电影的版税，乔治·伊士曼同意只向公司成员提供他的胶片。（百代有先见之明，早在几年前就垄断了法国伊士曼的电影库存。） 经销其他公司电影的发行商不得发行专利公司的电影。大多数发行商很快就合并到了他们自己的信托公司——通用电影公司中。但一些分销商对这些全面垄断协议的反抗是可以理解的。解决方案是制作自己的电影，几家叛逆的制作公司如雨后春笋般涌现，其中最重要的是卡尔·莱姆勒的独立电影公司（“Imp”），该公司后来成为环球影城。
All patents were pooled, Edison received royalties on all films produced, and George Eastman agreed to supply his filmstock only to members of the company. (Pathé had had the foresight to monopolize Eastman’s film-stock in France years earlier.) No distributors who handled films of other companies were permitted to distribute Patent Company films. Most of the distributors were soon merged in their own trust, the General Film Company. But several distributors understandably rebelled against these blanket monopoly agreements. The solution was to produce their own films, and several renegade production companies sprang up, the most important being Carl Laemmle’s Independent Motion Picture Company (“Imp”), which would later become Universal Studios.
反垄断诉讼取代了专利诉讼，美国电影业又开始了长达十年的法律斗争。最终，电影专利公司被裁定为非法信托；但到那时，公司的大部分原始成员都已经倒闭了。他们都没有活过二十多岁。到 1912 年，专利公司和通用电影公司控制了全国一万个放映网点——尼克频道——的一半以上，但这仍然给独立电影公司留下了回旋的余地。
Antitrust suits replaced patent suits, and the American film industry was off on another ten-year round of legal battles. Eventually the Motion Picture Patents Company was ruled an illegal trust; but by that time most of the original members of the company had gone out of business. None of them survived the twenties. By 1912 the Patent Company and the General Film Company controlled more than half of the ten thousand exhibition outlets—Nickelodeons—in the country, but this still left the independents room to maneuver.
他们对抗信任的最大武器不是法律斗争，而是电影形式的创新。该信托基金和尼克儿童频道适合拍摄一卷和两卷电影（当时一卷的长度约为十分钟）。独立电影公司借用了意大利和法国电影制作人首创的概念，推出了更长的“故事片”。几年之内，专利公司及其短片就过时了。
Their greatest weapon against the trust was not the legal fight but rather an innovation in film form. The trust and the Nickelodeons were geared to one- and two-reel films (a reel was then approximately ten minutes in length). The independents, borrowing a concept pioneered by Italian and French filmmakers, introduced the longer, “feature” film. Within a few years, the Patent Company and its short films were obsolete.
图 4-3。帕克对早期好莱坞奇幻世界的看法，1913 年。（纽约历史学会收藏。）
Figure 4-3. Puck’s view of the fantasy world of early Hollywood, 1913. (Collection of the New-York Historical Society.)
具有讽刺意味的是，DW·格里菲斯（DW Griffith）这位为确保《传记》（信任要素中最重要的部分）的成功做出最大努力的电影制片人，也是在与《传记》决裂后第一个探索故事片形式潜力的美国人。*《一个国家的诞生》前所未有的经济成功确保了新形式的未来。它还为“大片”奠定了模式，即投入巨资制作史诗般的电影项目，希望获得更大的回报。《一个国家的诞生》花费了前所未有的、许多人认为完全鲁莽的 11 万美元，但最终获得了 2000 万美元甚至更多的回报。实际数字很难计算，因为这部电影是在“州版权”的基础上发行的，放映电影的许可证是直接出售的。《一个国家的诞生》实际产生的现金可能高达 5000 万至 1 亿美元，这对于这样一部早期电影来说几乎是不可想象的。电影活动的焦点显然已经从尼克国际儿童频道转移到合法影院，这对信托公司造成了损害。
Ironically, D. W. Griffith, the filmmaker who had done most to ensure the success of Biograph, the most important of the trust components, was also the first American, after his break with Biograph, to explore the potential of the feature film form.* The unprecedented financial success of The Birth of a Nation (1915) ensured the future of the new form. It also set the pattern for the “blockbuster,” the film project in which huge sums of money are invested in epic productions with the hope of even huger returns. The Birth of a Nation, costing an unprecedented and, many believed, thoroughly foolhardy $110,000, eventually returned $20 million and more. The actual figure is hard to calculate because the film was distributed on a “states’ rights” basis in which licenses to show the film were sold outright. The actual cash generated by The Birth of a Nation may have been as much as $50 million to $100 million, an almost inconceivable amount for such an early film. The focus of film activity had clearly moved out of the Nickelodeon into the legitimate theater, to the detriment of the trust companies.
然而，垄断的冲动是不可抗拒的。第一次世界大战使欧洲国家的电影生产停滞不前，法国和意大利的主导地位很快被克服。通过一系列合并，新的独立美国公司迅速向世界市场供应产品并巩固其在国内的地位。
The urge to monopolize, however, was irresistible. The Great War immobilized film production in the European countries, and the dominance of France and Italy was soon overcome. Through a series of mergers the new independent American companies moved quickly to supply world markets and consolidate their position at home.
阿道夫·祖克收购了发行和放映公司派拉蒙影业公司，并将其与他自己的制作组织（著名戏剧中的著名演员）和杰西·拉斯基拥有的另一家公司合并。Carl Laemmle 围绕 Imp 的核心创立了环球薄膜制造公司。放映商和发行商威廉·福克斯 (William Fox) 于 1912 年成立了自己的制作公司，后来成为二十世纪福克斯公司。马库斯·勒夫 (Marcus Loew) 是一位成功的剧院老板，他于 1920 年收购了 Metro Pictures Corporation（其首席执行官为 Louis B. Mayer），然后将其与 Goldwyn Pictures（由 Samuel Goldfish（后来的 Goldwyn）和 Edward Selwyn 创建）合并，成立了 Metro-Goldwyn。 1924 年，梅耶尔。华纳四兄弟分别是放映商和发行商，于 1912 年开始制作电影。他们的公司后来吸收了第一国民公司（该公司也开始从事发行业务）和最后一家幸存的信托公司 Vitagraph。
Adolph Zukor acquired Paramount Pictures Corporation, a distribution and exhibition company, and merged it with his own production organization (Famous Players in Famous Plays) and another company, owned by Jesse Lasky. Carl Laemmle founded the Universal Film Manufacturing Company around the nucleus of Imp. William Fox, an exhibitor and distributor, formed his own production company in 1912, later to become Twentieth Century Fox. Marcus Loew, a successful theater owner, acquired Metro Pictures Corporation (whose chief executive was Louis B. Mayer) in 1920, then merged it with Goldwyn Pictures (founded by Samuel Goldfish—later Goldwyn—and Edward Selwyn) to form Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in 1924. The four Warner brothers, exhibitors and distributors, started producing films in 1912. Their company later absorbed First National (which had also started in distribution) and the last of the trust companies to survive, Vitagraph.
图 4-4。创始人阿道夫·祖克 (Adolph Zukor)、卡尔·莱姆勒 (Carl Laemmle) 和塞缪尔·戈德温 (Samuel Goldwyn)。（现代艺术博物馆/金融服务局。）
Figure 4-4. Founding moguls Adolph Zukor, Carl Laemmle, and Samuel Goldwyn. (MOMA/FSA.)
到 1920 年，“独立人士”已经实现了非正式的、低调的寡头垄断，这会让好战的信托公司羡慕不已。他们各自控制着电影产业的一个主要板块，各自垂直整合，活跃在电影“链条”的各个环节：制作、发行、放映。直到四十年代末，这种事实上的垄断才在法庭上得到成功挑战。即便如此，各大影院也只需剥离其连锁影院即可。他们被允许保持对分配的控制，这是系统的核心。所有五家公司至今都幸存下来，并且仍然控制着电影业（尽管米高梅在 20 世纪 70 年代和 1980 年代只扮演了次要角色，并在 1990 年代几乎消亡）。
By 1920, the “independents” had achieved an informal, low-profile oligopoly that would have been the envy of the more belligerent trust companies. Each of them controlled a major section of the industry, each was vertically integrated, active in every link of the film “chain”: production, distribution, and exhibition. Not until the late forties was this de facto monopoly challenged successfully in court. Even then the majors were required only to divest themselves of their theater chains. They were allowed to maintain control over distribution, the heart of the system. All five companies survive today and still control the film industry (although MGM played only a minor role throughout the 1970s and 1980s and nearly died in the 1990s).
然而，现代生产/分销组织之一却有着不同的根源。联美公司由查尔斯·卓别林、玛丽·碧克馥、道格拉斯·费尔班克斯和大卫·W·格里菲斯于 1919 年成立，作为他们自己活动的企业庇护所。
One of the modern production/distribution organizations, however, had different roots. United Artists was formed in 1919 by Charles Chaplin, Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks, and David W. Griffith as a corporate shelter for their own activities.
围绕这六家二十世纪二十年代、三十年代和四十年代的大公司组成的星座，是一些小型生产商，即“贫困线”公司。其中一些公司，例如Republic和Monogram，专门生产B图片，并在双钞票的后半部分找到了自己的定位。到了五十年代中期，此类“程序员”的市场几乎消失了，提供此类产品的公司也纷纷倒闭。从某种意义上说，它们被诸如 20 世纪 50 年代的美国国际影业公司、1960 年代罗杰·科曼的《新世界》和 1980 年代的新线公司等独立的低成本制片人所取代，这些公司都专注于主要针对青年市场的“剥削”电影。
Surrounding this constellation of six major companies in the twenties, thirties, and forties were a number of minor producers, the “poverty row” companies. Several of them, such as Republic and Monogram, specialized in B pictures, which found a niche as the second halves of double bills. By the mid-fifties, the market for such “Programmers” had all but disappeared and the companies that supplied them went out of business. They were in a sense replaced by such independent low-budget producers as American International Pictures in the 1950s, Roger Corman’s New World in the 1960s, and New Line in the 1980s, all specializing in “exploitation” films mainly directed to the youth market.
图 4-5。早期的好莱坞工作室。A. 独立工作室（1925）。B. 著名的派拉蒙正门（1939）。C. 一家早期的混合媒体公司（1913 年）。D. 地铁平房（1918）。E.“华纳兄弟西海岸”（c.1928）。F. 道格和玛丽举起标语（1922 年）。G. 哥伦比亚的背面（1935），至今仍然是一个很棒的广告牌画廊。H. 最初的 RKO 无线电信标 (1940)。I. 三十年代的雷电华电影宫。（好莱坞：第一个百年。由布鲁斯·托伦斯提供。）
Figure 4-5. Early HOLLYWOOD STUDIOS. A. Independent Studios (1925). B. The famous Paramount main gate (1939). C. An early mixed media company (1913). D. Metro bungalow (1918). E. “Warner Brothers West Coast” (c. 1928). F. Doug and Mary hoisting the sign (1922). G. The back of Columbia (1935), still a great billboard gallery today. H. The original RKO radio beacon (1940). I. An RKO movie palace in the thirties. (Hollywood: The First Hundred Years. Courtesy Bruce Torrence.)
哥伦比亚影业公司 (Columbia Pictures) 是一家在贫困阶层中幸存下来并成为“大公司”的公司，该公司成立于 1924 年，其前身是歌舞杂耍表演者和歌曲制作人哈利·科恩 (Harry Cohn) 创立的早期公司；他的兄弟杰克；还有一个朋友乔·勃兰特。与多年来一直是“二小”之一的联美公司一样，哥伦比亚在四十年代末跻身大牌行列。到五十年代末，它已成为最重要的故事片制作商之一。
One poverty row company that survived to become a “major” was Columbia Pictures, which evolved in 1924 out of an earlier company founded by Harry Cohn, a vaudeville performer and song-plugger; his brother Jack; and a friend, Joe Brandt. Like United Artists, one of the “little two” for many years, Columbia moved to the ranks of the majors in the late forties. By the late fifties it was one of the more significant producers of features.
上世纪三四十年代，RKO通过一系列合并而成立，为RCA音响系统提供出路，与Western Electric争夺新技术市场，也被认为是“五巨头”之一。 ” 迪士尼、塞尔兹尼克和戈德温都在巅峰时期通过雷电华发行。1948 年，霍华德·休斯 (Howard Hughes) 购买了该公司的大部分股票。1953 年，雷电华停止制作，其工作室被出售给 Desilu 进行电视制作。
During the thirties and forties RKO, which had been formed by a series of mergers to provide an outlet for the RCA sound system that was in competition with Western Electric for the market in the new technology, was also considered one of the “Big Five.” Disney, Selznick, and Goldwyn all released through RKO at its peak. In 1948 Howard Hughes bought most of the stock. In 1953 RKO ceased production and its studios were sold to Desilu for television production.
自 20 世纪 40 年代以来，迪士尼凭借其在动画领域的统治地位而成为实力雄厚的公司，并在 1950 年代创建了自己的发行部门 Buena Vista，然后在 1980 年代凭借雄心勃勃且成功的“真人”故事片计划跻身舞台中心。Michael Eisner 和 Jeffrey Katzenberg 于 1984 年加入该工作室，负责制作和发行主流影片。Touchstone Pictures 品牌成立于 1984 年，旨在将公司定位于成人市场。它立即获得成功，并于 1989 年被好莱坞电影品牌加入。从 20 世纪 80 年代到 2000 年代，迪士尼品牌跻身好莱坞最成功的品牌之列。
A powerhouse since the 1940s because of its domination of the animation niche, Disney created its own distribution arm, Buena Vista, in the 1950s, then moved to center stage in the 1980s with an ambitious and successful program of “live-action” features. Michael Eisner and Jeffrey Katzenberg joined the studio in 1984 with a mandate to produce and distribute mainstream features. The Touchstone Pictures brand name was established in 1984 to position the company in the adult marketplace. It was immediately successful and was joined by the Hollywood Pictures brand in 1989. Throughout the 1980s and into the 2000s, the Disney brands ranked among the most successful in Hollywood.
欧洲的国家电影院也面临着垄断压力。法国组织——百代和高蒙——在第一次世界大战后继续主导全国发行。在德国，Universum Film AG“UFA”于 1917 年成立（其三分之一的资本由国家提供）有效地合并了主要电影公司。苏联电影业于 1919 年被国有化。在英国，美国公司提供了大部分产品，但放映由英国利益集团控制。1936 年，英国高蒙及英国联合电影公司（该公司也通过其子公司英国国际电影公司进行制片）分别控制了 300 家剧院（总数为 4,400 家）。在意大利，曾经是世界上最重要的剧院之一的剧院持续增长。成功的电影院在美学上受到法西斯政权的削弱，尽管它们继续制作在国内受欢迎的电影。1933 年纳粹掌权后，德国电影对世界银幕的影响实际上就结束了。
National cinemas in Europe were also subject to monopoly pressures. The French organizations—Pathé and Gaumont—continued to dominate national distribution after World War I. In Germany, the formation in 1917 of Universum Film A.G. “UFA” (with one-third of its capital supplied by the state) effectively merged the major film companies. The Soviet film industry was nationalized in 1919. In Great Britain, the U.S. companies supplied the majority of the product, but exhibition was controlled by British interests. Gaumont-British and Associated British Picture Corporation (who also produced through their subsidiary British International Pictures) controlled 300 theaters each (out of a total of 4,400) in 1936. In Italy, the continued growth of what had once been one of the world’s most successful cinemas was esthetically damped by the Fascist regime, although it continued to produce films popular at home. The influence of German cinema on world screens effectively came to an end when the Nazis took power in 1933.
图 4-6。1924年，好莱坞山的奇幻世界Hollywoodland开发。巨大的宣传标志（右上）赋予了这座城市标志性的地标（一旦后缀倒下）。（好莱坞：第一个百年。由布鲁斯·托伦斯提供。）
Figure 4-6. The fantasy world Hollywoodland development in the Hollywood Hills in 1924. The giant promotional sign (upper right) gave the city its iconic landmark (once the suffix fell down). (Hollywood:The First Hundred Years. Courtesy Bruce Torrence.)
不仅是第一次世界大战的崩溃以及意大利和德国法西斯政府的崛起确保了美国公司的国际主导地位。也许更重要的是美国生产体系的工业方面。在欧洲，电影作为艺术的概念很早就出现，并与电影作为商业的概念同步发展。法国的艺术电影运动始于1908年。它最早的成功，许多由莎拉·伯恩哈特主演的重新创作的舞台角色，都指向故事片的创作。意大利艺术电影紧随其后。战后，前卫实验大量出现在法国电影中，理论家开始更加认真地对待这一媒介，将其与文学和美术同等对待。
It was not only the debacle of World War I and the rise of Fascist governments in Italy and Germany that assured the international dominance of the American corporations. More important, perhaps, were the industrial aspects of the American system of production. In Europe, the concept of cinema as art had appeared early and developed in tandem with the concept of cinema as business. The film d’art movement in France dated from 1908. Its earliest successes, many starring Sarah Bernhardt in the re-creation of her stage roles, pointed toward the creation of the feature film. Film d’arte italiana followed quickly. After the war, avant-garde experiments liberally punctuated French cinema, and theorists began to treat the medium more seriously, as coequal with literature and the fine arts.
然而，在美国，“cinema”就是简单明了的“电影”。即使是最早的制作公司也将他们的工作室视为工厂，参与商品的生产而不是艺术的创作。1910 年，DW Griffith 的演员和技术人员公司开始在洛杉矶过冬。其他公司很快也纷纷效仿。独立人士欣赏西海岸的孤立，他们在某种程度上免受专利公司的强硬策略的影响。到 1914 年，电影制作的重心已从纽约转移到好莱坞。洛杉矶地区阳光充足，气候宜人，物产丰富对比鲜明的地点——简而言之，电影制作的原材料——以及有吸引力的劳动力资源。电影业落户好莱坞的原因与汽车业落户底特律的原因相同：靠近原材料和劳动力。
In the U.S., however, “cinema” was “movies” plain and simple. Even the earliest production companies considered their studios to be factories, involved in the production of a commodity rather than the creation of art. D. W. Griffith’s company of actors and technicians began wintering in Los Angeles in 1910. Other companies soon followed. Independents appreciated the isolation of the West Coast, where they were insulated to some extent from the strongarm tactics of the Patent Company. By 1914 the locus of filmmaking had shifted from New York to Hollywood. The Los Angeles area provided much sunshine, good weather, and a wide variety of contrasting locales—in short, the raw materials of filmmaking—together with an attractive labor pool. The film industry located in Hollywood for the same reasons that the auto industry located in Detroit: proximity to raw materials and labor.
距离国家文化之都三千英里的美国电影制作人甚至更有效地与流行的艺术影响隔绝。此外，建立主要制作公司的人对既定文学文化的经验很少。他们大部分是来自德国、波兰或俄罗斯的第一代或第二代移民，他们最初是商人，后来进入电影放映会，再从那里进入电影发行业。他们成为电影制片人主要是为了向他们拥有的影院提供产品。
Three thousand miles from the cultural capital of the nation, American filmmakers were even more effectively isolated from prevailing artistic influences. Moreover, the men who established the major production companies had minimal experience of established literary culture. They were for the most part first- or second-generation immigrants from Germany, Poland, or Russia who had started out as merchants, had moved into sideshow film exhibition, and from there to film distribution. They became film producers mainly to provide products for the theaters they owned.
更重要的是，电影的巨大受欢迎需要行业的快速扩张，而这反过来又需要大量的资本投资。“大亨们”转向银行并变得越来越依赖银行。当他们被迫重新装备声音时，他们已经负债累累。电影历史学家彼得·考伊 (Peter Cowie) 写道：“到 1936 年，所有八家公司的主要持股都可以追溯到摩根和洛克菲勒这两个强大的银行集团。” 银行利益和电影公司之间的类似关系正在欧洲国家发展，尤其是德国，德意志银行在第一次世界大战后有效控制了 UFA。
More important, the tremendous popularity of film demanded quick expansion in the industry, which, in turn, required large amounts of capital investment. The “moguls” turned to the banks and became increasingly dependent on them. By the time they were forced to retool for sound, they were deeply in debt. Film historian Peter Cowie has written, “By 1936 it was possible to trace major holdings in all eight companies to the two powerful banking groups of Morgan and Rockefeller.” Similar relationships between banking interests and film companies were developing in European countries—especially Germany, where the Deutsches Bank took effective control of UFA after World War I.
近年来，银行对电影业的兴趣持续升温。总部位于纽约的投资银行家艾伦公司 (Allen & Co.) 长期以来一直与哥伦比亚影业公司有联系。法国里昂信贷银行 (Crédit Lyonnais) 于 20 世纪 90 年代初出资购买了米高梅电影公司，但发现自己已经破产了。
In recent years, banks have continued their fascination with the film industry. New York-based investment bankers Allen & Co. have long been associated with Columbia Pictures; the French bank Crédit Lyonnais found itself in the early 1990s owning a bankrupt MGM after bankrolling the purchase of the venerable studio.
欧洲国家电影院不得不应对来自美国工厂的大量产品。英国在这方面是最脆弱的。尽管第一次世界大战后英国的生产立即出现激增，但由于二十世纪二十年代初期不稳定的经济状况而中断。1927 年，议会通过了《电影放映法》，禁止“集体预订”（要求放映商从单个制片厂拿走一年产品的标准做法），并规定了名义上 5% 的配额，以保证英国放映商能够在每年至少有几部英国制作的电影。
European national cinemas had to contend with the overpowering flow of product from the American factories. Great Britain was most vulnerable in this respect. Although there was an upsurge in British production immediately following World War I, it was cut short by the unstable economic conditions of the early twenties. In 1927, Parliament passed the Cinematograph Act, which forbade “block booking” (the standard practice of requiring an exhibitor to take a year’s worth of product from a single studio) and imposed a nominal five percent quota to guarantee that British exhibitors would show at least a few British-made films each year.
然而，此时美国公司已经投资了英国分支机构，并能够通过自己生产“配额快件”来回收英国资金。即使他们将业务外包给英国本土制片人对每部电影设定了 6,000 英镑的合同限额，并在法律允许的范围内将影片的长度控制在尽可能短的长度（6,000 英尺——一小时多一点）。德国和法国政府也制定了类似的保障措施，但同样缺乏成功。
By this time, however, the American companies had already invested in British branches and were able to recycle their British funds by producing “quota quickies” themselves. Even when they farmed out the business to native British producers, they imposed a contract limit of £6,000 per film and kept the films as short as the law permitted (6,000 feet—a little more than one hour). The German and French governments instituted similar safeguards, with similar lack of success.
从 1920 年起，美国公司明显主导了世界市场。随着电影的上映，艺术家们也纷纷涌入，工作室也扩大了对新人才的搜寻范围。欧洲电影制片人前往好莱坞，这是最早的“人才流失”实例之一。恩斯特·刘别谦 (Ernst Lubitsch) 是最早到达的人之一。二十世纪二十年代后期，几位德国导演追随他的脚步：弗里茨·朗 (Fritz Lang)、FW 穆尔瑙 (FW Murnau)、保罗·莱尼 (Paul Leni) 和 EA Dupont。（另一波浪潮由比利·怀尔德（Billy Wilder）领导，在三十年代以纳粹难民的身份到来。）当时两位最重要的瑞典导演莫里茨·斯蒂勒（Mauritz Stiller）和维克多·舍斯特罗姆（Victor Sjöström）都移民到了好莱坞。斯蒂勒带来了他的明星葛丽泰·嘉宝。事实上，无声电影时代许多最成功的美国明星都是欧洲移民，嘉宝和鲁道夫·瓦伦蒂诺是其中最著名的。
The American companies clearly dominated the world market from 1920 on. As the films flowed out, the artists flowed in as the studios widened their search for new talent. In one of the earliest instances of the “brain drain,” European filmmakers made their way to Hollywood. Ernst Lubitsch was one of the first to arrive. He was followed later in the twenties by several fellow German directors: Fritz Lang, F. W. Murnau, Paul Leni, and E. A. Dupont among them. (Another wave, led by Billy Wilder, arrived in the thirties as refugees from Nazism.) The two most important Swedish directors of the time, Mauritz Stiller and Victor Sjöström, both immigrated to Hollywood. Stiller brought his star, Greta Garbo, with him. Indeed, many of the most successful American stars of the silent film era were European émigrés, Garbo and Rudolph Valentino being the most prominent.
随着声音的转向，对外国出生的电影制片人的需求不断增长。1932 年后期配音技术开始应用之前，以平行版本（通常是英语、法语、西班牙语和德语）拍摄一部大片是很常见的做法。本土导演对于外语版本很有用。许多三十年代最有影响力的合同董事都是移民，包括威廉·迪特勒（德国人）、埃德加·乌尔默（奥地利人）、罗伯特·弗洛里（法国人）和迈克尔·柯蒂斯（匈牙利人），以及刘别谦、穆尔瑙和朗。（斯滕伯格和斯特罗海姆都是奥地利人，小时候就移民了。）
With the switch to sound, the demand for foreign-born filmmakers grew. It was common practice before 1932, when the postdubbing technique came into practice, to shoot a major film in parallel versions (usually English, French, Spanish, and German). Native directors were useful for the foreign-language versions. Many of the most effective contract directors of the thirties were émigrés, including William Dieterle (German), Edgar Ulmer (Austrian), Robert Florey (French), and Michael Curtiz (Hungarian), as well as Lubitsch, Murnau, and Lang. (Sternberg and Stroheim, both Austrians, had emigrated as children.)
到二十年代中期，无声电影已成为一种主要的娱乐形式。尼克频道的店面或歌舞杂耍账单的下半部分不再播放电影。现在他们拥有自己华丽的娱乐圆顶。电影宫殿一次可容纳数千名顾客，而不是几十名。这些华丽建筑中最精致的可能是纽约 Roxy Rothapfel 经营的剧院，即使不是制作之都，纽约仍然是展览之都。Roxy 于 1927 年开业，无线电城音乐厅 (Radio City Music Hall) 于 1932 年开业，这是终极电影大教堂，也是为数不多的仍然矗立的建筑之一（尽管它不再定期放映电影）。
By the mid-twenties, silent film was well established as a major form of entertainment. No longer were films shown in storefront Nickelodeons or on the bottom half of vaudeville bills. Now they commanded ornate pleasure domes of their own. The picture palaces accommodated thousands of patrons at a time, rather than scores. Possibly the most elaborate of these ornate constructions were the theaters operated by Roxy Rothapfel in New York, which was still the capital of exhibition, if not of production. The Roxy opened in 1927, to be followed in 1932 by Radio City Music Hall, the ultimate movie cathedral, and one of the few still standing (although it no longer shows movies on a regular basis).
电影制作过程中经历的所有重要技术修改——添加声音、色彩和宽银幕——均在 1900 年的巴黎国际博览会上首次向公众展示。尽管是原始形式。例如，彩色胶片大多是手绘的，这在商业上几乎是不可行的工艺。原始的非电子留声机可以发出声音，但同步非常困难，声级也存在问题。Lee De Forest 在 1906 年发明了三极管（见第 6 章），为可行的电子扩音器指明了道路。到 1919 年，德国 Tri-Ergon 工艺已获得专利，电影声音成为明显的可能性。20 年代末，面对公众对广播日益增长的兴趣，并应对看似饱和的无声电影市场，制作公司惶恐地转向有声电影。
All the important technical modifications that the film process has undergone—the addition of sound, color, and widescreen—were first demonstrated to the public at the International Exposition in Paris in 1900, albeit in primitive forms. Color films, for example, were mostly hand-painted, hardly a commercially viable process. Sound could be produced by the primitive nonelectronic phonograph, but synchronization was very difficult and sound level was problematic. Lee De Forest’s invention of the audion tube in 1906 (see Chapter 6) pointed the way to the workable electronic sound amplifier. By 1919 the German Tri-Ergon process had been patented and film sound was a distinct possibility. In the late 1920s, confronted with the growing public interest in radio and responding to what may have seemed like a saturated market for silent films, the production companies turned with trepidation to sound.
到 1932 年，声音技术的调整期已经结束，好莱坞体系的轮廓已经清晰。除了设备和胶片的制造外，制片厂对电影从制作到发行再到放映的整个过程都实行完全控制。集体预订系统以及大多数制片厂和大型连锁影院之间的密切联系意味着制片厂选择制作的几乎所有电影都会放映——这在艺术上并不是一个劣势。在其鼎盛时期，最强大的电影公司米高梅每年在 22 个摄影棚和 100 英亩的外景场地制作 42 部故事片。
By 1932 the technological shakedown period for sound was over and the outlines identifying the Hollywood system were clear. Except for the manufacture of equipment and filmstock, the studios exerted complete control over the film process, from production to distribution to exhibition. The system of block booking and the close ties between most of the studios and large theater chains meant that nearly any film that the studio chose to produce would be shown—not a disadvantage artistically. At its peak, MGM, the most powerful of the studios, produced forty-two feature films a year on twenty-two sound stages and one hundred acres of backlot standing sets.
这些工作室就像高效运转的工厂一样运作。财产被收购；编剧们开始着手改造它们以供制作；布景设计和服装设计部门提供了制作所需的物理元素。技术人员领取工资，定期轮班工作，演员和导演也是如此。如今，一名导演每年制作多部电影是不寻常的。1930 年至 1939 年间，迈克尔·柯蒂兹拍摄了 44 部电影；默文·勒罗伊，36 岁；约翰·福特，26岁。电影拍摄后，原材料被交给后期制作部门进行剪辑、混音和配音。工作室主管做出了最终的艺术决定。最负盛名的导演有时会被允许参与后期制作，但很少有人能真正跟踪一部电影从开始到首映的整个过程。
The studios operated as efficiently run factories. Properties were acquired; scriptwriters set to work remodeling them for production; set design and costume design departments turned out the required physical elements of the production. Technicians were on salary, working regular shifts, as were actors and directors. Today, it is unusual if a director makes more than one film per year. Between 1930 and 1939, Michael Curtiz shot 44 films; Mervyn Leroy, 36; and John Ford, 26. After the film was shot, the raw material was turned over to the post-production department for editing, mixing, and dubbing. Studio executives made the final artistic decisions. The most prestigious directors sometimes were allowed to be involved in post-production, but few indeed could follow a film from inception to premiere.
结果是制片厂发展出个人风格，通常取代了电影制作人较弱的风格。米高梅以其光鲜亮丽的制作价值和中庸的题材而闻名。1939 年的史诗片《乱世佳人》虽然是由大卫·O·塞尔兹尼克独立制作（并通过米高梅发行），但却是米高梅风格的缩影。浪漫的情节，制作昂贵，配乐丰富，它处理史诗主题，但在阐明其主题方面做得相对较少。
The result was that studios developed individual styles that often superseded the weaker styles of the filmmakers. MGM was noted for its glossy production values and middlebrow subject matter. Even though it was produced independently by David O. Selznick (and released through MGM), the 1939 epic Gone With the Wind is the epitome of the MGM style. Romantically melodramatic, expensively produced, with a lush score, it treats epic subject matter while doing relatively little to illuminate its themes.
图 4-7。1931 年 8 月，华纳兄弟/第一国家/Vitaphone 工作室位于加利福尼亚州伯班克，这是当时设备最精良的电影制作工厂之一。大型机库式建筑是摄影棚。在后面可以看到许多站立的布景——西部城镇、纽约市的街道等等——在后场。前景左侧是行政办公室和技术支持设施。（MarcWanamaker/Bison Art Ltd.）
Figure 4-7. The Warner Brothers/First National/Vitaphone studios in Burbank, California, August 1931, one of the best-equipped film production plants at the time. The large, hangarlike buildings are sound stages. To the rear can be seen a number of standing sets—western towns, New York City streets, and the like—on the back lot. In the foreground, to the left, are administration offices and technical support facilities. (MarcWanamaker/Bison Art Ltd.)
派拉蒙雇佣的移民人数超过了其比例，无论是在设计还是题材方面都表现出了欧洲的敏感性。环球影业专注于恐怖片，共和国则专注于西部片。华纳兄弟是米高梅和派拉蒙的主要竞争对手，但更加精简和饥饿，在无意中赢得了现实主义的声誉。为什么？为了省钱，华纳兄弟经常在外景拍摄。
Paramount, which employed more than its share of émigrés, exhibited a European sensibility, both in terms of design and subject matter. Universal specialized in horror films, Republic in Westerns. Warner Brothers, a major competitor of MGM and Paramount but leaner and hungrier, developed—quite unintentionally—a reputation for realism. Why? To save money, the Warner brothers often filmed on location.
在这个组织严密的制作体系中，个人贡献者——无论是导演、摄影师、编剧还是设计师——都无法轻易地表达自己的观点。大量电影不仅表现出工作室风格，而且还表现出令人惊讶的知识分子一致性。我们可以看出米高梅的光鲜亮丽和派拉蒙的成熟之间存在差异，但在各自表现出的政治和社会意识方面并没有显着的对比。始终关注他们制作的电影的基本商品价值，黄金大亨好莱坞时代更喜欢制作与其他电影一样的电影——与它们没有什么不同。
In this tightly organized production system, individual contributors—whether directors, cinematographers, screenwriters, or designers—could not easily assert themselves. Not only did the mass of films exhibit a studio style, they also displayed a surprising degree of intellectual conformity. We can discern a difference between MGM’s gloss and Paramount’s sophistication, but there is no significant contrast in terms of the political and social consciousness each evinced. Always concerned with the essential commodity value of the films they produced, the moguls of the golden age of Hollywood preferred to make films that were like other films—not different from them.
因此，这些年来制作的数千部电影中，很少有让我们觉得独一无二的。对好莱坞的研究更多的是在众多电影中识别类型、模式、惯例和流派，而不是专注于每部电影的品质。这并不一定会使好莱坞电影比电影发明的个人作品更不有趣。事实上，由于这些电影是在流水线上大量制作的，它们往往比单独构思的、有意为之的艺术电影更能反映公众的关切、共同的神话和更多内容。
As a result, very few of the thousands of films produced during these years strike us as unique. The study of Hollywood is more a matter of identifying types, patterns, conventions, and genres among a great many films than of intently focusing on the qualities of each individual movie. This doesn’t make Hollywood films necessarily any less interesting than more personal works of cinematic invention. In fact, because these films were turned out on an assembly-line basis in such massive numbers, they are often better indexes of public concerns, shared myths, and mores than are individually conceived, intentionally artistic films.
随着工作室进入四十年代，这些品质变得更加引人注目。甚至在美国参战之前，各大电影公司就积极参与宣传和教育，甚至在《自由高涨》（派拉蒙）和《你约翰·琼斯》（米高梅）等宣传工具中也展现了自己独特的风格。
As the studios moved into the forties, these qualities became even more striking. Actively involved in propaganda and education even before the United States entered the war, the major studios displayed their particular styles even in such propaganda instruments as Freedom Comes High (Paramount) and You John Jones (MGM).
好莱坞在战争期间蓬勃发展。1946 年是票房收入最高的一年，达到 17 亿美元。从某种意义上说，第二次世界大战推迟了好莱坞电影工厂的关键时刻，因为它使得商业电视的引入变得不可能，而商业电视在三十年代已经成功地得到了证明。此外，战争有效地限制了来自欧洲国家的竞争。二十世纪二十年代，德国一直是主要竞争对手，其制作的电影不仅广受欢迎，而且还带有艺术的印记。三十年代，少数法国导演赢得了对该国工业的广泛尊重。英国不顾好莱坞英语电影的压力，在 1936 年制作了 225 部电影，产量位居世界第二。战争结束了这些威胁，尽管它也关闭了许多出口市场，伤害了一些小公司。
Hollywood thrived during the war. In 1946, its best year, box-office grosses amounted to $1.7 billion. In a sense, World War II had delayed the moment of truth for the Hollywood film factories by making impossible the introduction of commercial television, which had been successfully demonstrated in the thirties. In addition, the war effectively limited competition from European countries. In the twenties, Germany had been a major competitor, producing films that were not only popular but also carried with them the cachet of art. In the thirties, a handful of French directors gained widespread respect for that nation’s industry. Great Britain, despite the pressure of English-language films from Hollywood, produced 225 films in 1936, the second-highest output in the world. The war ended these threats even though it also closed many export markets, hurting some small companies.
20 世纪 50 年代初电视出现时，其影响是毁灭性的。电视是从广播而不是电影发展而来的，自然而然地雇佣了广播人员。制片厂并没有意识到他们可以像为戏剧发行一样轻松地为电视制作电影产品，而是试图与之抗争。多年来，他们拒绝利用大量积压的产品。事实上，由于非常不务正业的短视，他们经常销毁旧电影而不是支付存储费用。这一战略的效果是让电视制作公司有时间发展，严重削弱了制片厂的战略地位。同样的事情也发生过四十年前，事实证明信托公司不愿意或无法从尼克国际儿童频道的短片转向影院长片。
The effect of television when it arrived in the early 1950s was devastating. Television grew out of radio rather than film, and naturally employed radio people. Instead of realizing that they could just as easily produce film product for television as for theatrical distribution, the studios tried to fight. For years, they refused to capitalize on their huge backlog of product. Indeed, with very unbusinesslike shortsightedness, they often destroyed old films rather than pay for storage. The effect of this strategy was to allow television production companies time to develop, seriously weakening the strategic position of the studios. The same thing had happened forty years earlier, when the trust companies had proved unwilling or unable to move from Nickelodeon shorts to theatrical features.
图 4-8。无线电城音乐厅，建于三十年代的伟大装饰艺术电影宫殿之一，至今仍在使用。（现代艺术博物馆/金融服务局。）
Figure 4-8. Radio City Music Hall, one of the great Art Deco movie palaces built in the thirties, and still in use today. (MOMA/FSA.)
适应新环境的过程是缓慢而痛苦的，但事实并非如此。十五年或更长时间后，工作室才开始模糊地了解如何在新环境中最好地运作。年迈的业主和制作负责人死板地坚持在工作室综合体中进行大规模制作的旧方法，管理成本巨大。从心理上来说，这可能是由于他们很早以前都是参展商。尽管展览始终是好莱坞垄断链条中最薄弱的一环，但它对创始人有着独特的吸引力。
The process of adapting to the new conditions was slow and painful, but it need not have been. It was fifteen years or more before the studios began dimly to understand how best to operate in the new environment. Aging owners and production heads rigidly clung to the old methods of mass production in studio complexes with enormous overhead costs. Psychologically, this may have been due to their shared roots long ago as exhibitors. Although exhibition was always the weakest link in the Hollywood monopoly chain, it held a peculiar fascination for the founders.
1946 年，反垄断法的一项裁决要求派拉蒙影业公司（以及暗示其他电影公司）剥离其连锁影院。电影公司提出上诉，但无济于事，并于 1951 年签署了一项同意令。这并没有看起来那么剧烈的变化。由于制片厂仍被允许保留其发行部门，因此他们继续对展览施加实际（即使不是法律）控制。如果制片厂更仔细地分析他们的情况，反垄断决定将会产生有益的影响。他们只会勒紧裤腰带并转移注意力他们的注意力从戏剧市场转向了新的、利润日益丰厚的电视频道。这并没有立即发生（尽管今天主要的工作室已经看到了曙光，负责大多数网络节目）。d
In 1946, a ruling under the antitrust laws required Paramount Pictures (and by implication the other studios) to divest themselves of their theater chains. The studios appealed, but to no avail, entering into a consent decree in 1951. This wasn’t as drastic a change as it might seem. Since the studios were still permitted to maintain their distribution arms, they continued to exert actual if not legal control over exhibition. Had the studios analyzed their situation more carefully the antitrust decision would have had a salutary effect. They would simply have tightened their belts and shifted their attention from the theatrical market to the new, increasingly profitable television channels. This did not happen immediately (although today the major studios, having seen the light, are responsible for most network programming).d
随着资产缩水以及最初的创始人去世或退休，这些工作室被合并到五六十年代发展中的工业联合企业中，或者被彻底出售。电视制片人填补了这一真空：Desilu 收购了 RKO 工作室，Revue 接管了 Republic 摄影棚。与此同时，更明智的独立发行商在积极进取的电视网络和瘫痪的电影制片厂之间充当中间人，悄悄发财。
As their assets shrank and as the original founders died off or retired, the studios were merged into the developing interindustrial conglomerates of the fifties and sixties or sold outright. Television producers filled the vacuum: Desilu bought the RKO studios, Revue took over the Republic soundstages. At the same time, more sensible independent distributors were making quiet fortunes serving as middlemen between the aggressive television networks and the paralyzed film studios.
艾略特·海曼可能是这些交易员中最精明的一个。他首先购买了华纳兄弟的旧名单，进行了一段时间的交易，然后将其卖给了联艺公司。随后，他获得了福克斯许多电影的版权。到 1967 年，他的公司七艺术 (Seven Arts) 有能力直接收购华纳兄弟 (Warner Brothers)。
Eliot Hyman was probably the most astute of these traders. He first bought the Warner Brothers backlist, traded in it for a while, then sold it to United Artists. He then acquired rights to a good number of Fox films. By 1967 his company, Seven Arts, was in a position to purchase Warner Brothers outright.
五十年代初期，霍华德·休斯 (Howard Hughes) 将雷电华 (RKO) 卖给了通用轮胎橡胶公司 (General Tire and Rubber)，通用轮胎橡胶公司对其进行了清算，而环球 (Universal) 则被德卡唱片公司 (Decca Records) 的美国子公司收购。美国音乐公司 (MCA) 原本是一家人才经纪公司，后来收购了派拉蒙的返场名单，从中获得的利润帮助它为收购 Decca 以及环球影业提供了资金。
In the early fifties, Howard Hughes had sold RKO to the General Tire and Rubber company who liquidated it, and Universal had been acquired by the American subsidiary of the Decca Records organization. The Music Corporation of America (MCA), originally a talent agency, acquired the Paramount backlist, profits from which helped it finance the purchase of Decca and, with it, Universal.
1966 年，派拉蒙被查尔斯·布卢多恩 (Charles Bluhdorn) 的艺术集团海湾 + 西方工业 (Gulf + Western Industries) 并入。此后不久，联艺 (United Artists) 被泛美公司 (Transamerica Corporation) 收购，泛美公司 (Transamerica Corporation) 是当时典型的跨国企业集团，除了联美 (United Artists) 和其子公司：Budget Rent-a-Car、Transamerica Computer Services、Pacific Finance Loans、Occidental Life Insurance Co.、Transamerica Insurance Co.、Cinegraphics, Inc.、Transamerica Airlines、资本基金、投资者基金、搬迁服务、产权保险公司、缩微胶卷服务、搬家和仓储公司以及房地产/税务服务。如今，他们以其位于旧金山的金字塔形办公楼而闻名。
Paramount was absorbed into Charles Bluhdorn’s conglomerate work of art, Gulf + Western Industries, in 1966. Shortly thereafter, United Artists was taken over by Transamerica Corporation, a typical multinational conglomerate of the period who owned at the time, in addition to United Artists and its subsidiaries, Budget Rent-a-Car, Transamerica Computer Services, Pacific Finance Loans, Occidental Life Insurance Co., Transamerica Insurance Co., Cinegraphics, Inc., Transamerica Airlines, a capital fund, an investors fund, a relocation service, a title insurance company, a microfilm service, a moving and storage company, and a real estate/tax service. Today they are best known for their pyramidal office building in San Francisco.
1969 年，华纳兄弟七艺公司与史蒂文·罗斯 (Steven Ross) 的金尼国家服务公司 (Kinney National Services) 合并，后者后来成为华纳通讯公司 (Warner Communications, Inc.)。金尼 (和罗斯) 的财富是建立在殡仪馆和停车场上的，但就像古代的大亨一样，罗斯表现出了令人惊讶的表现。对商业的亲和力，将华纳打造成为一家强大的娱乐集团。1989年，他将华纳公司与时代公司合并，创建了世界上最大的媒体公司。
In 1969 Warner Brothers-Seven Arts merged with Steven Ross’s Kinney National Services, which later became Warner Communications, Inc. Kinney’s (and Ross’s) fortune had been built in funeral parlors and parking lots, but like the moguls of old, Ross showed a surprising affinity for the business, building Warner into a powerhouse entertainment conglomerate. In 1989 he merged Warner with Time Inc., producing the largest media company in the world.
图 4-9。在三四十年代的大部分时间里，华纳兄弟的电影在风格上明显比竞争对手的电影更现实、更大胆。这是华纳最著名的社会意识电影之一默文·勒罗伊 (Mervyn Leroy) 的《我是铁链帮的逃犯》 (1932) 中的一个场景。球星保罗·穆尼靠在门柱上。（现代艺术博物馆/金融服务局。）
Figure 4-9. Throughout most of the thirties and forties, Warner Brothers films were noticeably more realistic in style—gutsier—than the films of the competing studios. Here, a scene from one of Warner’s best-known socially conscious movies, Mervyn Leroy’s I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang (1932). Star Paul Muni leans against the post. (MOMA/FSA.)
1969 年，拉斯维加斯房地产经销商柯克·科科里安 (Kirk Kerkorian) 收购了米高梅 (Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer) 的控股权，该工作室曾经是最强大、最负盛名的工作室。科克里安似乎对米高梅感兴趣，主要是因为它的品牌名称，他立即将其应用到他正在建造的酒店中。该公司转向低预算功能，但收效甚微。1974 年，米高梅实际上被清算，工作室被出售，发行机构也被关闭。整个 20 世纪 70 年代，米高梅因拥有拉斯维加斯米高梅大酒店（以 1932 年米高梅电影而命名）而闻名。
In 1969 a controlling interest in Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, formerly the most powerful and prestigious of studios, was acquired by Kirk Kerkorian, a Las Vegas real-estate dealer. Kerkorian appeared to be interested in MGM mainly for its brand name, which he immediately applied to the hotel he was building. The company turned to low-budget features, with little success. In 1974 MGM was effectively liquidated, the studio sold, and the distribution organization closed. Throughout the 1970s MGM was best known as the owner of the MGM Grand Hotel in Las Vegas (named for the 1932 MGM movie).
1979 年，也许是对自己早先决定将米高梅的资本资产从电影业转移到赌博业感到后悔，科克里安试图购买哥伦比亚电影工业公司的控股权。交易失败了（有反垄断起诉的传闻），不久之后宣布米高梅公司在股东的许可下将一分为二，原来的公司继续经营赌场业务（现在扩展到里诺）和大西洋城），而“新”公司则重新进入电影制作和发行领域。
In 1979, perhaps regretting his earlier decision to shift MGM’s capital assets from the film industry to the gambling industry, Kerkorian attempted to buy a controlling interest in Columbia Pictures Industries. The deal fell through (there was talk of antitrust prosecution), and shortly thereafter it was announced that the MGM company, with the permission of its stockholders, would split in two, the original company to continue running the casino operations (now extended to Reno and Atlantic City) while the “new” company re-entered film production and distribution.
米高梅电影公司采取的低预算策略并没有得到回报，科克里安开始了新一轮的交易。1981年，他从饱经风霜的泛美公司手中收购了联美公司的残余部分。1985 年，他将公司卖给了特德·特纳 (Ted Turner)，但不久后又将其买回，除去特纳保留的电影库和归洛里马尔 (Lorimar) 所有的房地产。1989 年，Kerkorian 再次将剩余资产出售给 Pathé，这是一家由意大利企业家 Giancarlo Parretti 控制、并得到里昂信贷银行荷兰分行支持的欧洲实体。帕雷蒂很快发现自己陷入了法律和财务困境。里昂信贷银行 (Crédit Lyonnais) 控制了米高梅 (MGM)，疯狂地试图挽救其目前规模可观的投资。1993 年，公司在备受尊敬的行业高管、派拉蒙公司前高管 Frank Mancuso 的管理下重新开业。1996 年，Kerkorian 又进行了一轮收购，第三次（或者是第四次？）收购了该公司（与合作伙伴 Mancuso 和澳大利亚的七网络有限公司）。价格为13亿美元。米高梅将在相当长一段时间内保持好莱坞股票交易的记录。到 1997 年底，曼库索已经购买了足够的版权，使该公司控制了世界上最大的电影库。一年后，米高梅向公众出售了百分之十的股票。科克里安找到了另一种从疲惫的鹅身上收获金蛋的方法。2005 年，该公司再次出售给索尼，索尼更感兴趣的是确保米高梅对蓝光光盘格式的承诺，而不是与自己的工作室产生任何协同效应。
The low-budget strategy MGM’s film company adopted did not pay off, and Kerkorian embarked on a new round of dealmaking. In 1981 he purchased the remnants of United Artists from a chastened Transamerica. In 1985 he sold the company to Ted Turner, only to buy it back shortly thereafter, minus the film library, which Turner kept, and the real estate, which went to Lorimar. In 1989 Kerkorian sold the remnants yet again, this time to Pathé, a European entity controlled by Italian entrepreneur Giancarlo Parretti and backed by the Dutch branch of Crédit Lyonnais. Parretti soon found himself in both legal and financial troubles. Crédit Lyonnais took control of MGM, feverishly attempting to save its by now considerable investment. By 1993 the company was back in business under the stewardship of respected industry executive Frank Mancuso, formerly of Paramount. In 1996 Kerkorian returned for yet another round, purchasing the company (with partners Mancuso and Seven Network Ltd. of Australia) for the third (or was it fourth?) time. The price was $1.3 billion. MGM will hold the record for Hollywood stock deals for quite a while. By late 1997 Mancuso had purchased enough rights so that the company controlled the world’s largest film library. A year later, MGM sold ten percent of its stock to the public. Kerkorian had found yet another way to harvest golden eggs from the tired goose. In 2005 the company was sold yet again to Sony, who were more interested in securing MGM’s commitment to the Blu-ray disc format than in any synergies with their own studio.
米高梅的传奇无疑是最丢脸的，但这只是从 20 世纪 70 年代末到世纪之交，让好莱坞利润日益丰厚的餐厅生意兴隆的一系列财务故事之一。事实上，在“行业”中，交易已经变得比产品更重要、更有趣，而且最大和最好的交易涉及制片厂，而不是电影，日益强大的人才机构并没有忽视这一事实，因为我们将看。
The MGM saga was certainly the most humiliating, but it was only one of a long series of financial stories that kept Hollywood’s increasingly profitable restaurants buzzing from the late 1970s past the turn of the century. Indeed, in “the industry,” the deal had become both more important and more entertaining than the product, and the biggest and best deals involved studios, not movies, a fact that was not lost on the increasingly powerful talent agencies, as we shall see.
1977 年，时任哥伦比亚电影制片厂主管的戴维·贝格曼 (David Begelman) 被指控在一起肮脏的案件中挪用 6 万美元，该案件得到了广泛的宣传，并引起了人们对好莱坞各种不正当商业行为的广泛讨论（这些都不是新鲜事）。时任哥伦比亚大学校长的艾伦·J·赫希菲尔德 (Alan J. Hirschfield) 试图以道德为由解雇贝格曼，但他本人也被解雇了。许多观察家认为，哥伦比亚电影公司的管理层更关心贝格曼制作有利可图的影片的传奇技巧，而不是赫希菲尔德的道德立场。贝格曼最终被定罪并处以罚款，并被聘为生产主管在米高梅。赫希菲尔德也站稳了脚跟，成为二十世纪福克斯公司的总裁。
In 1977 David Begelman, then head of production at Columbia, was charged with embezzling $60,000 in a sordid case that received wide publicity coverage and that engendered much talk about various shady business practices in Hollywood (none of which were new). Alan J. Hirschfield, then president of Columbia, attempted to fire Begelman on ethical grounds and was himself dismissed. Many observers felt that the management of Columbia Pictures Industries cared more for Begelman’s fabled knack for making profitable pictures than for Hirschfield’s moral stance. Begelman was eventually convicted and fined—and hired as head of production at MGM. Hirschfield also landed on his feet, as president of Twentieth Century Fox.
1978 年初，由于与母公司 Transamerica 就管理特权和高管薪酬发生纠纷，联美公司的五位首席执行官集体辞职。阿瑟·克里姆和罗伯特·本杰明在五十年代初接管了这家濒临倒闭的发行公司，并将其打造成六七十年代领先的电影公司之一。然后在 1967 年，他们将其卖给了 Transamerica。现在他们后悔了自己的决定。他们与总裁埃里克·普莱斯科夫（Eric Pleskow）、财务主管威廉·伯恩斯坦（William Bernstein）和制作主管迈克·梅达沃伊（Mike Medavoy）一起组建了猎户座影业公司（Orion Pictures Corp.），该实体不仅仅是另一家制作公司，但还不是一家成熟的工作室。他们当时与华纳传播公司达成了史无前例的协议，使他们能够通过华纳发行系统完全控制其电影的营销和广告。猎户座成为三十年代以来好莱坞第一位新的主要演员。与此同时，由于缺乏经验丰富的 Krim 团队，UA 很快就陷入了困境。迈克尔·西米诺 (Michael Cimino) 的《天堂之门》(Heaven's Gate , 1980)的灾难实际上使该工作室在猎户座集团离开三年后就倒闭了。*
Early in 1978 the five chief executives of United Artists resigned en masse in a dispute with parent Transamerica over management prerogatives and executive compensation. Arthur Krim and Robert Benjamin had taken over the moribund distribution company in the early fifties and molded it into one of the leading film companies of the sixties and seventies. Then in 1967 they had sold it to Transamerica. Now they regretted their decision. Together with president Eric Pleskow, treasurer William Bernstein, and production chief Mike Medavoy, they formed Orion Pictures Corp., an entity that was something more than just another production company but less than a full-fledged studio. Their unprecedented agreement with Warner Communications at the time allowed them full control over the marketing and advertising of their films through the Warner distribution system. Orion became the first new major player in Hollywood since the thirties. Meanwhile, without the experienced Krim team, UA quickly ran into trouble. The disaster of Michael Cimino’s Heaven’s Gate (1980) effectively put that studio out of business only three years after the Orion group had left.*
Orion 和 Ladd 公司的成立（尽管只持续了几年）标志着控制权从公司组织转移到有权势的个人手中。自 20 世纪 60 年代旧的工作室系统开始崩溃以来，这一变化就一直在进行。由于主要演员不再签订长期合同，每部电影都必须重新签订合同。权力转移到了经纪人、包装商和一些已经建立了宝贵个人关系网络的工作室高管手中。
The founding of Orion and the Ladd Company (even though it lasted only a few years) signaled the shift of control from the corporate organizations to powerful individuals. This change had been in the works since the 1960s when the old studio system began breaking down. With major talent no longer under long-term contract, each film had to be a new deal. Power shifted to agents, packagers, and a few studio executives who had established invaluable networks of personal relationships.
20 世纪 90 年代初，当 Orion 本身陷入困境时，其制作主管迈克·梅达沃伊 (Mike Medavoy) 很快就成为三星的重要人物，并带来了他稳定的人才关系网。当猎户座沉没时，三星在好莱坞的天空中升起了一段时间。几年之内，三星就陷入了其姊妹工作室哥伦比亚的麻烦之中。梅达沃伊于 1994 年离开，结束了——至少是暂时的——近代工作室负责人中最长的职业生涯之一。小型“工作室”和“迷你专业”的发展20 世纪 80 年代，权力基础进一步扩大（即使像 Cannon 和 Carolco 这样的公司的生命周期与沙漠之花差不多）。
When Orion itself was on the ropes in the early 1990s, Mike Medavoy, its chief of production, soon surfaced as a major figure at TriStar, bringing his stable of talent contacts with him. As Orion sank, TriStar rose in the Hollywood heavens—for a while. Within a few years, TriStar was caught up in the troubles of its sister studio, Columbia. Medavoy left in 1994, ending—at least temporarily—one of the longest careers of any recent studio chief. The growth of minor “studios” and “mini-majors” in the 1980s further spread the power base (even if companies like Cannon and Carolco had life spans on the order of desert flowers).
其中一名未成年人幸存下来。新线影院 (New Line Cinema) 于 1967 年由鲍勃·沙耶 (Bob Shaye) 在格林威治村大学广场 (University Place) 一家破旧酒吧楼上的办公室里创立。新线影院依靠进口和皮卡慢慢发展，到 20 世纪 70 年代末，新线影院 (New Line Cinema) 已准备好投入制作。两部血腥恐怖电影《十三号星期五》和《榆树街噩梦》帮助该公司在 20 世纪 80 年代不断成长。到 1990 年，它被视为进入好莱坞主导的精选制片厂的候选者。泰德·特纳 (Ted Turner) 于 1993 年收购了新线影业 (New Line)。沙耶 (Shaye) 和他的资深团队仍然掌管公司，即使在特纳与时代华纳 (Time Warner) 合并之后，公司仍继续发展。
One of the minors thrived and survived. New Line Cinema had been founded by Bob Shaye in offices above a seedy bar on University Place in Greenwich Village in 1967. Growing slowly from imports and pickups, by the late 1970s New Line was ready to enter production. Two series of gory horror films, Friday the 13th and Nightmare on Elm Street, helped the company grow throughout the 1980s. By 1990 it was regarded as a candidate for admission to the select group of studios that dominate Hollywood. Ted Turner acquired New Line in 1993. Shaye and his veteran team remained in charge, and the company continued to grow, even after Turner’s merger with Time Warner.
20 世纪 80 年代，另外两位纽约人鲍勃·韦恩斯坦 (Bob Weinstein) 和哈维·韦恩斯坦 (Harvey Weinstein) 也复制了沙耶的壮举。他们于 1979 年创立了 Miramax，作为一家分销公司。它迅速发展成为电影业的主要参与者，并保持了三十年。韦恩斯坦兄弟首先精明地收购了畅销的艺术电影，并通过创造性的营销使它们盈利。到 20 世纪 80 年代末，米拉麦克斯连续四年荣获奥斯卡最佳外语片奖。1989 年，他们开始涉足制作领域，同时继续凭借《哭泣游戏》（1992 年）、《英国病人》（1997 年）、《美丽人生》（1997 年）、《恋爱中的莎士比亚》（1998 年）和昆汀·塔伦蒂诺。韦恩斯坦家族于 1993 年套现，将米拉麦克斯出售给迪士尼，但继续将其作为纽约的独立子公司运营，维持了他们好莱坞叛徒的形象。鲍勃在幕后工作，而哈维则比好莱坞活着的人更好地扮演了昔日叼雪茄的大亨。1999年，该公司拿下了十项奥斯卡奖，其中包括最佳影片《莎翁情史》。米拉麦克斯继续在奥斯卡上取得应有的成绩，可能是因为他们制作的电影可供成年学院成员观看而不用睡着。2005 年，他们离开迪士尼，成立了韦恩斯坦公司。
In the 1980s Shaye’s feat was duplicated by two other New Yorkers—Bob and Harvey Weinstein. They founded Miramax in 1979 as a distribution company. It quickly developed into a key player in the film industry and has remained so for thirty years. The Weinstein brothers began by cannily acquiring saleable art films and making them profitable through inventive marketing. By the late 1980s Miramax owned the best foreign film Oscar, having won it four years running. In 1989 they began to venture into production while continuing their string of import successes with products like The Crying Game (1992), The English Patient (1997), La Vitaè bella (1997), Shakespeare in Love (1998), and the films of Quentin Tarantino. The Weinsteins cashed out in 1993, selling Miramax to Disney, but continuing to run it as an independent subsidiary in New York, maintaining their image as Hollywood renegades. Bob worked behind the scenes, while Harvey played the role of the cigar-chomping mogul of yore better than anyone left alive in Hollywood. In 1999 the company pulled down ten Oscars, including Best Picture for Shakespeare in Love. Miramax continued their Oscar streak in the oughts, probably because they were producing films that adult Academy members could watch without falling asleep. They left Disney in 2005 to form The Weinstein Company.
从 20 世纪 60 年代到 20 世纪 80 年代，美国电视网络多次尝试建立电影制作部门，但没有取得多大成功。只有 1982 年由哥伦比亚广播公司 (Columbia)、哥伦比亚广播公司 (CBS) 和 HBO 合资创建的三星 (TriStar) 拥有悠久的历史。1982 年，可口可乐公司收购了哥伦比亚公司，这笔交易为少数股东纽约投资银行家艾伦公司 (Allen & Co.) 带来了 4,000 万美元的投资，投资额为 240 万美元。艾伦公司 (Allen & Co.) 的负责人小赫伯特·艾伦 (Herbert Allen Jr) 长期在好莱坞享有盛誉，如今却破产了他参与了与可口可乐和其他公司的许多利润丰厚的交易。*
From the 1960s through the 1980s the U.S. television networks tried several times to establish film-production arms—without much success. Only TriStar, created in 1982 as a joint venture of Columbia, CBS, and HBO, had much of a life. Coca-Cola had bought Columbia in 1982 in a deal that earned minority shareholder New York investment banker Allen & Co. a reputed $40 million on a $2.4 million investment. Allen & Co. head Herbert Allen Jr, long a financial éminence grise in Hollywood, parlayed his involvement into numerous lucrative deals with Coca-Cola and others.*
显然电影和软饮料之间不存在“协同作用”。到 1989 年，可口可乐已准备好出售。艾伦的朋友超级经纪人迈克尔·奥维茨（Michael Ovitz）在索尼公司找到了愿意的买家，索尼公司是战后电子行业最具创造力的力量，现在索尼公司将注意力转向软件，并于前一年收购了哥伦比亚广播公司唱片公司（CBS Records）。没过多久，另一只鞋就落空了：1990年，奥维茨和艾伦安排将MCA以超过60亿美元的价格出售给索尼的主要竞争对手松下，松下将其卖给了加拿大布朗夫曼家族，后者又将其卖给了法国水务公司。维旺迪公司将其出售给通用电气，通用电气将其与 NBC 合并。
Apparently the “synergies” between movies and soft drinks weren’t there. By 1989 Coke was ready to sell. Allen’s friend super-agent Michael Ovitz found a willing buyer in Sony, the most creative force in the postwar electronics industry, who were now turning their attention to software and had just the year before purchased CBS Records. It wasn’t long before the other shoe dropped: in 1990 Ovitz and Allen arranged the sale of MCA for a sum in excess of $6 billion to Sony’s arch-rival Matsushita, who sold it to the Canadian Bronfmans who sold it to the French water company Vivendi, who sold it to GE, who combined it with NBC.
到 1990 年，八个可以自称为好莱坞制片厂的组织中有六个落入外国人手中。†当时只有派拉蒙和迪士尼仍然是美国全资拥有。（现在环球影业加入了他们的行列，并重新归美国所有。）这种状况可能会让那些早在 20 世纪 70 年代就曾痛斥美国文化帝国主义的上了年纪的文化批评家们警醒。但当然，当今全球化公司的假定国籍远不如五十年前那么重要。为了在全球经济中发挥作用，你通常需要遵守美国规则：美国仍然是最大的市场。
By 1990 six of the eight organizations that could call themselves Hollywood studios were in foreign hands.† Only Paramount and Disney remained wholly U.S.-owned at that time. (Now they have been joined by Universal, returned to U.S. ownership.) This state of affairs may be sobering to aging cultural critics who railed against American cultural imperialism back in the 1970s. But of course the putative nationality of today’s globalized corporations is much less important than it might have been fifty years ago. In order to play in the global economy you usually need to play by American rules: the U.S. is still the largest market.
索尼凭借其宏伟而挥霍的姿态赢得了好莱坞界的喜爱，立即聘请了刚从《蝙蝠侠》大获成功的制片人彼得·古伯和乔恩·彼得斯来领导工作室。为此，索尼不得不买断与华纳的合同，并收购其制作公司，这使得购买价格增加了数亿美元。（松下一如既往地保守，保留了环球公司的管理层。）这个团队并不成功。
With a sense of the grand and profligate gesture which endeared it to the Hollywood community, Sony immediately hired producers Peter Guber and Jon Peters—fresh from their Batman triumph—to head the studio. To do so, Sony had to buy out their contract with Warner and purchase their production company, which added hundreds of millions to the purchase price. (Matsushita, conservative as always, left Universal management in place.) The team was not successful.
与此同时，回到牧场——准确地说是世纪城——二十世纪福克斯公司于 1981 年被石油大亨马文·戴维斯 (Marvin Davis) 收购，并于 1985 年卖给澳大利亚媒体大亨鲁珀特·默多克 (Rupert Murdoch)。在巴里·迪勒 (Barry Diller) 的掌舵下，福克斯成为电视界的一支重要力量。 20 世纪 80 年代末期。九十年代初，迪勒离开公司，进入互联网行业。他是第一个这样做的大亨，但不是最后一个。
Meanwhile, back at the ranch—Century City, to be precise—Twentieth Century Fox was acquired by oilman Marvin Davis in 1981 and sold to Australian media baron Rupert Murdoch in 1985. With Barry Diller at the helm, Fox became a major force in television during the late 1980s. By the early nineties Diller had left to go into the internet business. He was the first mogul to do so, but not the last.
到了本世纪末，尘埃落定后，两家好莱坞电影公司（米高梅和UA）濒临死亡，一家正在自我毁灭（猎户座），除了派拉蒙和迪士尼之外，所有电影公司都至少改变过一次所有权。这并不是因为缺乏尝试。关于迪士尼的谣言经常出现。派拉蒙首席执行官马丁·S·戴维斯 (Martin S. Davis) 在查尔斯·布卢多恩 (Charles Bluhdorn) 去世后，重新将海湾+西部公司的业务重心调整为派拉蒙通讯公司 (Paramount Communications)，以反映其对媒体的关注，但他曾尝试角逐时代公司奖，但未获成功。
At the end of the decade, after the dust had settled, two Hollywood studios were on a shared deathbed (MGM and UA), one was self-destructing (Orion), and all except Paramount and Disney had changed ownership at least once. It wasn’t for want of trying. Rumors surfaced regularly about Disney. And Paramount chief Martin S. Davis, who had refocused Gulf + Western after the death of Charles Bluhdorn, changing its name to Paramount Communications to reflect a concentration on media, had tried unsuccessfully for the Time Inc. prize.
戴维斯最终于 1994 年达成交易，将规模较大的派拉蒙公司出售给萨姆纳·雷石东 (Sumner Redstone) 规模较小、控股严格的维亚康姆 (Viacom)，但直到与派拉蒙公司前总裁、戴维斯的宿敌巴里·迪勒 (Barry Diller) 进行了一场旷日持久的竞争后才达成交易。*
Davis finally made a deal in 1994, selling the larger Paramount to Sumner Redstone’s smaller, tightly held Viacom, but not until after a protracted contest with former Paramount head—and Davis’s arch-nemesis—Barry Diller.*
这场战斗引发了又一轮的狂热交易。索尼暂时坚持与哥伦比亚公司合作，但一贯较为保守的松下于 1995 年退出环球影业，将其股份出售给布朗夫曼家族的西格拉姆有限公司。不到两个月后，迪士尼的迈克尔·艾斯纳 (Michael Eisner) 宣布收购 Capital Cities/ ABC，创建了世界第二大媒体集团。多年来，迪士尼一直被认为是哥伦比亚广播公司的收购目标，但由于劳伦斯·蒂施十年的管理削弱了该网络，因此没有资格成为收购者。
This battle set off another round of feverish dealmaking. Sony stuck with Columbia for the time being, but Matsushita, always more conservative, bailed out of Universal in 1995, selling its stake to the Bronfman family’s Seagram Company Ltd. Less than two months later, Disney’s Michael Eisner announced the purchase of Capital Cities/ABC, creating the second-largest media conglomerate in the world. For years, Disney had been mentioned as a CBS acquisition target, but the network, weakened by ten years of Lawrence Tisch’s management, was in no position to be a purchaser.
艾斯纳宣布这一消息几天后，哥伦比亚广播公司被卖给了西屋公司。（维亚康姆于 2000 年收购了哥伦比亚广播公司。）由于董事会中有线电视利益的阻挠，特德·特纳在蒂芙尼电视网的竞标中失败了。六周后，特纳决定停止尝试购买电视网，转而戴上销售帽子，与最大的媒体集团时代华纳达成一项价值 75 亿美元的交易，他指出，也许具有讽刺意味的是，“我厌倦了做小生意”。一切时间。我的职业生涯即将结束。我想看看暂时变大是什么感觉。”
Days after Eisner’s announcement, CBS was sold to Westinghouse. (Viacom bought CBS in 2000.) Foiled by the cable interests on his board, Ted Turner had lost his bid for the Tiffany network. Six weeks later, Turner decided to stop trying to buy a network and, instead, put on his sales hat, arranging a $7.5 billion deal with Time Warner, the largest media conglomerate, noting, perhaps ironically, “I’m tired of being little all the time. I’m nearing the end of my career. I want to see what it’s like to be big for a while.”
20 世纪 90 年代中期，雄心勃勃的参与者并非只有投资银行家和企业首席执行官。1994 年 4 月，艾斯纳在迪士尼的副手弗兰克·威尔斯 (Frank Wells) 在直升机失事中丧生，为当时的董事会戏剧开启了一个有趣的次要情节。杰弗里·卡森伯格（Jeffrey Katzenberg）十年前与艾斯纳一起来到迪士尼，当他没有获得这份空缺职位时，他感到很受伤。8月，他愤怒地辞职了。几天之内，他就与老朋友大卫·格芬和史蒂文·斯皮尔伯格开始了生意。他们大张旗鼓地宣布，他们打算建造五十年来第一家新的好莱坞制片厂。他们将其称为（显然是斯皮尔伯格的手）“梦工厂 SKG”。
The investment bankers and corporate CEOs weren’t the only ambitious players during the mid-1990s. The death of Frank Wells, Eisner’s second in command at Disney in a helicopter crash in April 1994, started an interesting subplot to the boardroom dramas of the time. Jeffrey Katzenberg, who had come with Eisner to Disney ten years earlier, was hurt when he was passed over for the vacant job. He resigned angrily in August. Within a few days he was in business with old friends David Geffen and Steven Spielberg. They announced with great fanfare that they intended to build the first new Hollywood studio in fifty years. They would call it (Spielberg’s hand is apparent) “Dreamworks SKG.”
其他人以前曾尝试过这种做法（弗朗西斯·科波拉多次），但这三位未来的大亨的丰富经验和才华意味着他们的努力将得到更认真的对待。他们几乎立即就获得了微软联合创始人保罗·艾伦的一笔巨额投资，将梦工厂与时尚新媒体结盟。该计划雄心勃勃，但十几年后梦工厂将被出售给维亚康姆。
Others had tried this before (Francis Coppola several times), but the breadth of the experience and talent of these three would-be moguls meant their effort would be taken more seriously. Almost immediately they took in a major investment from Microsoft cofounder Paul Allen, allying Dreamworks with hip new media. The plan was ambitious, but within a dozen years Dreamworks would be sold to Viacom.
自职业生涯开始以来，斯皮尔伯格一直与环球影业有着密切的联系，因为他对长期担任制片厂老板的西德·辛伯格和卢·瓦瑟曼保持着忠诚。随着他的导师们越来越被松下管理层孤立，斯皮尔伯格终于准备采取行动。随着斯皮尔伯格的离开，环球影业的吸引力下降了。松下不到一年就把它卖掉了。
Since the beginning of his career, Spielberg had been tied closely to Universal because of his loyalty to longtime studio bosses Sid Sheinberg and Lew Wasserman. With his mentors increasingly isolated by Matsushita management, Spielberg was finally ready to make a move. With Spielberg gone from the lot, Universal was a less attractive property. Matsushita sold it in less than a year.
与此同时，在经历了几次挫折之后，著名的巴里·迪勒开始在东部采取行动。迪勒可以说是 20 世纪 80 年代最有影响力的行业高管，他在派拉蒙（艾斯纳和卡森伯格曾在那里接受培训）表现出色，后来转到福克斯，为鲁珀特·默多克建立了一个高效的新电视网络，这是一项前所未有的壮举。1992 年，当人们清楚地认识到，尽管新闻集团规模庞大，但它是一家家族企业，没有给自己留下任何晋升空间时，迪勒辞职了。在对新媒体行业进行了长时间的考察后，他收购了有线电视购物频道 QVC，打算将其作为扩张的基础。
Meanwhile, after several setbacks, éminence grise Barry Diller was making moves in the East. Arguably the most influential industry executive of the 1980s, Diller had done well at Paramount (where Eisner and Katzenberg trained) before moving to Fox to build an effective new television network for Rupert Murdoch—a feat that had not been equaled before. When in 1992 it became clear that despite its size News Corp. was a family business, leaving no room for his own advancement, Diller quit. After a lengthy tour of the new media industry he bought into QVC, a cable shopping channel, intending to use it as a base for expansion.
在派拉蒙的竞购战中输给萨姆纳·雷石东旗下的维亚康姆后，迪勒退出了 QVC，收购了位于佛罗里达州的连锁电视台 Silver King 的股份。1995 年 12 月，他宣布收购 QVC 昔日竞争对手 Home Shopping Network，并收购上市电影制作公司 Savoy Pictures Entertainment Inc.。1997 年秋天，迪勒买了几根电缆电视网和环球影业的大部分电视节目部门以 41 亿美元收购，这笔交易旨在为他提供建立自己的电视网所需的资源。大约在这个时候，他意识到自己在互联网方面的弱点。新更名的 USA Networks, Inc. 于 1997 年从 Paul Allen 手中收购了 Ticketmaster 47% 的股份，并于次年收购了其余股份，并于 1998 年将其与收购的 CitySearch 合并，然后向公众出售了该子公司的股份。1999 年，迪勒竞购互联网门户网站 Lycos 失败：Lycos 股东认为 USA Networks 的互联网能力不足以满足他们的需求。二十世纪末，迪勒仍在努力寻找适合他未来工作室愿景的元素的正确组合。自 2000 年以来，迪勒还达成了许多其他交易，但只有其中一项令人感兴趣：2001 年，他与时尚达人黛安·冯芙丝汀宝 (Diane von Furstenberg) 结婚。迪勒的职业生涯曾经看起来如此光明（他指导了现代好莱坞一半的权力结构），现在似乎只是该行业瘫痪的象征：给我这个，给我那个。重点是什么？
After losing a bidding war for Paramount to Sumner Redstone’s Viacom, Diller moved out of QVC, acquiring shares in Silver King, a Florida-based chain of television stations. In December 1995 he announced the purchase of Home Shopping Network, erstwhile competitor to QVC, and the acquisition of Savoy Pictures Entertainment Inc., a publicly traded film production company. In the fall of 1997 Diller bought a couple of cable networks and most of the television programming division of Universal for $4.1 billion, a deal intended to give him the mass he needed to found his own network. At about this time he realized he was weak on the internet side. The newly-renamed USA Networks, Inc. bought 47 percent of Ticketmaster from Paul Allen in 1997, acquiring the rest the next year, and merged it with acquisition CitySearch in 1998, then selling shares of the subsidiary to the public. In 1999 Diller bid unsuccessfully for internet portal Lycos: the Lycos shareholders thought USA Networks wasn’t internet enough for them. At the end of the twentieth century Diller was still struggling to find the right combination of elements for his vision of the studio of the future. Since 2000 Diller has made many other deals, only one of which is of interest: in 2001 he married fashionista Diane von Furstenberg. Diller’s career, which once seemed so bright (he mentored half the power structure of modern Hollywood), now seems only emblematic of the paralysis of the industry: deal me this, deal me that. What’s the point?
尽管发生了前所未有的金融动荡，好莱坞生产的产品却没有发生明显的变化。在新世纪，拥有工作室的企业实体相信“协同作用”。它们是横向（而不是纵向）整合的组织。除了工作室之外，他们还拥有平装书出版公司、唱片公司、电视制作公司、主题公园、体育特许经营权、连锁音像商店、体育场馆，偶尔还拥有野生动物保护区。（他们卖掉了玩具公司。） 财产一旦获得，现在就可以在五种或更多媒体中加以利用：电影、书籍、唱片、广播电视和 DVD。然而时代华纳的印刷部门对待电影部门就好像它仍然是一个独立的公司一样。哥伦比亚唱片公司与索尼音乐公司签订合同后聘用的音乐家数量并没有比以前多。二十世纪福克斯公司和鲁珀特·默多克的小报之间没有任何有利可图的联系（除了它们激发了他的小报电视新闻报道的灵感）。
Despite this unprecedented financial upheaval, there has been no discernible change in the product that Hollywood manufactures. In the new century the corporate entities that own the studios believe in “synergy.” They are horizontally (rather than vertically) integrated organizations. In addition to studios, they also own paperback book publishing companies, record companies, television production companies, theme parks, sports franchises, chains of video stores, stadiums, and the occasional wild animal preserve. (They’ve sold the toy companies.) A property, once acquired, can now be exploited in five or more media: films, books, records, broadcast television, and DVD. Yet the print divisions of Time Warner deal with the film division as if it were still a separate company; Columbia doesn’t hire any more musicians under contract to Sony Music than they did previously; and there is no profitable connection between Twentieth Century Fox and Rupert Murdoch’s tabloid newspapers (except that they inspired his tabloid television journalism).
矛盾的是，尽管媒体所有权集中在少数人手中，但实际生产产品的艺术家却享有同样的自由。这是一个棘手的概念，我们将在第七章中对此进行更多讨论，但现在让我们注意到，在好莱坞的历史上一直存在着那些“东方银行家”，并且正如史蒂文·斯皮尔伯格所说的那样简而言之，“无论他们付给你多少钱，都是不够的。” 创立美国电影业的大亨们表达了他们的个性并留下了他们的印记。购买（和出售）的商人再次购买和出售）他们的创作却没有。在最近合并的娱乐巨头的资产负债表和损益表变得无足轻重之后很久，那些对利润（或损失）做出巨大贡献的电影将被人们铭记。
Paradoxically, despite the concentration of media ownership in a few hands, the artists who actually produce the product have no less freedom. This is a tricky concept, about which we’ll have more to say in Chapter 7, but for now let us note that in the history of Hollywood there have always been those “Eastern Bankers,” and, as Steven Spielberg has put it so succinctly, “Whatever they are paying you, it is not enough.” The moguls who founded the American film industry expressed their personalities and left their imprints. The businessmen who have bought (and sold and bought and sold again) their creations have not. Long after the balance sheets and income statements of the most-recently merged entertainment mega-company have passed into insignificance, the films which contributed so mightily to the profits (or losses) will be remembered.
图 4-10。今天的“好莱坞” 。今天的洛杉矶是一个广阔的郊区，覆盖了圣莫尼卡山脉（穆赫兰道）以南的盆地和以北的圣费尔南多谷：这座城市是在汽车发明之后建造的，没有汽车就不可能存在。在新“市中心”的现代摩天大楼后面，仍然保留着二十世纪初东方城市的一个微小核心。你可以在克利夫兰、旧洛杉矶的希尔街或百老汇进行拍摄，电影制作人仍然这样做。如果你从市中心开车出威尔希尔大道，经过曾经遥远的好莱坞郊区，穿过时尚的西好莱坞和平静的比佛利山庄，经过二十世纪福克斯公司最伟大的成就——世纪城办公楼开发项目——围绕韦斯特伍德进入圣莫尼卡，你就会了解历史的发展这座城市以其钟爱的工业为蓝本发明了自己。如今，实际上只有一家主要制片厂位于好莱坞。其他城市，就像洛杉矶本身一样，分布在“山”两侧的宽阔环形区域中。
Figure 4-10. “HOLLYWOOD” TODAY. Los Angeles today is a vast suburban sprawl covering the Basin to the south of the Santa Monica Mountains (Mulholland Drive) and the San Fernando Valley to the north: a city built after the invention of the automobile and impossible without it. There remains a tiny kernel of an early twentieth-century eastern city tucked behind the modern skyscrapers of the new “downtown.” You can shoot for, say, Cleveland, on Hill Street or Broadway in the old L.A., and filmmakers still do. If you drive outWilshire Boulevard from downtown, past the once-distant suburb of Hollywood, through trendy West Hollywood and placid Beverly Hills, past Twentieth Century Fox’s greatest achievement—the Century City office development—around Westwood into Santa Monica, you understand the historical development of a city that invented itself on the model of its beloved industry. Today, only one major studio is actually situated in Hollywood. The others, like L.A. itself, are spread out in a wide ring on both sides of “the hill.”
多年来，经营制片厂的人往往都是前人才经纪人——他们接受过将明星、剧本和融资“一揽子计划”整合在一起的培训——因此，自 20 世纪 70 年代中期以来，权力中心就不足为奇了。在好莱坞，一直是人才机构本身。多年来，威廉·莫里斯机构一直占据主导地位，然后是权力转移到由莫里斯叛徒组成的 ICM。从 20 世纪 80 年代中期到 90 年代末，迈克尔·奥维茨 (Michael Ovitz) 领导的 CAA（创意艺术家经纪公司）一直是炙手可热的经纪公司，杰夫·伯格 (Jeff Berg) 和莫里斯 (Morris) 领导的 ICM 紧随其后。奥维茨是金融家、重罪犯和重生的社区工作者迈克尔·米尔肯 (Michael Milken) 的前圣费尔南多谷高中同学，他在 20 世纪 80 年代在他的领域中的影响力几乎与米尔肯在华尔街的影响力一样大。事实上，当奥维茨代理哥伦比亚和环球交易时，他正在入侵米尔肯自己的领地。
For many years now, the people who run the studios have often been former talent agents—people trained in putting together “packages” of stars, script, and financing—so it should be no surprise that since the mid-1970s the locus of power in Hollywood has been the talent agencies themselves. For years, the William Morris agency dominated, then power shifted to ICM, formed by Morris renegades. From the mid-1980s to the late nineties CAA (Creative Artists Agency), led until 1995 by Michael Ovitz, was the hot agency, followed close behind by ICM, led by Jeff Berg, and Morris. A former San Fernando Valley High School classmate of financier, convicted felon, and born-again community worker Michael Milken, Ovitz had almost as much influence in the 1980s in his domain as Milken had on Wall Street. Indeed, when he agented the Columbia and Universal deals, Ovitz was invading Milken’s own territory.
1995 年，当奥维茨接受了迈克尔·艾斯纳的甜言蜜语并接受了迪士尼的二把手职位时，许多人认为这是一种退步。毕竟，奥维茨刚刚拒绝了环球影业的类似职位。（CAA 的副手罗恩·迈耶接受了这份工作。）一年后，奥维茨从迪士尼离职——尽管他支付了巨额遣散费。奥维茨的统治结束了。但CAA幸存下来。到了早期，新一代已经出现：现在的领导机构是 Endeavour，由著名政治家拉姆·伊曼纽尔 (Rahm Emmanuel) 的弟弟阿里·伊曼纽尔 (Ari Emmanuel) 领导。
When in 1995 Ovitz acceded to Michael Eisner’s blandishments and accepted the number two position at Disney, many people thought it was a step down. After all, Ovitz had just turned down a similar position at Universal. (CAA’s second in command, Ron Meyer, accepted that job.) A year later, Ovitz was gone from Disney—albeit with a huge severance payment. Ovitz’s reign was over. But CAA survived. By the early oughts a new generation had emerged: the lead agency was now Endeavor, led by Ari Emmanuel, brother of the high-profile politician Rahm Emmanuel.
由于不再有签约的球员和技术人员，工作室已将重点转向发行。在较小程度上，他们也充当金融家。电影制作的真正工作现在由许多独立制片人负责，其中许多人同时也是导演或明星——好莱坞行话称之为“连字符”。
Since they no longer have players and technicians under contract, the studios have shifted to concentrate on distribution. To a lesser extent, they also operate as financiers. The real work of film production is now split up among a number of independent producers, many of whom are also directors or stars as well—what the Hollywood jargon calls “hyphenates.”
尽管后电视电影市场的结构很容易在早期就被预测到，但电影公司通过反复试验才达到了这一点。电视显然是为了履行电影作为大众娱乐媒体的功能而设计的。如果戏剧电影想要生存下去，就必须转向为特殊观众服务。事实上，这就是已经发生的事情。电影院已被更私密的剧院所取代，平均座位数不到 200 名顾客。这些小剧院聚集在“多厅影院”中，以提供更广泛的选择并减少管理费用。
The studios arrived at this point by a process of trial and error, even though the structure of the post-television film market could easily have been predicted early on. Television was clearly designed to fulfill cinema’s function as the mass entertainment medium. If theatrical film was going to survive, it would have to shift to serving specialized audiences. This is, in fact, what has happened. The movie palaces have been replaced by more intimate theaters seating an average of fewer than two hundred patrons. These small theaters are bunched together in “multiplexes” to provide a wider choice as well as to cut overhead expense.
现在美国名义上的电影院数量是 20 世纪 70 年代初的两倍多。更重要的是，好莱坞一半以上的收入现在来自附属版权，主要是视频。然而，分销渠道数量的大幅增加并没有达到人们预期的效果。尽管在六十年代末曾短暂地尝试过新的自由，但制片厂一直不愿利用这些可能性。相反，他们在七十年代越来越多地转向大片（通常是动作类型），通过书籍预售并在大量饱和电视广告的帮助下，吸引了大量观众。过程中的资本数额。这种做法在整个 20 世纪 80 年代和 90 年代一直持续到二十一世纪。事实上，今天的年轻电影观众会惊讶地发现，曾经有一段时间，成功的电影并没有立即产生大量续集。
There are now more than twice as many nominal movie theaters in the U.S. as there were in the early 1970s. More important, more than half of Hollywood’s income now comes from ancillary rights, mainly video. Yet this great increase in the number of distribution channels hasn’t had the effect one might have predicted. Despite a brief flirtation with the new freedom in the late sixties, the studios have been loath to exploit these possibilities. Instead, they turned increasingly in the seventies to the blockbuster film (usually of the action genre), presold through books and aided by massive saturation television advertising, absorbing huge amounts of capital in the process. This practice continued throughout the 1980s and 1990s into the twenty-first century. Indeed, a young moviegoer today would be surprised to discover that there once was a time when successful films did not immediately engender a raft of sequels.
在国际上，旧制片厂体系的消亡产生了积极的影响，仅仅是因为它在一段时间内为更激烈的竞争打开了世界市场的大门。五十年代初期，法国和意大利政府建立了准官方的出口销售组织（Unifrance、Unitalia），这些组织有助于软化这些国家的电影市场（Unifrance 比意大利同行活跃得多）。大多数主要电影制作国电影节的发展在这方面也发挥了有效作用。
Internationally, the death of the old studio system had positive effects, simply because—for a while—it opened up world markets to more strenuous competition. In the early fifties, the French and the Italian governments established quasi-official export sales organizations (Unifrance, Unitalia) that were instrumental in softening up markets for those countries’ films (Unifrance having been much more active than its Italian counterpart). The growth of film festivals in most major film-producing countries was effective in this respect as well.
许多国家电影制作方程式中的两个重要因素是政府补贴计划和电视联合制作。这种新融资方法的典范是瑞典电影学院，该学院成立于 1963 年，负责对所有电影院征收 10% 的入场费，部分根据总收入，部分根据质量来分配资金。瑞典的计划鼓励了一个很小的国家的可出口电影产业的蓬勃发展。法国的补贴制度对该国的电影业产生了显着的影响。1993年，法国为当年制作的150部法国影片提供了总计3.5亿美元的补贴。这笔钱来自票房税——主要针对美国电影，尽管它们的受欢迎程度为补贴制度做出了贡献，但这些电影日益在法国银幕上占据主导地位。
Two important factors in the film production equation in many countries have been government subsidy plans and television coproduction. The model for this new method of finance was the Swedish Film Institute, founded in 1963 to distribute monies collected from a 10 percent tax on all cinema admissions, partly on the basis of gross receipts, partly on the basis of quality. The Swedish plan encouraged the vigorous growth of an exportable film industry in a very small country. The French subsidy system has had a marked effect on that country’s film industry. In 1993 French subsidies totaled $350 million distributed to 150 French pictures made that year. The money came from a box-office tax—mostly on American pictures, which increasingly dominate French screens, despite the subsidy system to which they contribute by their very popularity.
欧洲电影制作在上世纪五六十年代也得到了美国海外取景制作的帮助，旨在利用较低的成本。随着价格趋于平衡以及美国公司发现自己陷入了货币困境，这种暂时的国际主义在 1970 年结束了。六十年代严重依赖美国资本的英国电影业几乎因美国撤军而遭受重创。但电影的损失却是电视的收获。最优秀的英国电影制片人现在在电视界（或好莱坞）工作。
European film production was aided, too, in the fifties and the sixties by American location productions abroad, designed to take advantage of lower costs. This temporary internationalism came to an end in 1970, as prices equalized and as the American companies found themselves in a monetary bind. The British film industry, which had depended heavily on American capital in the sixties, was nearly decimated by the withdrawal. But film’s loss was television’s gain. The best British filmmakers now work in television (or in Hollywood).
到 1980 年，美国公司重新获得了对世界银幕的有效控制，只是偶尔受到欧洲企业集团（如 Lord Grade 的 ITC 或 Polygram）的微弱挑战。法国付费电视公司 Canal Plus 在上世纪八九十年代取得的非凡成功表明它可能成为一支国际力量，但我们仍在等待世界媒体游戏中法国的主要参与者。维旺迪很快就崩溃并烧毁了。同样，意大利大亨（有时也是总理）西尔维奥·贝卢斯科尼 (Silvio Berlusconi) 在 20 世纪 80 年代组建了欧洲娱乐巨头，但从未涉足世界市场的主要舞台，而是更喜欢接受意大利政治的较小挑战。英国初创公司 Goldcrest Films 在 20 世纪 80 年代取得了令人鼓舞的成功，尽管时间短暂，这表明尽管大企业占据主导地位，小公司的机会仍然存在。*
By 1980 the American companies had regained effective control of the world’s screens, challenged only occasionally and weakly by European conglomerates such as Lord Grade’s ITC or Polygram. The extraordinary success of the French pay-television company Canal Plus in the eighties and nineties suggested that it might become an international force, but we still await a major French player in the world media game. Vivendi crashed and burned rather quickly. Similarly, Italian magnate (and sometime premier) Silvio Berlusconi was able to put together a European entertainment octopus in the 1980s, but never ventured into the main arena of world markets, preferring the lesser challenge of Italian politics instead. The heartening, albeit brief, success of the English start-up Goldcrest Films in the 1980s suggested that opportunities still existed for small companies, despite the domination of the conglomerates.*
随着 20 世纪 80 年代录像带行业的蓬勃发展，电影业也依靠额外收入蓬勃发展。这一次，好莱坞避免了 20 世纪 50 年代初电视出现时所犯的大部分错误，将新技术作为新的利润中心。大多数主要制片厂很快就建立了自己的录像带发行公司，有时与电视公司（RCA-Columbia、CBS-Fox）合作。然而好莱坞并没有控制盒式磁带业务的发展。盒式磁带在 20 世纪 80 年代成为一种主要的娱乐媒体，因为一些远离好莱坞的有进取心的人发现人们可能想租一盘磁带一晚上而不是直接购买。结果，电影发行商错失了数十亿美元的收入，如果他们在盒式磁带业务之初就制定了有效的“直销”策略，这些收入本可能属于他们。
As the videotape industry exploded in the 1980s, the film industry thrived on the additional income. This time Hollywood avoided most of the mistakes it had made when television arrived in the early 1950s, embracing the new technology as a new profit center. Most of the major studios quickly set up their own videocassette distribution companies, sometimes in partnership with television companies (RCA-Columbia, CBS-Fox). Yet Hollywood didn’t control the development of the cassette business. Cassettes became established as a major entertainment medium in the 1980s because a few enterprising individuals far away from Hollywood figured out that people might want to rent a tape for an evening rather than purchase it outright. As a result the film distributors missed out on billions of dollars in income that might have been theirs if they had devised an effective “sell-through” strategy at the beginning of the cassette business.
如果这个行业一开始就顺其自然的话，可能根本就不会有任何盒式磁带业务。当索尼于 1976 年推出录像带技术时，好莱坞的短视态度令人震惊，重复了 25 年前电影业在应对电视威胁时所犯的同样错误。环球公司起诉索尼，以阻止这些“复制”机器的分销。1984 年，该案最终提交至最高法院，最终判决索尼胜诉。好莱坞的许多人可能因环球影业的失败而松了一口气：此时录像机租赁市场已如火如荼，而且很明显，它将大大增加电影公司的利润。
If the industry had had its way initially there might not have been any cassette business at all. When Sony introduced videocassette technology in 1976 Hollywood had responded with a short-sightedness that was breathtaking, repeating the same mistake the film industry had made responding to the threat of television twenty-five years earlier. Universal sued Sony to prevent the distribution of these “copy” machines. When the case finally reached the Supreme Court in 1984 it was decided in Sony’s favor. Many in Hollywood probably breathed a sigh of relief that Universal had lost: by this time the VCR rental market was in full swing and it was clear that it would add substantially to studios’ bottom lines.
回想起来，“Betamax”案只是版权重组斗争的第一轮，三十年后，这场斗争仍在继续。艺术作品、研究作品和想象力被重新定义为“知识产权”。好莱坞在这场战斗中占据了领先地位。每当米老鼠即将进入公共领域时，迪士尼都会找到一种方法将其所有权再延长几年。†
In retrospect the “Betamax” case was just the first round in a battle to restructure copyright that continues today, thirty years on. Works of art, research, and imagination have been redefined as “intellectual property.” Hollywood has taken the lead in this battle. Every time Mickey Mouse is about to enter the public domain, Disney finds a way to extend their ownership a few years more.†
随着录像机频道在八十年代和九十年代蓬勃发展，流向电影制片人的美元资助了许多独立企业家，到 1990 年，他们为年轻的电影制片人提供了肥沃的训练场。行业信息来源 Baseline 列出的 1992 年上映的 529 部影片中，只有 330 部是院线上映的；其余大部分都是直接视频制作。这种低成本类型已经取代了三四十年代的 B 级电影和程序员。1992 年，IRS Media 的《一个错误的举动》获得了与其预算不成比例的好评，并被几位有影响力的评论家评为年度最佳电影之一。直接视频已经成熟。现在，即使是戏剧电影有时也会与 DVD 版本同步。
As the VCR channel blossomed in the eighties and nineties the dollars that did flow to film producers funded a number of independent entrepreneurs who, by 1990, provided a fertile training ground for young filmmakers. Of the 529 films the industry information source Baseline listed as having been released in 1992, only 330 were theatrical issues; most of the rest were Direct-to-Video productions. This low-cost genre had taken over for the B movies and Programmers of the thirties and forties. In 1992, IRS Media’s One False Move garnered critical acclaim out of all proportion to its budget and was ranked by several influential critics as one of the best films of the year. Direct-to-Video had come of age. Now even theatrical films sometimes day-and-date with their DVD versions.
随着多媒体革命的加速，新世纪的电影业面临着不同的挑战。视频只是一种传播媒介，仅此而已；我们今天所知的 DVD 行业需要好莱坞电影产品。然而，多媒体业务现在才刚刚起步，既要与电影作为制作媒介进行竞争，又要借鉴电影。它是自广播网络电视以来第一个新的制作媒体，因此它将从历史悠久的故事片行业吸引宝贵的人才、资本和客户。如今好莱坞面临的最大挑战是 YouTube。
A different challenge awaits the film industry in the new century as the multimedia revolution gains speed. Video is a distribution medium, and not much more; the DVD business as we know it today requires Hollywood film product. The multimedia businesses now just beginning, however, compete with film as a production medium as well as borrowing from it. It is the first new production medium since broadcast network television, and as such it will draw valuable talent, capital, and customers from the venerable feature film industry. Hollywood’s greatest challenge today is YouTube.
随着电影和视频技术的不断融合，光盘的发行系统有可能像印刷媒体那样精确而灵活。作为娱乐和信息渠道，直到最近，电影和电视的特点都是访问受限：在美国，五到七家制片厂控制着电影发行；四个商业网络和一个公共网络控制电视访问。数字革命和互联网现在提供了极其多样化的访问渠道。
With discs, the potential exists for a system of distribution as precise and flexible as that enjoyed by the print media, as the technologies of film and video continue to merge. As entertainment and as information channels, both movies and television have, until recently, been characterized by limited access: in the U.S., five to seven studios controlled film distribution; four commercial networks and one public network controlled access to television. The digital revolution and the internet now present a remarkable multiplicity of access channels.
此外，该业务正在全球范围内增长。到 1980 年，人们已经清楚地认识到，我们不再能够区分我们所说的电影和我们所知道的视频或电视。三十多年来，这些不同形式的视听叙事一直被视为独立的，甚至是对立的。现在它们必须被视为同一连续体的一部分。事实上，我们需要一个新词来涵盖电影和磁带形式。随着视频技术的复杂性和灵活性不断发展，“电影”制作者人们越来越多地发现格式的选择更多的是经济和技术问题，而不是美学问题。
Moreover, the business is increasing global. By 1980 it was clear that it was no longer possible to make a distinction between what we call film and what we know as video or television. These various forms of audiovisual narrative had been seen as separate—even antagonistic—for more than thirty years. Now they must be regarded as parts of the same continuum. Indeed, we need a new word to embrace both film and tape forms. As video technology continues to grow in sophistication and flexibility, “film” makers increasingly will find the choice of format more a matter of economics and technology than of esthetics.
到 1990 年，曾经帮助定义电影艺术（如果不是商业）的地理边界显然比技术分界线瓦解得更快。特德·特纳 (Ted Turner) 的 CNN 和维亚康姆 (Viacom) 的 MTV 的积极营销，以及首先在欧洲、然后在亚洲的跨国卫星电视的迅速扩张，使世界各地的电影制片人面临着来自好莱坞巨头的更激烈的竞争。
By 1990 it was apparent that the geographical borders that once helped to define the art (if not the business) of film were disintegrating even more rapidly than the technological lines of demarcation. The aggressive marketing of Ted Turner’s CNN and Viacom’s MTV, and the rapid expansion of transborder satellite television, first in Europe, then in Asia, presented filmmakers around the world with even greater competition from the Hollywood juggernaut.
但与此同时，该技术向公众开放了更多渠道，使电影制作人能够更直接地接触观众。事实上，现在对电影和电视的合理看法应该将前者视为后者的子集。大多数制作电影的公司也制作电视节目，反之亦然。八十年代之前，大多数评论家和观众都认为“电视制作”作品的声望和冒险精神明显不如戏剧电影。这种耻辱不再适用。HBO 制作的《公民科恩》 ( Citizen Cohn ) (1992)、《门口的野蛮人》(Barbarians at the Gate ) (1993)、《唐·金：只有在美国》(Don King: Only in America , 1997) 或《天使在美国》(Angels in America, 2003)等有线电视电影可能很容易被视为剧情片，并要求同样的标准宣传的质量就是特色。直到 1979 年，电视明星还没有能力承担故事片的重量，这已成为好莱坞的一条规则。这对布鲁斯·威利斯、乔治·克鲁尼或威尔·史密斯来说都是新闻。
Yet at the same time, the technology opened up many more channels to the public, allowing filmmakers a more direct route to their audiences. In fact, a reasonable view of film and television now should see the former as a subset of the latter. The majority of companies that make films also make television programs, and vice versa. Before the eighties most critics and audiences regarded “made-for-television” productions as notably less prestigious and adventurous than theatrical movies. This stigma no longer applies. Made-for-cable movies like HBO productions Citizen Cohn (1992), Barbarians at the Gate (1993), Don King: Only in America (1997), or Angels in America (2003) might easily pass as theatrical features and demand the same quality of publicity that features do. As late as 1979 it was a Hollywood rule that television stars didn’t have the weight to carry a feature film. That would be news to Bruce Willis, George Clooney, or Will Smith.
虽然商业电影制片人发现自己面临着一个无政府主义维度的新世界，但由于技术发展的意外影响，独立电影制片人可以期待新世纪大幅增加的可能性。直到 1978 年，想要发行自己的电影的电影制片人基本上有六种选择：主要的好莱坞制片厂。考虑到通货膨胀因素，自 20 世纪 70 年代以来，戏剧票房持续下降。好莱坞在 20 世纪 80 年代和 90 年代的发展首先是由录像带和有线电视的迅速扩张推动的，然后是随着一个又一个国家取消其电视系统的国有化而渴望产品的独立欧洲电视台数量的爆炸性增长，以及DBS 卫星系统渴望填满其数百个频道。事实上，DVD 收入和有线电视业务的持续扩张推动了增长。
While commercial filmmakers find themselves confronting a new world of anarchic dimensions, thanks to the unplanned effects of technological developments, independent filmmakers can look forward to dramatically increased possibilities in the new century. As late as 1978, a filmmaker who wished to distribute his or her film had, basically, six choices: the major Hollywood studios. Adjusted for inflation, theatrical box office has continued to decline since the 1970s. The growth of Hollywood in the 1980s and 1990s was fueled first by the rapid expansion of videotape and cable, then by the explosion in the number of independent European television stations hungry for product as one country after another denationalized its television system, and by the proliferation of DBS satellite systems eager to fill their hundreds of channels. In the oughts growth has been fueled by DVD revenues and the continued expansion of cable.
互联网上电子商务日益增长的活力消除了电影制片人和观众之间的最后一个障碍：可用性。在网络上，每个人都有足够的货架空间，并且所有东西都始终有库存。现在当潜在感兴趣的顾客听说一部电影时，他们知道他们可以观看该电影；他们不受当地音像店库存有限的限制。当然，网络也提供了一种廉价且有效的宣传手段。工作室立即意识到了这一点。电影业可能是 20 世纪 70 年代中期最后一个利用电视广告力量的媒体，但它是最先认识到万维网力量的媒体之一：到 1996 年，每部新片都有一个营销网站。独立电影制片人可以轻松承担这种营销费用。1999 年夏天，《女巫布莱尔计划》的制片人在众所周知的预算有限的情况下，通过网络为这部电影引起了相当大的轰动。
The increasing viability of e-commerce on the internet removes the last barrier between filmmakers and their audiences: availability. On the web everyone has enough shelf space and everything is always in stock. Now when potentially interested customers hear about a movie they know they can get it; they aren’t constrained by the limited stock of their local video store. Of course the web also offers an inexpensive and effective means of publicity as well. The studios realized this immediately. The film industry may have been the last medium to tap into the power of television advertising in the mid-1970s, but it was among the first to realize the power of the World Wide Web: by 1996 every new release had a marketing website. Independent filmmakers can easily afford this kind of marketing. In the summer of 1999 the producers of The Blair Witch Project, made on the proverbial shoestring budget, were able to generate considerable buzz for the film by using the web.
好莱坞会继续主导美国娱乐业吗？或者权力中心会从电影制片厂的圣费尔南多谷转移到计算机行业的硅谷，甚至回到出版业的哈德逊河谷，一个多世纪前电影业诞生的地方？
Will Hollywood continue to dominate American entertainment? Or will the power centers shift from the studios’ San Fernando Valley to the computer industry’s Silicon Valley—or even back to the publishing industry’s Hudson Valley, where the film industry was born more than a century ago?
“电影”：政治
“Film”: Politics
电影的经济学决定了它的基础设施——它的基础——因此也决定了它的潜力。电影的政治决定了它的结构：即它与世界的联系方式。我们从两个不同的角度理解电影、体验电影并消费它。电影的“社会政治学”描述了它如何反映并与人类一般经验相结合。电影的“心理政治学”试图解释我们如何个人地、具体地与它联系起来。由于电影是一种如此流行的现象，它在现代文化和社会政治中发挥着非常重要的作用。由于电影对现实提供了如此有力且令人信服的再现，因此它在心理政治上也对观众产生了深远的影响。这两个方面密切相关，但区分是有用的，因为它重点关注电影的一般效果和具体的个人效果之间的差异。
The economics of film determines its infrastructure—its foundations—and therefore its potential. The politics of film determines its structure: that is, the way it relates to the world. We understand film, experience it, and consume it from two different perspectives. The “sociopolitics” of film describes how it reflects and is integrated with human experience in general. Film’s “psychopolitics” attempts to explain how we relate to it personally and specifically. Because film is such a popular phenomenon, it plays a very important part in modern culture, sociopolitically. Because it provides such a powerful and convincing representation of reality, film also has a profound effect on members of its audience, psychopolitically. The two aspects are closely interrelated, yet the differentiation is useful, since it focuses attention on the difference between the general effect of film and its specific personal effect.
无论我们从哪个角度来看，电影都是一种明显的政治现象。事实上，它的存在本身就是革命性的。评论家沃尔特·本雅明在其关于这一主题的里程碑式论文《机械复制时代的艺术作品》中写道：
Whichever way we look at it, film is a distinctly political phenomenon. Indeed, its very existence is revolutionary. In his landmark essay on the subject, “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction,” the critic Walter Benjamin wrote:
图 4-11。星星。_ 费尔班克斯（左）和卓别林（右）在这些宣传照片中都“与角色格格不入”，但由于他们此时已成为名人，即使在片场外，他们也带着明星的光环。（现代艺术博物馆/金融服务局。）
Figure 4-11. STARS. Both Fairbanks (left) and Chaplin (right) are “out of character” in these publicity shots, but because they had become celebrity personalities by this time, even off the set they carried with them the aura of stars. (MOMA/FSA.)
人们可以概括地说：复制技术将复制的对象从传统领域中分离出来……它用多种复制品代替了一种独特的存在。并且在允许复制品满足观看者或听众自己的特定情况时，它重新激活了复制的对象。这两个过程导致了传统的巨大粉碎……这两个过程都与当代群众运动密切相关。他们最有力的媒介就是电影。它的社会意义，特别是其最积极的形式，如果没有其破坏性、宣泄性的一面，即对文化遗产传统价值的清算，是不可想象的[Illuminations, p. 11]。221]。
One might generalize by saying: the technique of reproduction detaches the reproduced object from the domain of tradition.… It substitutes a plurality of copies for a unique existence. And in permitting the reproduction to meet the beholder or listener in his own particular situation, it reactivates the object reproduced. These two processes lead to a tremendous shattering of tradition.… Both processes are intimately connected with the contemporary mass movements. Their most powerful agent is the film. Its social significance, particularly in its most positive form, is inconceivable without its destructive, cathartic aspect, that is, the liquidation of the traditional value of the cultural heritage [Illuminations, p. 221].
本雅明的散文有点深奥，但他提出的观点对于理解电影（和其他机械复制的艺术）在社会中发挥作用的方式至关重要。本雅明说，电影与旧艺术之间最显着的区别在于，新艺术可以大规模生产，触及大多数人而不是少数人。（这是社会政治方面。）这具有革命性的影响：艺术不仅可以定期为大量人群提供，而且还可以与家乡的观察者见面，从而扭转了艺术作品之间的传统关系及其观众。关于电影的这两个事实——（1）它是多元的而不是唯一的；(2) 它是无限可复制的——直接违背浪漫的艺术传统，因此充满活力和净化。（这是心理政治方面。）
Benjamin’s prose is a bit abstruse, but the points he makes are basic to an understanding of the way film (and other mechanically reproduced arts) function in society. The most significant difference, Benjamin is saying, between film and the older arts is that the new art can be mass-produced, reaching the many rather than the few. (This is the sociopolitical aspect.) This has a revolutionary effect: not only is the art available on a regular basis to large numbers of people, but it also meets observers on their home grounds, thereby reversing the traditional relationship between the work of art and its audience. These two facts about film—(1) that it is plural rather than unique; (2) that it is infinitely reproducible— directly contradict romantic traditions of art and therefore invigorate and purify. (This is the psychopolitical aspect.)
图 4-12。亨弗莱·鲍嘉（左）在《长眠不醒》（霍华德·霍克斯，1946 年）中饰演菲利普·马洛。（MOMA/FSA。） 让-保罗·贝尔蒙多（右）在《屏息》 （让-吕克·戈达尔，1959 年）中饰演米歇尔·波伊卡德，模仿鲍嘉。电影的驱动力在于电影与生活的关系。
Figure 4-12. Humphrey Bogart (left) as Philip Marlowe in The Big Sleep (Howard Hawks, 1946). (MOMA/FSA.) Jean-Paul Belmondo (right) as Michel Poiccard mimicking Bogart in Breathless (Jean-Luc Godard, 1959). The driving force of the film is the relationship between film and life.
电影改变了我们感知世界的方式，从而改变了我们在其中运作的方式。然而，尽管电影的存在可能是革命性的，但电影的实践却常常并非如此。由于发行渠道有限，成本高昂，除了最富有的人之外，所有人都无法参与电影制作，因此这种媒体受到严格控制。
Film has changed the way we perceive the world and therefore how we operate in it. Yet while the existence of film may be revolutionary, the practice of it most often has not been. Because the channels of distribution have been limited, because costs have prohibited access to film production to all but the wealthiest, the medium has been subject to strict control.
例如，在 1920 年至 1950 年间的美国，电影为发现和描述我们的民族身份提供了主要的文化形式。（1950 年后电视迅速取代了电影。） 历史学家争论电影是否只是反映了已经存在的民族文化，或者它们是否产生了自己的幻想，最终被认为是真实的。从某种意义上说，这一点毫无意义。毫无疑问，在好莱坞伟大时代在大型制片厂工作的编剧、制片人、导演和技术人员只是将他们在“现实生活”中获得的材料转移到银幕上。毫无疑问，即使这些材料没有为了政治目的而有意识地扭曲，电影放大了我们文化的某些方面并削弱了其他方面的事实本身也产生了深远的影响。
In America between 1920 and 1950, for example, the movies provided the main cultural format for the discovery and description of our national identity. (Television quickly replaced movies after 1950.) Historians argue whether the movies simply reflected the national culture that already existed or whether they produced a fantasy of their own that eventually came to be accepted as real. In a sense, the point is moot. No doubt the writers, producers, directors, and technicians who worked in the large studio factories during the great age of Hollywood were simply transferring materials they had picked up in “real life” to the screen. No doubt, too, even if those materials weren’t consciously distorted toward political ends, the very fact that the movies amplified certain aspects of our culture and attenuated others had a profound effect.
图 4-13。詹姆斯·迪恩 (James Dean) 为无因的反叛(Nicholas Ray, 1955)拍摄的宣传照。不到一年，他就因车祸去世，年仅二十四岁，完成了传奇。尽管迪恩生前只拍了三部主要电影（《伊甸园之东》、《巨人》和《叛逆者》），但迪恩触动了五十年代观众的心弦，他去世时流露出的悲痛让人想起围绕鲁道夫·瓦伦蒂诺的歇斯底里。三十年前去世。甚至还有一部关于他的死对南方小镇的一些青少年的影响的电影：詹姆斯·布里奇斯的《1955 年 9 月 30 日》（1977 年）。（现代艺术博物馆/金融服务局。）
Figure 4-13. James Dean in a publicity still for Rebel Without a Cause (Nicholas Ray, 1955). Within a year, he was dead in an auto accident at the age of twenty-four, completing the legend. Although he only made three major films before his death (East of Eden and Giant, as well as Rebel), Dean touched a responsive chord in audiences of the fifties, and the outpouring of grief at his death was reminiscent of the hysteria surrounding Rudolph Valentino’s death thirty years earlier. There is even a film about the effects of his death on some teenagers in a small southern town: James Bridges’s September 30, 1955 (1977). (MOMA/FSA.)
因此，两个悖论控制着电影的政治：一方面，电影的形式是革命性的；另一方面，电影的形式是革命性的。另一方面，内容通常是传统价值观的保守派。其次，电影的政治和“现实生活”的政治如此紧密地交织在一起，以至于通常无法确定哪个是原因，哪个是结果。
Thus, two paradoxes control the politics of film: on the one hand, the form of film is revolutionary; on the other, the content is most often conservative of traditional values. Second, the politics of film and the politics of “real life” are so closely intertwined that it is generally impossible to determine which is the cause and which is the effect.
这个讨论主要涉及美国电影。政治与电影之间的关系在其他情况下也同样令人着迷，但电影制片厂的同质工厂系统最微妙地反映（或启发）了周围的政治文化。由于好莱坞电影是批量生产的，它们往往比强烈个人作者的作品更准确地反映周围的文化，或者更准确地说，反映文化中既定的神话。事实上，电影史上许多最著名的导演脱颖而出，正是因为他们的作品在政治上违背了既定的原则：例如卓别林、斯特罗海姆、维多、爱森斯坦、雷诺阿、罗西里尼、戈达尔。
This discussion mainly involves American movies. The relationship between politics and film is no less intriguing in other contexts, but it was the homogeneous factory system of the studios that most subtly reflected (or inspired) the surrounding political culture. Because Hollywood movies were mass-produced, they tended to reflect the surrounding culture—or, more accurately, the established myths of the culture—more precisely than did the work of strongly individual authors. Indeed, many of the most notable auteurs in film history stand out precisely because their work goes against the establishment grain, politically: Chaplin, Stroheim, Vidor, Eisenstein, Renoir, Rossellini, Godard, for example.
电影史的基本真理是，艺术/工业的发展是电影现实主义和电影表现主义之间辩证关系的产物：电影模仿现实的力量和改变现实的力量之间的辩证关系。最早的电影艺术家——卢米埃兄弟和乔治·梅里爱——简洁地展示了现实主义和表现主义之间的这种二分法。然而，模仿/表达的辩证法背后还有另一个更基本的前提：电影风格的定义取决于电影与观众的关系。当电影制片人决定现实主义风格，他或她这样做是为了缩短观看者和拍摄对象之间的距离；另一方面，表现主义风格则希望通过电影技术来改变、感动或逗乐观察者。这两种美学决定本质上都是政治性的，因为它们坚持关系（电影制片人、电影、主题和观察者之间）而不是理想化的抽象系统。通过这种方式，电影本质上也具有政治性：它与观众有着动态的关系。
The basic truism of film history is that the development of the art/industry was a product of the dialectic between film realism and film expressionism: between film’s power to mimic reality and its power to change it. The earliest film artists—the Lumiére brothers and Georges Méliès—succinctly demonstrated this dichotomy between realism and expressionism. Yet, underlying the dialectic of mimesis/expression is another, more basic, premise: that the definition of film style depends on the film’s relationship with its audience. When a filmmaker decides on a realist style, he or she does so to decrease the distance between viewer and subject; the expressionist style, on the other hand, looks to change, move, or amuse the observer through the technique of film. Both these esthetic decisions are essentially political, since they insist on relationships (among filmmaker, film, subject, and observer) rather than idealized abstract systems. In this way, too, film is inherently political: it has a dynamic relationship with its audiences.
图 4-14。(A) 五十年代的白兰度。欲望号街车（埃利亚·卡赞，1951）。白兰度也展现了一种反叛的形象，引起了五十年代公众的想象。但二十年来，性能量发生了变化，产生了……（B）七十年代白兰度的古怪、荒凉的形象。巴黎最后的探戈（贝尔纳多·贝托鲁奇，1972）。眼睛、表情、手势、与女人的关系都很相似，但二十年后变得更加老练。(C) 九十年代的白兰度。《莫罗博士之岛》， 1996 年。他是第一位塑造出深思熟虑的演员和个性形象的伟大明星，也是第一批将自己描绘成漫画的人之一。
Figure 4-14. (A) Brando in the fifties. A Streetcar Named Desire (Elia Kazan, 1951). Brando, too, projected an image of rebellion that caught the public imagination of the fifties. But in twenty years the sexual energy had modified to produce the quirky, desolate image of… (B) Brando in the seventies. Last Tango in Paris (Bernardo Bertolucci, 1972). The eyes, the look, the gestures, the relationships with women were similar, but more seasoned after twenty years. (C) Brando in the nineties. The Island of Dr. Moreau, 1996. He was the first of the great stars to develop an image as a thoughtful actor as well as a personality, and also one of the first to become a caricature of himself.
总结一下：每部电影都在以下三个层面中的一个或多个层面上表现出政治本质：
To summarize: every film exhibits a political nature on one or more of these three levels:
图 4-15。1968 年芝加哥民主党大会周围的骚乱构成了哈斯克尔·韦克斯勒 (Haskell Wexler) 的《Medium Cool》 (1969) 的背景。韦克斯勒将自己和他的团队沉浸在现实中，撰写了一篇感人的文章，讲述电视灌输的被动性。在一句著名的台词中，韦克斯勒的一名船员对他喊道：“小心，哈斯克尔。它是真实的！” 当催泪瓦斯罐开始在电影制片人和他们的拍摄对象周围爆炸时。
Figure 4-15. The riots surrounding the Democratic Party convention in Chicago 1968 formed the background for Haskell Wexler’s Medium Cool (1969). Immersing himself and his crew in reality, Wexler crafted a moving essay about the passivity that television inculcates. In a famous line, one of Wexler’s crew shouts to him, “Look out, Haskell. It’s real!” as the teargas canisters start popping around the filmmakers—as well as their subjects.
本体论上，因为电影媒介本身就倾向于解构文化的传统价值观；
ontologically, because the medium of film itself tends to deconstruct the traditional values of the culture;
模仿，因为任何电影要么反映现实，要么再现现实（及其政治）；
mimetically, because any film either reflects reality or recreates it (and its politics);
从本质上讲，因为电影强烈的交流性质赋予了电影与观察者之间的自然政治维度。
inherently, because the intense communicative nature of film gives the relationship between film and observer a natural political dimension.
那么，电影的政治史很可能比美学史复杂三倍，因为我们应该追踪所有三个政治方面的发展。我们只有篇幅来考察电影政治的几个最显着的特征。
A political history of film, then, might very well be three times as complex as an esthetic history, since we should trace the development of all three political facets. We have space to examine only a few of the most salient features of film politics.
从本体论来看，我们所掌握的电影从根本上改变了传统价值观的最佳证据在于名人现象。以前，社会的英雄典范要么纯粹是虚构的作品，要么是真实的有成就的人（我们只是远远地认识他们）。电影融合了这两种类型：真实的人变成了虚构的人物。“明星”的概念得到了发展——明星与“演员”有很大不同。最重要的是道格拉斯·费尔班克斯扮演的角色不是罗宾汉或佐罗，而是“道格拉斯·费尔班克斯”。（事实上，道格拉斯·费尔班克斯是由道格拉斯·厄尔曼（Douglas Ullman）扮演的——他的原名。）同样，查尔斯·卓别林（Charles Chaplin）扮演的不是希特勒或凡尔杜先生，而是流浪汉“夏洛”和玛丽·碧克馥（与卓别林和费尔班克斯联队）艺术家，他们那个时代的杰出明星）永远被称为“小玛丽，美国的甜心”。当她在二十多岁试图改变自己的公众形象时，她的职业生涯结束了。
Ontologically, the best evidence we have that film has radically altered traditional values lies in the phenomenon of celebrity. Previously, heroic models for society were either purely fictional creations or real people of accomplishment (whom we knew only at a remove). Film fused the two types: real people became fictional characters. The concept of the “star” developed—and stars are quite different from “actors.” The most important role Douglas Fairbanks played was not Robin Hood or Zorro, but “Douglas Fairbanks.” (In fact, Douglas Fairbanks was played by Douglas Ullman—his original name.) Likewise, Charles Chaplin played, not Hitler or Monsieur Verdoux, but always “Charlot,” the tramp, and Mary Pick-ford (with Chaplin and Fairbanks the United Artists, the preeminent stars of their day) was forever typecast as “Little Mary, America’s sweetheart.” When she tried in the late twenties to change her public image, her career came to an end.
图 4-16。《耻辱之疤》（1927 年）中的露西娅·林恩·摩西，由有色人种电影公司出品，弗兰克·佩雷吉尼执导。（现代艺术博物馆/金融服务局。）
Figure 4-16. Lucia Lynn Moses in The Scar of Shame (1927), produced by the Colored Players Film Corp., and directed by Frank Peregini. (MOMA/FSA.)
早期的电影制片人似乎很清楚明星现象的潜力。他们坚持要求演员匿名工作。然而，1912 年，第一本粉丝杂志出现，其中标有“传记女孩”和“小玛丽”。几年后，从匿名状态中解放出来后，卓别林和皮克福德开始争夺两人中谁会第一个签署百万美元的合同。显然，《小玛丽》和《夏洛特》引起了观众的共鸣。从那时起，明星与公众之间的关系就一直是电影的神话性质和政治性质的主要元素。
Early film producers seem to have been well aware of the potential of the phenomenon of stardom. They insisted that their actors work in anonymity. In 1912, however, the first fan magazines appeared, identifying “the Biograph Girl” and “Little Mary.” A few years later, having been liberated from anonymity, Chaplin and Pickford were vying to see which of the two would be the first to sign a million-dollar contract. Clearly, Little Mary and Charlot had struck responsive chords in audiences. The relationship between stars and the public has been a prime element of the mythic, and hence political, nature of film ever since.
“明星”通过名义上的角色来表现自己的角色。“名人”主要以“他们自己”的身份出现，用丹尼尔·布尔斯廷（Daniel Boorstin）的恰当说法来说，“名人”是“因为他们的知名度”而闻名。我们倾向于淡化这种现象的重要性，但明星是一种前所未有的非凡心理模型。
“Stars” act out their personas through nominal character roles. “Celebrities” appear mainly as “themselves” and are known, in Daniel Boorstin’s apt phrase, “for their well-knownness.” We tend to downplay the significance of this phenomenon, yet stars are extraordinary psychological models of a type that never existed before.
我们可以将名人现象的发展追溯到十九世纪的巡回演讲，当时查尔斯·狄更斯和马克·吐温（顺便说一下，塞缪尔·克莱门斯创造的一个“人物”）等知识分子英雄向崇拜的观众表演自己。 。然而，直到“机械复制时代”，这些名人的影响力还很小。1926 年，鲁道夫·瓦伦蒂诺 (Rudolph Valentino) 短暂而平庸的电影演员生涯结束后，公众对他的去世表示悲痛，其强度和规模超过了当时任何类似公众死亡事件的反应。直到政客成为名人之后，暗杀受害者才引起如此普遍的哀悼。
We can trace the development of the phenomenon of celebrity back to the lecture circuits of the nineteenth century, where intellectual heroes such as Charles Dickens and Mark Twain (a “character,” by the way, created by Samuel Clemens) played themselves to adoring audiences. Yet, until the “age of mechanical reproduction,” these celebrities reached few people. The public outpouring of grief over the death of Rudolph Valentino in 1926, after his short and undistinguished career as a film actor, exceeded in intensity and dimension the reaction to any similar public death up to that time. It was only after politicians became celebrities that victims of assassination elicited such universal mourning.
尽管制片厂大亨试图人工打造如此规模的明星，但他们很少成功。明星曾经是——现在仍然是——公众的创造：政治和心理模型，他们表现出我们共同钦佩的某些品质。*客观地说，克拉克·盖博的外表并不比三十年代的其他许多年轻男主角更具吸引力，但他所展现的人物形象中有些东西触动了人们的心弦。亨弗莱·鲍嘉并不是一位杰出的演员，按照好莱坞的标准当然也算不上英俊，但他不仅成为了他这一代人的核心榜样，也成为了他们的孩子们的核心榜样。随着演员成为明星，他们的形象开始直接影响观众。好莱坞风格的明星电影依赖于在英雄和观众之间建立强烈的认同感。我们从他的角度看问题。效果微妙但强烈。
Although studio moguls tried to construct stars of this magnitude artificially, they seldom succeeded. Stars were—and still are—the creation of the public: political and psychological models who demonstrate some quality that we collectively admire.* Clark Gable was objectively no more physically attractive than dozens of other young leading men of the thirties, yet there was something in the persona he projected that touched a responsive chord. Humphrey Bogart was not an extraordinary actor and certainly not handsome by Hollywood standards, yet he became a central role model not only for his own generation but also for their children. As the actors became stars, their images began to affect audiences directly. Star cinema—Hollywood style—depends on creating a strong identification between hero and audience. We see things from his point of view. The effect is subtle but intense.
这种现象并非好莱坞独有。六十年代，欧洲电影展现了同样神秘的认同力量。当让-保罗·贝尔蒙多在让-吕克·戈达尔的《屏息》（1960）中以汉弗莱·鲍嘉为模特时，他宣告了第二代名人的出现，这是一位展现历史意识的人。马塞洛·马斯楚安尼 (Marcello Mastroianni) 成为欧洲存在主义男子气概的缩影。1996年去世时，他被视为民族英雄。珍妮·莫罗 (Jeanne Moreau) 是智慧、自信的欧洲女性的典范，马克斯·冯·西多 (Max von Sydow) 和丽芙·乌尔曼 (Liv Ullmann) 则是这两位典范的瑞典版本。伊夫·蒙当本质上是高卢·鲍嘉。后来，热拉尔·德帕迪约成为了他这一代人的偶像。
Nor is this phenomenon peculiar to Hollywood. In the sixties, European cinema demonstrated some of the same mystical power of identification. When Jean-Paul Belmondo models himself on Humphrey Bogart in Jean-Luc Godard’s Breathless (1960), he is announcing a second generation of celebrity, one that demonstrates a historical consciousness. Marcello Mastroianni became the epitome of existential European manhood. At his death in 1996 he was treated like a national hero. Jeanne Moreau was the model for wise, self-assured European womanhood, Max von Sydow and Liv Ullmann the Swedish versions of the two models. Yves Montand served as the essentially Gallic Bogart. Later, Gérard Depardieu became an icon of his generation.
图 4-17。“美国甜心”，《小玛丽碧克馥》（约 1920 年）：香肠卷、格子花布和可爱的小狗。（马克·沃纳梅克/Bison Art Ltd.）
Figure 4-17. “America’s Sweetheart,” Little Mary Pickford (c. 1920): sausage curls, gingham, and cute puppies. (Marc Wanamaker/Bison Art Ltd.)
图 4-18。朱迪·嘉兰饰演多萝西（1939 年）：扎着辫子，穿格子布，充满童年幻想：美国第二代甜心。（野牛艺术有限公司）
Figure 4-18. Judy Garland as Dorothy (1939): pigtails, more gingham, and childhood fantasies: America’s second-generation sweetheart. (Bison Art Ltd.)
但这些人既是演员又是明星，所以效果不大。在他们的职业生涯中，有时个人角色会取代明星形象。随着美国电影在六十年代重新焕发活力，像欧洲人这样的新一代明星开始涌现，他们展现了批判性的智慧和强大的人物形象。从政治上来说，这是一个重要的进步。最有害的是，好莱坞明星体系从心理上发挥作用，禁止那些不符合其自身形象的角色。扮演鲍嘉、盖博或约翰·韦恩的角色是可以接受的，但直到 20 世纪 60 年代末，没有哪个男明星不是硬汉（如这三人）或老练温文尔雅（如弗雷德·阿斯泰尔或加里·格兰特）。因为我们现在可以批评名人，所以当代观众喜欢更广泛的类型。
But these people are actors as well as stars, so the effect is muted. There are occasions in their careers when individual roles supersede star personas. As American films came back to life in the sixties, a new generation of stars like the Europeans developed, displaying critical intelligence as well as powerful personas. Politically, this is an important advance. At its most deleterious, the Hollywood star system worked psychologically to outlaw roles that did not fit its own images. It was acceptable to act like Bogart, Gable, or John Wayne, but until the late 1960s there was no male star who was not a tough guy (like this trio) or sophisticated and urbane (like Fred Astaire or Cary Grant). Because we can now be critical of celebrities, contemporary audiences enjoy a wider range of types.
在很大程度上，至少在电影占主导地位的国家，电影有助于定义文化上允许的内容：它是社会的共同经验。因为它的榜样在心理上是如此强大，所以那些它没有提供榜样的角色对于社会个体成员来说甚至都很难想象，更不用说付诸行动了。就像民间故事一样，电影表达禁忌并帮助解决它们。正如我们所指出的，因果关系尚不清楚，但有趣的是，美国 20 世纪 60 年代的准革命风俗早于更多的风俗。20世纪50年代的两大明星——马龙·白兰度和詹姆斯·迪恩——用了不到五年的时间，他们都非常叛逆。更具体地说，让-吕克·戈达尔的电影《中国人》描绘了一群来自南泰尔巴黎大学的革命学生，它比 1968 年 5 月至 6 月的起义早了整整一年，事实上，南泰尔的学生在这场起义中处于先锋地位。流产的真正革命，就像他们在戈达尔虚构的叛乱中一样。
To a large extent, at least in nations in which film is dominant, the cinema helps to define what is permissible culturally: it is the shared experience of the society. Because its role models are so psychologically powerful, those roles for which it provides no models are difficult for individual members of society even to conceive, much less act out. Like folktales, films express taboos and help to resolve them. The cause-and-effect relationship is, as we noted, not clear, but it is interesting to note that the quasi-revolutionary mores of the 1960s in America were predated by more than five years by the two major star personas of the 1950s—Marlon Brando and James Dean—both of which were notably rebellious. More specifically, Jean-Luc Godard’s film La Chinoise, which portrayed a group of revolutionary students from the University of Paris at Nanterre, predated the uprising of May-June 1968 by precisely a year and, indeed, students from Nanterre were in the vanguard during the aborted real revolution, just as they had been in Godard’s fictional rebellion.
在机械复制时代，小说拥有前所未有的力量。
In the age of mechanical reproduction, fiction has a force it never had before.
由于它的普及程度如此之高，电视已经取代了电影的大部分民间故事功能。哈斯克尔·韦克斯勒 (Haskell Wexler) 的《Medium Cool》（1969）对媒体与政治之间的关系进行了精彩的分析，一群黑人激进分子向一名电视记者发起挑战：“你把他放在六点、十点和十二点钟方向上。”新闻，”他们要求其中一个角色，“那么他就是真实的！” 媒体在确定行为、人或想法的有效性方面的功能是六十年代激进政治的核心真理之一，并且一直到原声摘要时代仍然如此。
Because it is so much more pervasive, television has taken over a large part of the folktale function of cinema. In Haskell Wexler’s Medium Cool (1969), a brilliant analysis of the relationship between media and politics, a group of Black militants challenge a television reporter: “You put him on the six-, the ten-, and the twelve-o’clock news,” they demand for one of the characters, “then he be real!” The function of media in determining the validity of an action, person, or idea was one of the central truths of radical politics in the sixties and has remained so into the age of the sound bite.
电影这种“验证”现实的不同寻常的能力是其最重要的模仿政治功能。例如，20世纪60年代的黑人权力运动提供的最有说服力的社会批评之一是对黑人在整个电影和电视史上理所当然地遭受的固有种族主义特征的历史分析。在这方面，媒体也忠实地反映了社会的价值观。但他们也夸大了真实情况。一般来说（也有一些例外），电影将黑人描绘成奴隶角色。更重要的是，黑人只被用来扮演黑人——也就是说，种族是一个重要因素的角色。20 世纪 60 年代黑人权力运动的伟大成就之一就是开始打破这一障碍。黑人律师、医生、商人——甚至英雄——现在都得到了媒体的认可。直到九十年代，选角导演很少聘请非裔美国人来扮演非“黑人”的角色。
This unusual ability of film to “validate” reality is its most important mimetic political function. For example, one of the most telling social criticisms provided by the Black Power movement of the 1960s was its historical analysis of the inherently racist characterizations to which Blacks had been subjected as a matter of course throughout the history of film and television. In this respect, too, the media faithfully reflected the values of the society. But they also exaggerated the real situation. In general (there were some exceptions), films pictured Blacks in servile roles. More important, Blacks were used only to play Blacks—that is, in roles in which race was a significant element. One of the great accomplishments of the Black Power movement of the 1960s was to begin to crack that barrier. Black lawyers, doctors, businessmen—even heroes—are now validated by the media. Until the nineties it was rare for a casting director to hire an African-American to play a role that wasn’t specified as “Black.”
与我们文化的许多其他方面一样，种族政治的进步似乎已经停滞了三十年。*从表面上看，20 世纪 90 年代主流电影中非裔美国人的角色并不比 1970 年代更多或更好。中的一个八十年代更光明的发展是新一批非裔美国导演在好莱坞边缘站稳了脚跟。然而，斯派克·李、马蒂·里奇和约翰·辛格尔顿等电影制片人的有趣作品与 25 年前的第一波黑人电影没有任何联系；他们不是建立在上一代人的工作之上；他们不得不重新开始。
As with so many other aspects of our culture, progress in racial politics seems to have been in a state of suspension for thirty years.* On the face of it, there were no more—or better—roles for African-Americans in the 1990s in mainstream films than there were in the 1970s. One of the brighter developments of the eighties was the new group of African-American directors who established themselves on the fringes of Hollywood. Yet there is nothing to connect the interesting work of filmmakers like Spike Lee, Matty Rich, and John Singleton with the first wave of Black film 25 years earlier; they are not building on the work of the previous generation; they had to start over again.
图 4-19。克拉拉·鲍（Clara Bow）是一名IT女孩，她在二十多岁的时候展现出强烈的性感形象，但她的幽默感使仍然清教徒的美国观众能够接受。自此，“SA”——性感——为这个行业提供了动力。
Figure 4-19. Clara Bow, the IT girl, projected a powerful sexual image in the twenties, but with a sense of humor that made her acceptable to still-puritan American audiences. “S.A.”—sex appeal—has powered the industry since.
种族主义在美国电影中普遍存在，因为它是美国历史上的一个基本特征。电影史上令人悲伤的事实之一是，具有里程碑意义的《一个国家的诞生》（1915）尽管存在公然的种族主义，但仍普遍被誉为经典。无论展示多少技术专长、投入多少资金或艺术效果，都不应超过其基本的种族主义基调。《一个国家的诞生》，但我们仍在继续研究电影史，因为它目前的写作方式是赞扬电影的形式，而忽略了其令人反感的内容。
Racism pervades American film because it is a basic strain in American history. It is one of the sad facts of film history that the landmark The Birth of a Nation (1915) is generally hailed as a classic despite its blatant racism. No amount of technical expertise demonstrated, money invested, or artistic effect should be allowed to outweigh the essential racist tone of The Birth of a Nation, yet we continue in film history as it is presently written to praise the film for its form, ignoring its offensive content.
图 4-20。在凯瑟琳·赫本、罗莎琳德·拉塞尔和贝蒂·戴维斯等独立、机智、坚强的女明星出现二十五年后，美国电影在五十年代初回归原始的“SA”。玛丽莲·梦露非凡的职业生涯见证了她在银幕上描绘男性幻想，同时在银幕外大胆探索五十年代风格色情的界限。她的裸体日历姿势在当时会被认为是色情的。这是她最后一次拍照的照片，距她去世六周。伯特·斯特恩是摄影师。（经许可使用。）
Figure 4-20. After twenty-five years of independent, witty, strong women stars like Katharine Hepburn, Rosalind Russell, and Bette Davis, American film returned to raw “S.A.” in the early fifties. Marilyn Monroe’s remarkable career saw her portray male fantasies on screen while she boldly explored the boundaries of fifties-style eroticism off-screen. Her nude calendar poses would have been considered pornographic at the time. This is a shot from her last photo session, six weeks before her death. Bert Stern was the photographer. (Used with permission.)
这并不是说格里菲斯的杰作是反常的。直到五十年代末，种族刻板印象在电影中普遍存在，然后在电视中普遍存在。以前也有过出于良心的自由主义行为——比如金·维多的《哈利路亚》（1929）或埃利亚·卡赞的《粉红》（1949）等电影——但即使是这些电影也几乎无一例外地带有微妙的居高临下的特征。直到六十年代末，黑人才开始在美国电影中扮演非定型角色。
This is not to imply that Griffith’s masterpiece was anomalous. Until the late fifties, racial stereotypes were pervasive in film, then in television. There had been liberal acts of conscience before—films such as King Vidor’s Hallelujah (1929) or Elia Kazan’s Pinky (1949)—but even these were almost without exception marked by subtle condescension. It was not until the late sixties that Blacks began to take on nonstereotypical roles in American film.
现在这样的选角并不少见。在好莱坞工作的黑人导演可能并不比二十年前更多，但全新一代强大的黑人演员已经形成了真正的票房影响力。
Now such casting is not uncommon. There may be no more Black directors working in Hollywood than there were twenty years ago, but a whole new generation of powerful Black actors has developed real box-office clout.
图 4-21。在同一时期，多丽丝·戴 (Doris Day) 的角色同样有限——而且是有限的——即使她是梦露性感小猫的邻家女孩陪衬。
Figure 4-21. During the same period, Doris Day’s roles were just as limited—and limiting—even if she was the girl-next-door foil to Monroe’s sex kitten.
艾迪·墨菲一马当先，将他在《周六夜现场》中的成功转化为坚实的电影事业。从一连串的成功开始并没有什么坏处：《48 小时》 (1982)、《交换地方》 (1983)、《比佛利山刑警》 (1984)。
Eddie Murphy led the way, parlaying his success on Saturday Night Live into a solid film career. It didn’t hurt to start with a string of successes: 48 Hours (1982), Trading Places (1983), Beverly Hills Cop (1984).
丹泽尔·华盛顿也遵循了类似的道路：他在八十年代电视剧《圣别处》中的角色在九十年代演变成电影生涯。华盛顿在斯派克·李执导的《马尔科姆·X 》（1992）中扮演了出色的主角后，他的票房表现非常出色，并尝试了各种各样的角色。作为导演—— 《安特万·费舍尔》( Antwone Fisher，2002 年)、《大辩论家》(The Great Debaters，2007 年)，他利用自己的影响力，将工作室通常回避的故事搬上银幕。
Denzel Washington followed a similar path: his role in the television drama St. Elsewhere in the eighties evolved into a movie career in the nineties. After his remarkable title role in Spike Lee’s Malcolm X (1992) Washington was eminently bankable and essayed a wide range of roles. As a director—Antwone Fisher (2002), The Great Debaters (2007)—he has used his clout to bring to the screen the kinds of stories studios usually eschew.
威尔·史密斯比他的前辈做得更好，从一名说唱歌手开始，然后将他作为说唱明星的成功职业生涯转变为一部热门电视剧（《新鲜王子妙事多》），最后以两部热门动作片《独立日》确保了他的电影生涯（1996）和黑衣人（1997）。
Will Smith did his predecessors one better, starting as a rapper, then turning his successful career as a rap star into a hit television series (Fresh Prince of Bel-Air) before ensuring his film career with two smash-hit action films—Independence Day (1996), and Men in Black (1997).
这三位并不孤单：想想摩根·弗里曼、塞缪尔·杰克逊、杰米·福克斯、福里斯特·惠特克，尤其是唐·钱德尔的杰出作品。遗憾的是，在远程一侧，现场并不那么拥挤。哈莉·贝瑞没有太多陪伴。
These three aren’t alone: consider the outstanding work of Morgan Freeman, Samuel L. Jackson, Jamie Foxx, Forest Whitaker, and especially Don Cheadle. On the distaff side the field is, sadly, less crowded. Halle Berry doesn’t have much company.
美洲原住民和黑人一样受到恶劣的对待。由于他们是西部片流行类型中不可或缺的一部分，因此他们在银幕上的出现频率比黑人更高，但刻板印象同样具有破坏性。在这方面也有一些例外。可能是因为这场战斗
Native Americans were as poorly served as Blacks. Since they were integral to the popular genre of the Western, they were seen on screen more often than Blacks, but the stereotypes were just as damaging. There were a few exceptions in this regard. Possibly because the battle had
图 4-22。婴儿潮一代炫耀它。_ 虽然我们还没有看到三四十年代女性所表现出的独立智慧和性格深度的回归，但后现代好莱坞在一方面是引人注目的：随着以简·方达和芭芭拉·史翠珊为首的六七十年代女演员的衰老直到五十多岁，他们仍然继续扮演浪漫的主角。也许是自十八世纪以来，中年女性第一次被允许保留甚至炫耀自己的性欲。（当然，自《费尔班克斯》以来，美国男人在银幕上优雅而性感地变老。） (A) 《欲望都市》主演金·凯特罗尔 (Kim Cattrall) 52 岁。(B) 《婚礼不速之客》(Wedding Crashers ) (2005)中的简·西摩 (Jane Seymour) 54 岁。(C) 梅丽尔 (Meryl)斯特里普 57 岁。(D) 黛安·基顿 57 岁，出演南希·迈耶斯 2003 年的喜剧《Something's Gotta Give》，主题是老年性爱。
Figure 4-22. BOOMERS FLAUNT IT. While we have not seen a return to the independent wit and depth of character the women of the thirties and forties showed, postmodern Hollywood has been remarkable in one respect: as the actresses of the sixties and seventies aged, led by Jane Fonda and Barbra Streisand, they continued to play romantic leads well into their fifties. For the first time since perhaps the eighteenth century, middle-aged women were allowed to retain their sexuality, even flaunt it. (Of course, American men had aged gracefully and sexily on the screen ever since Fairbanks.) (A) Sex and the City star Kim Cattrall at 52. (B) Jane Seymour in Wedding Crashers (2005) at 54. (C) Meryl Streep at 57. (D) Diane Keaton at 57 in Nancy Meyers’s 2003 comedy Something’s Gotta Give, whose subject is senior sex.
图 4-23。我们还没有恢复 20 世纪 40 年代的性别政治平衡，这当然更多是我们自己的错，而不是好莱坞的错。尽管经历了三十五年的“性革命”和活跃的女权运动二十五年，但九十年代的性行为往往是酸涩的和功能失调的，正如莎朗·斯通在这张宣传照中所暗示的那样。八百年的浪漫，肉体依然愿意，但抒情的精神却淡薄了。也许是时候为尤特佩、埃拉托和塔利亚建造新神庙了。
Figure 4-23. That we haven’t yet regained the sexual political equilibrium of the 1940s is certainly more our own fault than Hollywood’s. Despite thirty-five years of “sexual revolution” and twenty-five years of an active feminist movement, sexuality in the nineties was, more often than not, sour and dysfunctional, as suggested here in this Sharon Stone publicity shot. After eight hundred years of Romance, the flesh remains willing but the lyric spirit is weak. Perhaps it is time to build new temples for Euterpe, Erato, and Thalia.
在战胜了印第安人之后，偶尔也会制作一些电影来以积极的、人性的眼光来描绘他们。托马斯·因斯 (Thomas Ince) 的《印第安人大屠杀》 (The Indian Massacre，1913) 就是一个早期的例子。约翰·福特的《夏安之秋》（1964）是后来的一个例子。
already been won against the Indians, films were occasionally produced that portrayed them in a positive, human light. Thomas Ince’s The Indian Massacre (1913) is an early example; John Ford’s Cheyenne Autumn (1964) a later instance.
尽管亚裔美国人在美国文化中的影响力迅速增加，但他们在电影领域却相对安静。20 世纪 70 年代的李小龙和 1990 年代的儿子布兰登都曾在武术界占据主导地位，但他们都早逝，但出奇地相似。
Despite their rapidly increasing influence in U.S. culture, Asian-Americans have been relatively quiet on the film front. Bruce Lee in the 1970s and his son Brandon in the 1990s both dominated the martial-arts genre before their eerily similar early deaths.
王伟出生于香港，自《失踪的陈》（1981）、 《点心：一点心》（1985）和《吃一碗茶》（1989）以来，他在处理亚裔美国人话题上取得了非凡的成功。凭借谭恩美有关移民母亲和她们的美国女儿的畅销小说《喜福会》（1993），他吸引了更广泛的观众。《烟雾》（Smoke，1995）讲述了布鲁克林一家雪茄店的故事，标志着向一般题材的转变。《曼哈顿女仆》（2002）让詹妮弗·洛佩兹与拉尔夫·费因斯在一部制作精良的浪漫喜剧中展开对决。王在《美好祈祷一千年》（2007）中回到了文化和代际差异的主题。
Wayne Wang, born in Hong Kong, has had singular success dealing with Asian-American topics since Chan Is Missing (1981), Dim Sum: A Little Bit of Heart (1985), and Eat a Bowl of Tea (1989). With The Joy Luck Club (1993), from the popular Amy Tan novel about immigrant mothers and their American daughters, he reached a wider audience. Smoke (1995), about a Brooklyn cigar store, marked a move into general subjects. Maid in Manhattan (2002) pitted Jennifer Lopez against Ralph Fiennes in a nicely made romantic comedy. Wang returned to themes of cultural and generational differences in A Thousand Years of Good Prayers (2007).
李安的职业生涯或许更加不寻常。他出生于台湾，就读于纽约大学电影学院，然后回国执导了《喜宴》（1993）和《饮食男女》（1994），这两部不同寻常的电影讲述了文化态度和社会传统。毫不犹豫地回来在西部，他主演了《理智与情感》（1995）和冷酷心理剧《冰风暴》（1997）。《卧虎藏龙》（2000）探索了中国武术，而《断背山》则以美国西部壮丽的风景为背景讲述了一个同性恋爱情故事。两部电影虽然截然不同，但都取得了票房上的成功。跨文化的共鸣非常有趣。
Ang Lee has had perhaps an even more unusual career. Born in Taiwan, he attended NYU film school, then returned home to direct The Wedding Banquet (1993) and Eat Drink Man Woman (1994), two unusual films about cultural attitudes and social traditions. Without skipping a beat, back in the west he scored with Sense and Sensibility (1995) and the cold psychological drama The Ice Storm (1997). Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000) explored Chinese martial arts while Brokeback Mountain set a gay love story against the magnificent scenery of the American west. Both films—so disparate—were box-office successes. The trans-cultural resonances are quite intriguing.
在演员中，吴珊卓（Sandra Oh）取得了独特的地位。在主演了《托斯卡纳艳阳下》（2003 年，奥黛丽·威尔斯）和《杯酒人生》 （2004 年，亚历山大·佩恩）等独立影片后，她在热门电视剧《实习医生格蕾》 （2005-2008）中扮演了重要角色，确认了她的公众形象。很少有亚裔美国演员能达到这种明星水平。
Among actors, Sandra Oh has achieved a unique status. After leading roles in independent features like Under the Tuscan Sun (2003, Audrey Wells) and Sideways (2004, Alexander Payne), she landed a key role in the popular series Grey’s Anatomy (2005-2008) affirming her public persona. Few Asian-American actors have reached this level of stardom.
美国电影中的女性形象是一个更为复杂的问题。二十年代的电影似乎在普及独立女性形象方面起了很大作用。甚至像克拉拉·鲍和梅·韦斯特这样的女妖，在充当男性幻想的同时，也能够表现出一种独立感和对自己刻板角色的讽刺精神。而且，三四十年代电影中的女性形象总体上与男性几乎相当。一个敏感的女权主义理论家可以在那个时期的电影中发现许多刻板的局限性，这是事实，但对我们大多数人来说，将电影中的三四十年代与九十年代或应该进行比较，就会意识到，尽管当代女性的意识觉醒了，在电影方面，我们可能还没有恢复到三十年代中期的性政治智慧水平。凯瑟琳·赫本、贝蒂·戴维斯、琼·布朗德尔、卡罗尔·隆巴德、玛娜·洛伊、芭芭拉·斯坦威克、艾琳·邓恩，甚至琼·克劳馥等女演员都展现了聪明、独立、敏感和平等性的形象，这是我们此后很少见到的。
The image of women in American film is a more complex issue. It seems likely that in the twenties movies did much to popularize the image of the independent woman. Even sirens such as Clara Bow and Mae West, while serving as male fantasies, were at the same time able to project a sense of independence and a spirit of irony about their stereotyped roles. Moreover, the image of women in films of the thirties and forties, on the whole, was very nearly coequal with that of men. A sensitive feminist theorist can detect numerous stereotypical limitations in the films of that period, it is true, but for most of us to compare the thirties or forties in film with the nineties or oughts is to realize that despite the awakened consciousness of contemporary women, cinematically we may not yet have regained the level of intelligence of the sexual politics of even the mid-thirties. Actresses like Katharine Hepburn, Bette Davis, Joan Blondell, Carole Lombard, Myrna Loy, Barbara Stanwyck, Irene Dunne, and even Joan Crawford projected images of intelligence, independence, sensitivity, and egalitarian sexuality the likes of which we have rarely seen since.
做这个思想实验：试着想想一些当代女演员，她们的形象与三四十年代的偶像一样强大。在苏珊·萨兰登、梅丽尔·斯特里普、艾玛·汤普森和格伦·克洛斯（现在已经很多年了）之后，你会遇到一些麻烦。查理兹·塞隆、瑞茜·威瑟斯彭、乌玛·瑟曼、蕾妮·齐薇格、劳拉·琳妮、妮可·基德曼、朱丽安·摩尔、希拉里·斯万克等年轻女演员，甚至凯特·温斯莱特和凯特·布兰切特，都是非常有才华的女演员，但她们并没有表现出强大的明确定义。就像他们三十多岁的同行所做的那样。（安吉丽娜·朱莉可能是证明这一规则的例外。）也许这就是为什么近年来人们对伟大的朱迪·丹奇和海伦·米伦如此关注。
Do this thought experiment: try to think of some contemporary actresses who have developed personas as strong as those icons of the thirties and forties. After Susan Sarandon, Meryl Streep, Emma Thompson, and Glenn Close (now all well along in years) you’ll have some trouble. Younger actresses like Charlize Theron, Reese Witherspoon, Uma Thurman, Renee Zellweger, Laura Linney, Nicole Kidman, Julianne Moore, Hilary Swank—even Kate Winslet and Cate Blanchett—are all highly talented actresses, but they don’t show strong well-defined personas as their thirties counterparts did. (Angelina Jolie may yet be the exception that proves the rule.) Perhaps this is why so much attention has been paid in recent years to the grand Dames Judi Dench and Helen Mirren.
图 4-24。汤米·李·琼斯和威尔·史密斯在《黑衣人》中。想象一下这样的音调：“嗯，这就像布鲁斯兄弟遇到了外星人——但有一个转折。”
Figure 4-24. Tommy Lee Jones and Will Smith in Men in Black. Imagine the pitch: “Well, it’s like the Blues Brothers meet Alien—but with a twist.”
我们可以对当前的男演员征收同样的指控吗？我不这么认为。总的来说，他们的表现不如他们的父辈和祖父辈那么令人印象深刻，但每一个单色的汤姆·克鲁斯都有一个色彩缤纷的汤姆·汉克斯；每一个局促的约翰尼·德普，都有一个迷人的乔治·克鲁尼，一个广泛的威尔·史密斯，一个强大的丹泽尔·华盛顿，或者一个富有创造力的唐·钱德尔。
Could we levy the same charges against the current crop of male actors? I don’t think so. Over all, they are a less impressive group than their fathers and grandfathers, but for every monochromatic Tom Cruise there is a colorful Tom Hanks; for every cramped Johnny Depp, there’s an engaging George Clooney, a wide-ranging Will Smith, a powerful Denzel Washington, or a creative Don Cheadle.
随着明星玛丽莲·梦露（童女诱惑者）和多丽丝·戴（贞洁的邻家女孩）所塑造的人物形象的出现，三四十年代的女权主义精神在五十年代初戛然而止。在这两者中，戴伊和类似女演员所展现的形象是最受青睐的。她从未实现真正的独立，但她常常不仅仅是像梦露那样的男性幻想。早期明星级别的女演员并非不存在。例如，西德尼·卢美特（Sidney Lumet）的《The Group》（1966）由八位年轻女演员而非一位主演，其中至少有七位表现出了才华。然而，只有坎迪斯·伯根此后取得了真正的成功——而且她花了二十多年的时间。随着六十年代末“伙伴”电影的出现（其中最受欢迎的早期例子是《虎豹小霸王》， 1969 年），女性所扮演的少数主要角色几乎消失了。
The feminist spirit of the thirties and forties came to an abrupt end in the early fifties with the advent of the personas projected by stars Marilyn Monroe (the child-woman seductress) and Doris Day (the virginal girl-next-door). Of the two, the image projected by Day and similar actresses was to be preferred. She never achieved real independence, but she was often more than simply a male fantasy, like Monroe. It wasn’t as if actresses of the caliber of the earlier stars didn’t exist. Sidney Lumet’s The Group (1966), for example, starred not one but eight young actresses, at least seven of whom showed talent. Yet only Candice Bergen achieved real success thereafter—and it took her more than twenty years. With the advent of the “buddy” film in the late sixties (the most popular early example of which was Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid, 1969), what few major roles there were for women very nearly disappeared.
过去五十年美国电影中的性政治是电影不仅仅反映现实政治的一个明显领域。在五十年代，这在一定程度上可能是正确的，当时我们的民族文化致力于哄骗已经获得一定程度独立的女性。战争期间回到家乡。但这肯定是对从七十年代到本应该的现实世界的错误描述，当时数以百万计的女性正在提高自己的意识，即使不是她们配偶的意识。
The sexual politics of the past fifty years in American movies is one clear area in which film does not simply reflect the politics of reality. This may have been true to a certain extent in the fifties, when our national culture was intent on coaxing women who had gained a measure of independence during the war back into the home. But it was certainly a false picture of the real world from the seventies through the oughts when millions of women were raising their own consciousness, if not their spouses’.
图 4-25。六十年代女性的角色较五十年代只略有改善。总体而言，这十年来，男性在美国银幕上占据主导地位，因为这部伙伴电影颂扬了男性之间的联系。在这里，保罗·纽曼和罗伯特·雷德福在《虎豹小霸王》 （1969 年）中持枪外出，这也许是《巴迪》电影的典范。
Figure 4-25. The sixties saw only a little improvement over the fifties in women’s roles. On the whole, men dominated the American screens of the decade, as the buddy film celebrated male bonding. Here, Paul Newman and Robert Redford go out with guns blazing in Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969), perhaps the apotheosis of Buddy films.
例如，马丁·斯科塞斯的《爱丽丝不再住在这里》（1975）是七十年代第一批因其“女权主义”手法而受到称赞的电影之一；然而，这部电影向我们展示了一个女人，当她被剥夺了家庭生活的物质享受时，她无法独自生存，最后，她再次愉快地扮演了助手的角色。很难说为什么聪明的评论家认为爱丽丝在某种程度上是女权主义者，除非情况已经急剧恶化，任何赋予女性核心角色的电影，无论其政治立场如何，都必须被视为一部女性主义电影。进步。
For instance, one of the first films of the seventies that was praised for its “feminist” approach was Martin Scorsese’s Alice Doesn’t Live Here Anymore (1975); yet that film presented us with a woman who, when deprived of the creature comforts of domesticity, couldn’t survive on her own and, in the end, happily submitted to the role of helpmate once again. Why otherwise intelligent critics regarded Alice as in any way feminist is difficult to say, unless it was simply that the situation had deteriorated so drastically that any film that gave a woman a central role, no matter what its politics, had to be regarded as an advance.
尽管大肆宣传，女权主义在电影中的地位在七八十年代并没有多大进步。诚然，诸如《未婚女人》、《转折点》和《朱莉娅》 （全部 1978 年）等备受赞誉的女性电影确实以女性为中心人物，但没有明显提高意识。马丁·里特 (Martin Ritt) 的剧情片《诺玛·雷》 ( Norma Rae) (1979) 为莎莉·菲尔德 (Sally Field) 带来了强有力的奥斯卡奖作为主角，但更多地涉及工会政治而不是性政治。
Despite a lot of hype, the feminist position in film didn’t advance much in the seventies or eighties. Such vaunted women’s films as An Unmarried Woman, The Turning Point, and Julia (all 1978) did, it’s true, use women as central characters, but with no discernible raised consciousness. Martin Ritt’s drama Norma Rae (1979) gave Sally Field a powerful, Oscar-winning role as protagonist but dealt more with union politics than sexual politics.
图 4-26。直到 1991 年的《末路狂花》中，好友主题才在一部热门电影中被女性化。这部关于两名持枪女性叛徒的电影引起了媒体轰动，观众对其作为女权主义声明的潜力争论不休。在这里，吉娜·戴维斯和苏珊·萨兰登全力以赴。
Figure 4-26. It wasn’t until 1991’s Thelma & Louise that the buddy theme was feminized in a hit movie. The film about two gun-toting women renegades caused a media sensation as audiences argued about its potential as a feminist statement. Here, Geena Davis and Susan Sarandon take off with the pedal to the metal.
具有讽刺意味的是，那个时期对性政治表现出最复杂理解的电影是罗伯特·本顿的《克莱默对克莱默》（1979），其中的女人（克莱默，由梅丽尔·斯特里普饰演）即使不是真正的恶棍，但肯定是源头问题的焦点几乎完全集中在男人（克莱默、达斯汀·霍夫曼饰）对七十年代典型的女权主义情景的敏感而痛苦的反应上。近年来没有任何电影表现出对女性观点的如此敏感和关注。事实上，如果我们从好莱坞的证据来判断，当代女性运动的主要好处是将男性从男性刻板印象中解放出来。这是事实，但远非全部事实。
Ironically, the film of that period that showed the most sophisticated understanding of sexual politics was Robert Benton’s Kramer vs Kramer (1979), in which the woman (Kramer, played by Meryl Streep) was, if not actually the villain, then certainly the source of the problem, and the focus was almost entirely on the sensitive and painful reaction of the man (Kramer, Dustin Hoffman) to a classic feminist-inspired situation of the seventies. No film in recent years has shown this sensitivity and concern for a woman’s point of view. Indeed, if we are to judge from Hollywood’s evidence, the main benefit of the contemporary women’s movement has been to free men from male stereotypes. This is true, but it is not anywhere near the whole truth.
八十年代，“新女性电影”（我犹豫是否称其为女权主义电影）迅速成为一种被接受的类型，但没有任何真正的情感或政治影响力。现代“女性电影”，如《钢木兰》（1989）、《炒青西红柿》（1991）、 《朝九晚五》（1980）或《末路狂花》（1991），尽管有很多优点，但并没有告诉我们太多关于性的内容。政治。前两部讲述的是女性在自己的世界中生活，而后两部只是让她们扮演男性通常扮演的伙伴，庆祝解放后的女性新近被接受的角色，而不扩展对话，也不挑战公认的习俗。
In the eighties, the “new women’s movie” (I hesitate to call it feminist film) quickly became an accepted genre, but without any real emotional or political clout. Such modern-day “women’s movies” as Steel Magnolias (1989), Fried Green Tomatoes (1991), Nine to Five (1980), or Thelma & Louise (1991), for all their virtues, don’t tell us much about sexual politics. The first two deal with women in their own world, while the last two simply let them play the buddies the men usually play, celebrating the newly acceptable character of the liberated woman without extending the dialogue and without challenging accepted mores.
那么还有什么新内容呢？从 20 世纪 70 年代中期到 20 世纪末，美国和欧洲的性政治与一般政治一样，处于一种假死状态。第三十个地球日讨论的问题与第一天相同。现在和那时一样，我们仍然不恰当地称之为“少数群体”，也面临着同样的问题。斗争仍在继续。
So what else is new? From the mid-1970s through the end of the twentieth century sexual politics in America and Europe, like politics in general, existed in a state of suspended animation. The same issues were discussed on the thirtieth Earth Day as on the first. The same problems confront what we continue to call, inappropriately, “minorities” now as then. The struggle continues to continue.
然而，尽管我们不能指出进步的连续性，但现在电影界女性的处境比三十年前要好。有一种无法形容的感觉，即男性和女性之间的平衡正在发生变化。更重要的是，现在女演员能够将女主角的职业生涯延续到五十多岁已经不再是罕见的事了：简·方达、雪莉·麦克雷恩、蒂娜·特纳、歌蒂·霍恩和芭芭拉·史翠珊的收入能力并没有下降，因为她们成熟了。苏珊·萨兰登 (Susan Sarandon) 在四十多岁时才充分认识到自己的才华。萨兰登是长期以来第一位将性感与成熟智慧结合在明星形象中的美国女演员，就像梅丽尔·斯特里普为自己奠定了“演员中的演员”的地位一样。
Yet, despite the fact that we can’t point to a continuity of progress, the situation of women in film now is better than it was thirty years ago. There is an indefinable sense that the balance between men and women is shifting. More important, it is now no longer unusual for an actress to be able to prolong her career as female lead well into her fifties: Jane Fonda, Shirley MacLaine, Tina Turner, Goldie Hawn, and Barbra Streisand suffered no decrease in earning power as they matured. And Susan Sarandon was past forty before she realized the full range of her talent. Sarandon is the first American actress in a long while to combine sexuality with mature intelligence in an ongoing star persona, just as Meryl Streep has carved a position for herself as a commanding “actor’s actor.”
事实上，女性在这方面带头重新定义了我们对衰老的态度。20 世纪 60 年代成年的一代人，即“战争婴儿”和“婴儿潮一代”，决定在 50 岁和 60 岁时仍保持一定的性欲水平，这在 30 年前是闻所未闻的。
Indeed, here women have taken the lead in redefining our attitude toward aging. The generation that came of age in the 1960s, the “War Babies” and the “Baby Boomers,” have decided to maintain a level of sexuality well into their fifties and sixties that was unheard of thirty years ago.
与此同时，矛盾的是，X 一代怀抱一种倒退的性神话，与 20 世纪 50 年代最糟糕的时期相呼应。麦当娜将玛丽莲·梦露的性感小猫改造成一个做作的女武神，她的盔甲就是她的内衣。真心话大冒险是我们大多数人在高中二年级时就留下的一个阶段。莎朗·斯通、黛米·摩尔、金·贝辛格和德鲁·巴里摩尔等女演员经常被利用和虐待。与 20 世纪 80 年代的男前辈——西恩·潘、罗伯·劳、马特·狄龙、帕特里克·斯威兹一样——这一代女演员的表演遵循了不太令人钦佩的好莱坞传统。仅仅表明这些角色可能具有讽刺意味是不够的；还不足以表明这些角色可能具有讽刺意味。我们都知道他们卖什么。在 20 世纪 90 年代，性分解为一种商品，而且是一种略显无聊的商品。像《深喉》和《琼斯小姐中的魔鬼》这样的硬核“色情片” ——这些电影在七十年代初上映时引起了轰动——现在可以在每个客厅的众多有线电视网络上观看，并为大多数郊区音像店带来利润。自《闪光之舞》（1983）和《辣身舞》（1987）以来，青少年和青春期前的性行为一直是好莱坞有利可图的副业，许多戏剧故事片通过向盒带市场发布更露骨的“视频剪辑”来利用其软核资产。
At the same time, paradoxically, Generation X clasped to its bosom a retrograde sexual mythology that echoed the worst of the 1950s. Madonna refashioned the Marilyn Monroe sex kitten into a campy Valkyrie whose armor was her underwear. Truth or Dare was a stage most of us leave behind as high-school sophomores. Actresses like Sharon Stone, Demi Moore, Kim Basinger, and Drew Barrymore were used and abused on a regular basis. Like their male predecessors in the 1980s—Sean Penn, Rob Lowe, Matt Dillon, Patrick Swayze—this generation of actresses played on less admirable Hollywood traditions. It is not enough to suggest that these roles may be ironic; we all know what they are selling. In the 1990s, sex disintegrated into a commodity, and a vaguely boring one at that. Hardcore “porn” like Deep Throat and The Devil in Miss Jones—films which caused a furor when they were released in the early seventies—is now available on numerous cable networks in every living room and keeps most suburban video stores in profits. Since Flashdance (1983) and Dirty Dancing (1987), sex for teens and preteens has been a profitable Hollywood sideline, and many theatrical features exploit their soft-core assets by releasing more explicit “video cuts” to the cassette market.
图 4-27。关于兄弟电影的评论，《断背山》可以被定义为经典西部片，因为风景是主角。（比较图 4-47。）
Figure 4-27. A comment on buddy movies, Brokeback Mountain can be defined as a classic Western because the scenery was the star. (Compare Figure 4-47.)
也许这就是进步；也许需要经历这个阶段才能重新发现浪漫和非色情的情欲；也许艾滋病的流行需要更多的“虚拟性”。无论如何，新世纪似乎是重新审视《费里尼·萨蒂里孔》的好时机，并提醒我们自己，克拉拉·鲍（Clara Bow），这位引入性感理念的二十多岁的“It”女孩，以一种机智和直接，揭示了比我们在当前成人视频中发现的更强烈的自我意识和更强大的性感。
Perhaps this is progress; perhaps it is necessary to pass through this phase to rediscover romance and nonpornographic eroticism; perhaps the AIDS epidemic requires more “virtual sex.” In any case, it seems like the new century is a good time to re-view Fellini Satyricon, and to remind ourselves that Clara Bow, the “It” girl of the twenties who introduced the idea of sex appeal, played her role with a wit and directness that revealed both a greater sense of self and a more powerful sensuality than we find in any storeful of current adult videos.
电影中的性政治与我们所谓的电影的“梦想功能”密切相关。八十年代和九十年代的许多学术批评都集中在电影体验的这一方面。我们对电影英雄的强烈认同只是观察到的证据，表明电影对我们心理的作用与梦境没什么不同。这是电影政治的本质：我们如何与电影建立联系？从早期开始，电影制片人就一直致力于兜售浪漫和动作的幻想——或者用当代的同义词来说——性和暴力。从这一点来说，电影与文学并无太大区别。流行电影和流行小说一样，依赖于这两种力比多冲动的驱动力。
Sexual politics in film is closely connected with what we might call the “dream function” of the movies. Much of the academic criticism of the eighties and nineties focused on this aspect of the film experience. The strong identification we make with cinematic heroes is simply observed evidence that film operates on our psyches not unlike dreams. This is the inherent aspect of film politics: how do we interrelate with films? Since the early days, filmmakers have been in the business of selling fantasies of romance and action—or, to use the contemporary synonyms—sex and violence. In this respect, film is not much different from literature. Popular films, like popular novels, depend on the motivating forces of these twin libidinal impulses.
这个问题令人困惑：电影不仅通过赋予幻想一种生命来满足性欲，而且更正式地——电影的风格，它的惯用语，可以是浪漫的或积极的，性的或暴力的，而不考虑其内容。内容。此外，我们还不清楚电影的这种特殊功能对体验它的人有什么确切的影响。它取代了真实的经验吗？或者它有启发吗？
The issue is confusing: film satisfies the libido not only by giving a kind of life to fantasies, but also more formally—the style of a film, its idiom, can be either romantic or active, sexual or violent, without any regard to its content. In addition, it is far from clear what precise effect this particular function of film has on the people who experience it. Does it take the place of real experience? Or does it inspire it?
从政治行动的角度来看，这是一个特别有趣的难题。一部主角获胜的电影可能只是向观众传达“生意正在处理”——没有什么可做的。需要采取行动——而一部英雄失败的电影可能会被视为行动是徒劳的标志。那么，政治电影制作人如何才能创造一种让观众参与的结构，但又不至于让角色充当代理人呢？如何才能明确行动在现实生活中既是可能的又是必要的？没有简单的答案。
This is a particularly interesting conundrum when expressed in terms of political action. A film in which the hero wins the day may simply convey to audiences that “business is being taken care of”—that there is no need to act—while a film in which the hero loses may be taken as a sign that action is futile. How can a political filmmaker, then, create a structure in which the audience is involved, but not to such an extent that the characters serve as surrogates? How can it be made clear that action is both possible and still necessary in real life? There are no simple answers.
替代行动的问题更容易用浪漫和性来解释。这里的角色显然是观众的代理人，并没有真正的意图建议将电影的戏剧延续到现实生活中。事实上，电影体验的逼真性表明了相反的情况：电影的体验在很大程度上可以替代现实的体验。我们谈论电影“粉丝”和电影“爱好者”，但也有一种电影“瘾君子”的亚文化：人们对电影的梦幻体验有如此强烈的需求，这很可能是生理上和心理上的。电影的这些深远影响尚未得到足够详细的研究。未来几年电影理论中许多最有趣的工作都将涉及这些主题。
The question of surrogate action is more easily explained in terms of romance and sex. Here the characters are clearly surrogates for the audience and there is no real intent to suggest that the drama of the film be carried over into real life. In fact, the verisimilitude of the film experience suggests the opposite: that the experience of the film can to a great extent replace the experience of reality. We speak of film “fans” and film “buffs,” but there is also a subculture of film “addicts”: people with such a strong need for the dream experience of film that it might very well be physiological as well as psychological. These profound effects of film have not yet been studied in sufficient detail. Much of the most interesting work in film theory during the next few years will concern such topics.
电影作为梦的力比多效应还有更实际的一面。自从爱迪生的电影放映机循环播放《约翰·赖斯与梅·欧文之吻》 （John Rice-May Irwin Kiss，1896）以来，电影就引发了道德主义的泛滥，这反过来又导致了审查制度。在大陆国家，电影审查通常具有政治性质，而在美国和英国，电影审查却是反性的和清教徒式的，是本土清教主义的残余。
The libidinal effect of film as dream also has a more practical aspect. Ever since Edison’s Kinetoscope loop the John Rice-May Irwin Kiss (1896), movies have excited outpourings of moralism, which in turn have led to censorship. While in Continental countries film censorship has most often been political in nature, in the U.S. and Britain it has been anti-sexual and puritanical, a vestige of native puritanism.
1922 年，为了回应公众对最近发生的一系列涉及电影演员的性丑闻（尤其是胖子阿巴克尔事件）的愤怒，好莱坞成立了美国电影制片人和发行人组织 (MPPA)，俗称“海斯组织”。办公室”以其第一任总统的名字命名。海斯办公室没有进行正式的审查，而是倾向于用好的宣传来对抗不良的宣传，但逐渐发布了指导方针。第一个生产规范可追溯至 1930 年。当 Joseph Breen 于 1934 年加入 MPPA 时，该规范开始得到严格执行。（天主教正派军团于同年成立，直到六十年代初一直发挥着显着的清教徒影响。）
In 1922, in response to supposed public moral outrage at a recent spate of sex scandals involving film actors (notably the Fatty Arbuckle affair), Hollywood founded the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America organization (the MPPA), colloquially known as the “Hays Office” after its first president. The Hays Office performed no formal censorship, preferring to counter bad publicity with good, but gradually guidelines were issued. The first production code dated from 1930. When Joseph Breen joined the MPPA in 1934, the code began to be strictly enforced. (The Catholic Legion of Decency was founded the same year and exerted a marked puritanical influence until the early sixties.)
该准则对电影制片人提出了荒谬的要求。不仅严格禁止公然的性和暴力行为，还制定了（并严格执行）一套指导方针，禁止描绘双人床，即使是已婚夫妇，并审查诸如“上帝”、“地狱”之类的脏话。 ”、“该死的”、“疯子”——甚至是“神经病”。其影响是深远的。
The code made absurd demands on filmmakers. Not only were outright acts of sex and violence strictly prohibited, but also a set of guidelines was laid down (and strictly enforced) that prohibited the depiction of double beds, even for married couples, and censored such expletives as “God,” “hell,” “damn,” “nuts”—even “nerts.” The effect was profound.
等待电影学生第一次体验预编码电影的最大惊喜之一是发现在二十年代末和很早的时候三十年代的电影具有令人惊讶的当代道德感，并涉及性和毒品等问题，这些问题直到六十年代末才被禁止。其效果令人奇怪地迷失方向。我们是在三十年代末、四十年代和五十年代的好莱坞长大的，通过电影（通常经过审查）在电视上的广泛曝光。体验一些来自预编码时代的现实电影就是发现迷失的一代。例如，前编码相关性的最后遗迹之一是一系列黑帮电影——其中包括《公敌》（1931）和《疤面煞星》（1932）——试图直接处理政治问题。
One of the greatest surprises awaiting a student of film first experiencing precode movies is the discovery that in the late twenties and very early thirties films had a surprisingly contemporary sense of morality and dealt with issues, such as sex and drugs, that were forbidden thereafter until the late sixties. The effect is curiously disorienting. We have grown up with late thirties, forties, and fifties Hollywood through the wide exposure of the films (usually recensored) on television. To experience some of the realistic films from the precode era is to discover a lost generation. One of the last vestiges of precode relevance, for example, was the cycle of Gangster films—Public Enemy (1931) and Scarface (1932) among them—that attempted to treat political issues directly.
图 4-28。二十一世纪的英雄人物。_ _ 汤姆·汉克斯回顾了《拯救大兵瑞恩》中最伟大的一代。罗素·克劳在《主与指挥官》中复活了历史上的剑客。乔治·克鲁尼在《晚安，好运》中颂扬了二十世纪中叶的知识分子英雄主义。但威尔·史密斯在《我是传奇》中展望了未来。
Figure 4-28. TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY HERO PERSONAS. Tom Hanks looks back to the Greatest Generation in Saving Private Ryan. Russell Crowe revives the historical swashbuckler in Master and Commander. George Clooney celebrates mid-twentieth-century intellectual heroism in Good Night, and Good Luck. But Will Smith looks to the future in I Am Legend.
在英国，英国电影审查委员会自 1912 年起就开始实行自我审查。有趣的是，英国审查制度的影响不如美国法规那么明显。1951 年之前，英国电影的评级为 U、A 或 H（分别代表环球、成人和恐怖——禁止 16 岁以下儿童观看）。其目的是保护幼儿免遭过度的极端暴力（这就是“可怕”的意思），这是一个无可争议的目标。1951 年，随着性在电影中变得更加重要，H 被 X 取代。
In Britain, self-censorship by the British Board of Film Censors dated from 1912. Interestingly, the British system of censorship has had a less marked effect than the American code. Until 1951, British films were rated U, A, or H (for Universal, Adults, and Horrific—prohibited to children under sixteen). The object has been to protect young children from undue exposure to extreme violence (which is what “horrific” meant), an unobjectionable aim. In 1951, as sex became more important in film, H was replaced with X.
美国规范对整个好莱坞时期的制片人都很有用。尽管它制定了令人发狂的任意规则，但它也使工作室摆脱了处理相关政治和性主题，甚至以一定程度的复杂性来处理较温和的主题的任何道德压力。三十年代中期，好莱坞轻松地适应了一种普遍回避相关性的电影制作风格，转而青睐黄金时代备受推崇、往往空洞的奇幻“娱乐价值观”。
The American code was useful to producers throughout the Hollywood period. Although it set up maddeningly arbitrary rules, it also freed the studios from any ethical pressure to deal with relevant political and sexual subjects or even to treat milder subjects with a degree of sophistication. Hollywood settled comfortably in the mid-thirties into a style of filmmaking that generally eschewed relevance in favor of the highly prized, often hollow, fantasy “entertainment values” of the Golden Age.
重要的不仅仅是代码的直接禁止。该准则还对一个特别容易受到经济压力影响的行业产生了普遍的寒蝉效应。此外，这个漏洞还产生了另一种类型的审查制度。制片厂制作的作品不会冒犯观众中的少数强势群体。当政治机构提出建议时，他们也非常渴望取悦。例如，禁酒令时代的无法无天导致了三十年代初一系列原始法西斯电影的出现——《明星证人》( Star Witness ) (1931)、 《好美国》( Okay America ) (1932) 和《加布里埃尔在白宫》(Gabriel Over the White House ) (1934) 就是例子。
It was not only the direct proscriptions of the code that were significant. The code also had a general chilling effect on an industry that was particularly susceptible to economic pressure. In addition, this vulnerability yielded another type of censorship. The studios produced nothing that would offend powerful minorities in the audience. They were also very eager to please when the political establishment made suggestions. The lawlessness of the Prohibition era, for example, led to a cycle of protofascist movies in the early thirties—Star Witness (1931), Okay America (1932), and Gabriel Over the White House (1934) are examples.
第二次世界大战期间，好莱坞应运而生，不仅制作了数以千计的训练和宣传影片（最著名的例子是弗兰克·卡普拉的《我们为何而战》系列），而且还迅速在虚构电影中树立了一个关于这场冲突的神话，这种神话在二战期间没有发挥过作用。团结全国进行斗争的一小部分。
During World War II Hollywood rose to the occasion, not only by producing thousands of training and propaganda films (the most famous example being Frank Capra’s Why We Fight series), but also by quickly erecting in fiction films a myth of the conflict that played no small part in uniting the country behind the struggle.
德尔默·戴夫斯（Delmer Daves）的《目的地东京》 （1943）就是一个完美的例子，它展示了通常不同的种族群体团结起来对抗共同的敌人。作为领袖，加里·格兰特在画面中间停下来给中西部的妻子写一封信。这个序列花了整整十分钟。正如格兰特所写的那样，为战争辩护，纪录片镜头说明了他的演讲，其要点是日本人和德国人在种族上是卑鄙的，而我们的盟友中国人和俄罗斯人生来注定要获胜，并且是历史上热爱和平的人民非常像我们自己！后来，这与冷战神话不太相符。无论有意还是无意，冷战最激烈时期的许多《目的地东京》印刷品都缺乏这种强有力的序列。
A perfect example of this is Delmer Daves’s Destination Tokyo (1943), which displays the usual varied ethnic group united against the common enemy. As leader, Cary Grant stops in mid-picture to write a letter home to his wife in the Midwest. The sequence takes a good ten minutes. As Grant writes, justifying the war, documentary shots illustrate his lecture, the gist of which is that the Japanese and the Germans are racially despicable, while our allies, the Chinese and the Russians, are genetically destined to win and historically peace-loving people very much like ourselves! Later, this didn’t fit very well with the mythology of the Cold War. By design or accident, many of the prints of Destination Tokyo available at the height of the Cold War lacked this powerful sequence.
随着第二次世界大战的结束，偶尔会有一些对战斗的现实处理，几乎可以称为反战方法。《GL Joe 的故事》和《 They Were Expendable》（均 1945 年）是两个著名的例子。
As World War II came to an end, there were occasional realistic treatments of combat that could almost be called antiwar in approach. The Story of G.L Joe and They Were Expendable (both 1945) are two notable examples.
战后，好莱坞尽职尽责地追随冷战国家神话的发展。在路易斯·德·罗什蒙制作的准纪录片间谍片中（《第 92 街之家》， 1945 年；《马德琳街 13 号》， 1947 年；《向东走灯塔》， 1952 年），我们可以追踪到共产主义取代纳粹成为恶棍的平稳进程，而没有任何反派角色。电影风格或结构的改变。
After the war, Hollywood dutifully followed along as the national myths of the Cold War developed. In the quasi-documentary spy films produced by Louis de Rochemont (The House on 92nd Street, 1945; 13 Rue Madeleine, 1947; Walk East on Beacon, 1952), we can trace a smooth progression as Commies replaced Nazis as villains, without any alteration of the style or the structure of the films.
五十年代，冷战思维盛行。间谍电影和美化战略空军司令部和联邦调查局等冷战机构的电影层出不穷。但更抽象地说，我们也可以从流行的科幻小说类型中看出冷战心理。20世纪50年代。《掠夺者的入侵》（1956）也许是那些年政治偏执的主要隐喻，而《禁忌星球》（1956）则提供了一种更复杂的方法。在后一部电影中，怪物不是阴险、冷酷、超凡脱俗的生物，除非完全动员起来，否则无法防御，而是我们自己本我的生物，反映了我们自己的基本恐惧。一旦禁忌星球的角色学会处理自己的潜意识，怪物就会消失。
During the fifties, the Cold War mentality was pervasive. There were cycles of Spy films and films glorifying Cold-War institutions like the Strategic Air Command and the FBI. But more abstractly, we can also discern Cold-War psychology in the popular genre of Science Fiction during the 1950s. Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1956) is perhaps the prime metaphor for the political paranoia of those years, while Forbidden Planet (1956) provides a more sophisticated approach. In the latter film, the monsters are not insidious, implacable, otherworldly beings against whom there is no defense short of complete mobilization, but rather creatures of our own ids, reflections of our own elemental fears. Once the characters of Forbidden Planet learn to deal with their own subconsciouses, the monsters evaporate.
图 4-29。爱迪生的《约翰·赖斯-梅·欧文之吻》 (John Rice-May Irwin Kiss ，1896)，这一切都是从这里开始的。（框架放大。）
Figure 4-29. Edison’s John Rice-May Irwin Kiss (1896), where it all began. (Frame enlargement.)
显然，四十年代末在众议院非美活动委员会的敦促下发生的清洗和列入黑名单产生了令人深感不安的影响。但这本身并不足以解释 20 世纪 50 年代好莱坞电影所表现出的广泛传播、几乎一致的意识形态。电影制片人也陷入了与全国其他地区同样的偏执之中。就好像我们在反法西斯战争中找到了团结精神和目标，迫切希望另一个同样危险的敌人继续将我们团结在一起。巧合的是，当冷战神话在六十年代瓦解时，社会变革的力量也得到了部分解放。美国电影也反映了这些变化。
Obviously, the purges and the blacklisting that occurred at the urging of House Un-American Activities Committee in the late forties had a deeply disturbing effect. But this in itself is not enough to explain the widespread, nearly unanimous ideology exhibited by Hollywood films in the 1950s. Filmmakers were seized by the same paranoia that held the rest of the country in its grip. It was as if, having found a spirit of unification and purpose in the war against fascism, we desperately desired another enemy of equal danger to continue to bring us together. When Cold-War myths disintegrated in the sixties, coincidentally, forces for social change were partially liberated. American films reflected these changes as well.
1947 年，有 11 名拒绝在 HUAC 作证的编剧和导演中，有 10 名因藐视国会而被关押。（贝尔托·布莱希特离开了这个国家。）“好莱坞十人”于 1950 年入狱。制片厂负责人很快默许了众议院非美活动委员会的政治迫害。他们在纽约著名的酒店开会，禁止十人禁止在该行业工作——所谓的华尔道夫宣言。其他数百人也被列入黑名单。
Of the eleven screenwriters and directors who refused to testify before HUAC in 1947 ten were held in contempt of Congress. (Bertolt Brecht left the country.) The “Hollywood Ten” were imprisoned in 1950. The studio heads quickly acquiesced to the House Un-American Activities Committee witch hunt. Meeting at the famous New York hotel they banned the Ten from working in the industry—the so-called Waldorf Declaration. Hundreds of others were also blacklisted.
十人之一、导演赫伯特·比伯曼 (Herbert Biberman) 出狱后，重新致力于艺术。他与制片人保罗·贾里科和编剧迈克尔·威尔逊（也被列入黑名单）一起根据新墨西哥州银矿罢工的真实故事制作了一部独立作品。在片场，他们受到当地警察的威胁。在后期制作中，他们被迫将 Moviolas 藏在浴室里。这部电影于 1954 年短暂首映，但被放映员工会取消。随后，比伯曼开始了长达十年的法律斗争，以让这部电影上映。到了七十年代，《地球之盐》终于开始找到它的观众。银矿罢工是由墨西哥裔美国人领导的，他们的工资远低于盎格鲁人。当男人遇到法律障碍时，女人就会掌控一切。因此，盐成为工会支持者、拉丁裔和女性的最爱。（它也恰好是一部伟大的新现实主义电影，超越了令人着迷的政治。）这部电影的制作传奇——以及让它被人们看到的斗争——记录在比伯曼的书《地球之盐：电影的故事》中，可以说是有史以来最伟大的故事“制作”。
One of the Ten, director Herbert Biberman, emerged from prison with a renewed commitment to the art. Together with producer Paul Jarrico and screenwriter Michael Wilson (also blacklisted) he put together an independent production based on the true story of a silver mine strike in New Mexico. On the set they were threatened by local police. In post-production they were forced to hide their Moviolas in bathrooms. The film debuted briefly in 1954 only to be quashed by the projectionist’s union. Biberman then began a decade-long legal battle to get the film seen. By the seventies Salt of the Earth finally began to find its audience. The silver-mine strike was led by Mexican-Americans, paid much less than Anglos. When the men run into legal barriers, the woman take control. Salt thus became a favorite of union supporters, Latinos, and women. (It also happens to be a great Neorealist movie, beyond the intriguing politics.) The saga of the making of the film—and the struggle to get it seen—was documented in Biberman’s book Salt of the Earth: The Story of a Film, arguably the greatest “making of” tale ever written.
在欧洲，第二次世界大战对电影的影响却是矛盾的，是积极的。在《我们服务》 （Noel Coward，1943）等电影的安静、更明智、更合理的宣传中，英国电影制片人找到了一种使命感。随着约翰·格里尔森及其同事的纪录片技巧被运用到小说中，英国首次发现了民族电影风格。这种风格具有政治意识和历史智慧，在五十年代末和六十年代初的短暂时期内重生，因为所谓的戏剧中的“愤怒的年轻人”对电影产生了影响。
In Europe, the effects of World War II on film were, paradoxically, positive. In quiet, more sensible, and reasonable propaganda of films like In Which We Serve (Noel Coward, 1943), English filmmakers found a sense of purpose. As the documentary techniques of John Grierson and his associates were applied to fiction, England discovered a national cinematic style for the first time. Politically conscious, historically intelligent, that style was reborn for a brief period in the late fifties and early sixties as the so-called Angry Young Men of the theater had their effect on film.
在意大利，法西斯主义的长期干旱被大量政治活跃、美学革命的电影所结束，这些电影统称为新现实主义。罗西里尼的《罗马，不设防的城市》（1945年）和《派桑》（1946年），德·西卡的《偷自行车的人》（1948年）和《擦鞋者》 （1946年），维斯康蒂的《奥塞西奥》（1942年）和《La Terra Trema》（1947年）设定了几十年来激励世界各地电影制作人的标准。
In Italy, the long drought of fascism was ended by a flood of politically active, esthetically revolutionary films known collectively as Neorealism. Rossellini’s Rome, Open City (1945) and Paisan (1946), De Sica’s Bicycle Thief (1948) and Shoeshine (1946), Visconti’s Ossessione (1942) and La Terra Trema (1947) set standards that inspired filmmakers around the world for decades.
但四十年代英国和意大利电影所具有的政治相关性并没有在五十年代长期存在。直到六十年代末，它才在一系列法国和意大利揭发丑闻的电影中复活，这些电影已证明了其政治影响力。这种风格的主要倡导者是法国的康斯坦丁·科斯塔-加夫拉斯（Z，1969；《戒严状态》， 1973）和意大利的弗朗西斯科·罗西（萨尔瓦多·朱利亚诺， 1962；马泰事件， 1972）。这种揭黑幕风格的电影例子很少。美国最著名的例子是《中国综合症》（1979），该片在三哩岛几近崩溃的几周前上映，模仿了其情节。
But the political relevance that marked both British and Italian cinemas during the forties did not survive long in the fifties. Not until the late sixties was it revived, in a series of French and Italian muckraking films that had proven political effect. The main exponents of this style were Constantin Costa-Gavras (Z, 1969; State of Siege, 1973) in France and Francesco Rosi (Salvatore Giuliano, 1962; The Mattei Affair, 1972) in Italy. There were very few examples of this muckraking style of cinema in the U.S. The most notable example was The China Syndrome (1979), released only weeks before the near-meltdown at Three Mile Island mimicked its plot.
图 4-30。赫伯特·比伯曼的《地球之盐》是女权主义的象征、拉丁裔经典和工会里程碑，也是伟大的美国新现实主义电影。左：Rosaura Revueltas 和 Juan Chacón 在安静的时刻。右：妇女接管罢工。
Figure 4-30. A feminist emblem, a Latino classic, and a labor-union landmark, Herbert Biberman’s Salt of the Earth is also the great American Neorealist film. Left: Rosaura Revueltas and Juan Chacón in a quiet moment. Right: the women take over the strike.
从1980年到2000年，政治和电影之间的关系变得越来越扭曲。揭露黑幕的传统仍然存在，但近二十年来没有任何欧洲或美国电影对现实政治产生直接影响。奥利弗·斯通在好莱坞为自己奠定了独特的地位，成为该行业仅存的政客，但他对当代问题的调查（《Talk Radio》， 1988 年；《天生杀手》， 1994 年；尤其是《华尔街》， 1987 年）被他更受欢迎的历史解释所掩盖。 （排， 1986 年；肯尼迪机场， 1991 年；尼克松， 1995 年；W， 2008 年）。也许他的痴迷只是反映了我们当时的情况，夹在两个政治世界之间——“一个死了，另一个无力出生”。
From 1980 to 2000, the relationship between politics and film became increasingly skewed. The muckraking tradition continued to exist, but it had been almost twenty years since any European or American film had had a direct effect on real politics. Oliver Stone established a unique niche for himself in Hollywood as the industry’s last remaining politico, but his investigations of contemporary issues (Talk Radio, 1988; Natural Born Killers, 1994; and especially Wall Street, 1987) are overshadowed by his more popular historical interpretations (Platoon, 1986; JFK, 1991; Nixon, 1995; W, 2008). Perhaps the mixture of his obsessions simply mirrors our own at the time, stuck between two political worlds—“one dead, the other powerless to be born.”
这在理应上发生了相当显着的变化。自 20 世纪 30 年代（也许是有史以来）以来，非虚构电影（我们仍然误导性地称其为“纪录片”）第一次开始吸引大量观众。
This changed rather remarkably in the oughts. For the first time since the 1930s (maybe ever) nonfiction films (we still misleadingly call them “documentaries”) started to garner large and appreciative audiences.
迈克尔·摩尔早年在《罗杰与我》（ Roger and Me ，1989）中获得了成绩，该片讽刺了通用汽车工厂关闭对其家乡密歇根州弗林特造成的灾难性影响。2002 年，他凭借《哥伦拜恩保龄球》（Bowling for Columbine）大踏步前进，这部影片的重点是美国人对枪支的痴迷及其引发的暴力，随后他又凭借《华氏 9/11》（2004 年）大放异彩，这部影片对乔治进行了过度剖析。布什发明了伊拉克战争。他接着写了《Sicko》（2007），对美国医疗保健政策进行了同样严厉而幽默的分析。这三部电影跻身票房收入最高的五部非小说类电影之列。摩尔是他所有电影中的明星。没有任何客观性的借口。多年来，我们一直错误地认为“纪录片”是（a）客观的，（b）客观的。摩尔的电影向我们展示了不同的情况。这些都是个人的内心危机，有时令人发狂、傲慢和轻率，但总是将想法当作高度戏剧化的利用。让-吕克·戈达尔微笑着。
Michael Moore had scored early on with Roger and Me (1989), a diatribe about the disastrous effects of General Motors plant closures on his hometown, Flint, Michigan. He hit his stride in 2002 with Bowling for Columbine, whose focus was the American obsession with guns and the violence they engender, then hit it out of the park with Fahrenheit 9/11 (2004), an over-the-top dissection of George Bush’s invention of the war in Iraq. He followed this up with Sicko (2007), an equally scathing and humorous analysis of U.S. health care policy. These three films are among the five top-grossing nonfiction films. Moore is the star of all of his films; there is no pretense of objectivity. For years we had labored under the misconception that “documentaries” were (a) objective and (b) impersonal. Moore’s films show us otherwise. These are personal cris de coeur, maddening at times, brash and flip, but always exploiting ideas as high drama. Jean-Luc Godard is smiling.
图 4-31。散文电影。_ _ 在语气和意图上，没有什么比迈克尔·摩尔的个人文章更能体现五十年前直接电影和真实电影的价值观了，在《华氏 9/11》中，他以典型的自夸方式伏击了一位国会议员。
Figure 4-31. ESSAY FILM. Nothing could be further in tone and intent from the values of Direct Cinema and cinéma vérité fifty years ago than the personal essays of Michael Moore, shown here in Fahrenheit 9/11 waylaying a Congressman with typical braggadocio.
更重要的是，迈克尔·摩尔并不孤单。自2000年以来，掀起了一股散文电影热潮，引发了全国的政治想象力。摩根·斯普尔洛克（Morgan Spurlock）的《Supersize Me》（2004）完善了摩尔方法。斯珀洛克也是他的电影的明星。他给自己定下了一个月只吃麦当劳食物的目标；这个实验并没有杀死他——一开始他还年轻而且健康——只是让他病得很重。罗伯特·格林沃尔德制作并导演了十几篇揭露丑闻的文章，主要揭露福克斯“新闻”网络。（出奇制胜：鲁珀特·默多克的《新闻战争》， 2004 年，以及许多其他著作。）亚伦·伍尔夫的《玉米王》（2007 年）很好地描述了我们农业政策的谬误。
What’s more, Michael Moore isn’t alone. Since 2000 there has been a wave of essay films that have caught the political imagination of the nation. Morgan Spurlock’s Supersize Me (2004) refined the Moore approach. Spurlock also is the star of his film. He sets himself the arbitrary goal of eating only McDonald’s food for a month; this experiment doesn’t kill him—he’s young and healthy at the start—it just makes him very sick. Robert Greenwald has produced and directed a dozen muckraking essays, mainly exposing the Fox “news” network. (Outfoxed: Rupert Murdoch’s War on Journalism, 2004, and many others.) Aaron Woolf’s King Corn (2007) nicely delineated the fallacies of our farm policy.
但新世纪最令人惊讶的非虚构电影的成功是戴维斯·古根海姆的《难以忽视的真相》（2006）。古根海姆很少得到认可，但这并不是无效的：这部电影基本上是阿尔·戈尔关于全球变暖的演讲的简单记录，充满了 Powerpoint 幻灯片。该片不仅获得了两项奥斯卡奖，还帮助戈尔获得了一半的诺贝尔和平奖。更重要的是，它还导致了全国气候变化讨论的结构性转变。有没有哪一部电影（无论是虚构类还是非虚构类）产生过如此深远的影响？我不这么认为。期待更多从电影论文的形式来看——这是自半个世纪前新浪潮重新发现电影艺术以来最激动人心的发展。
But the most surprising nonfiction film success of the new century was Davis Guggenheim’s An Inconvenient Truth (2006). Guggenheim is seldom given credit, and that’s not invalid: the film is basically a simple record of Al Gore’s lecture on global warming, replete with Powerpoint slides. The film not only won two Oscars, but helped Gore achieve half of a Nobel Peace Prize. More important, it also resulted in a tectonic shift of the national discussion of climate change. Has any film—fiction or nonfiction—ever had a more profound impact? I don’t think so. Expect more from the filmed essay form—the most exciting development in movies since the New Wave rediscovered the art half a century ago.
图 4-32。散文电影。_ _ 阿尔·戈尔和戴维斯·古根海姆的《难以忽视的真相》与老式的纪录片理念相反，也与摩尔的方法相反。它只不过是戈尔插图演讲的录像，它因其思想的力量而赢得了奥斯卡奖，电影制片人应该与软件工程师分享这一奖项。（作为苹果董事会成员，戈尔可能使用 Keynote，而不是微软的 Powerpoint。）
Figure 4-32. ESSAY FILM. Just as contrary to old-fashioned ideas of documentary—but also opposite to Moore’s approach—was Al Gore and Davis Guggenheim’s An Inconvenient Truth. Not much more than a filmed record of Gore’s illustrated lecture, it won an Oscar for the power of its ideas, an award that the filmmakers should have shared with the software engineers. (As an Apple Board member, Gore probably used Keynote rather than Microsoft’s Powerpoint.)
与所有形式的大众娱乐一样，电影在娱乐性的同时也具有强大的神话色彩。好莱坞对我们的民族神话以及我们的自我意识的塑造（而且经常夸大）起到了巨大的帮助。它在国外同样产生了深远的影响。对于20世纪60年代初法国新浪潮来说，美国电影文化帝国主义是一个重要的研究对象。例如，1976 年，美国电影仅占西德票房收入的 40%。到 1992 年，这个数字增加了一倍多，达到 83%。美国电影在英国、意大利和法国几乎同样占据主导地位，而这些国家都是主要的电影制作国。美国电影始终占据法国市场 50% 至 60% 的份额。在欧洲小国，特别是新兴国家，情况更加不平衡。尽管亚洲、中东、东欧和拉丁美洲正在进行有趣的工作，但世界各地的常客很少有机会看到它。世界电影往往仅限于忠诚的电影人和学者。
Like all forms of mass entertainment, film has been powerfully mythopoeic even as it has entertained. Hollywood helped mightily to shape—and often exaggerate—our national myths and therefore our sense of ourselves. It has likewise had a profound effect abroad. For the New Wave in France in the early 1960s, American filmic cultural imperialism was an important subject of study. In 1976, for example, only 40 percent of West German box-office receipts was garnered by American films. By 1992 that figure had more than doubled, to 83 percent. American cinema is nearly as dominant in England, Italy, and France, and these are all major film-producing nations. American films consistently garner 50 to 60 percent of the French market. In smaller countries in Europe, and especially in emerging nations, the situation is even more unbalanced. Despite the interesting work being done is Asia, the Middle East, Eastern Europe, and Latin America regular filmgoers around the world seldom get a chance to see it. World cinema is all too often limited to committed cinéastes and scholars.
“电影”：美学
“Cinema”: Esthetics
当我们考虑到制作一部电影必须共同努力的各种力量，以及所有苛刻的经济、政治和技术因素（其中很少有个别诗人、画家或音乐家需要考虑）时，任何“艺术”都能够做到这一点真是一个奇迹。经历了艰难的电影制作过程。然而，正如电影是二十世纪表达我们政治的主要渠道一样，它也被证明是表达我们美学的主要舞台。因为它是一个公共媒体，所以无论有意还是无意，它都是关于我们如何共同生活的。因为它是一种如此广阔、包罗万象的媒介，它为表达审美观念和情感提供了令人兴奋和无与伦比的机会。
When we consider the variety of forces that must conspire to get a film made, all the demanding economic, political, and technological factors (so few of which individual poets, painters, or musicians need consider), it’s a wonder that any “art” survives the arduous process of moviemaking. Yet, as film has been a primary channel for the expression of our politics in the twentieth century, so too has it proved the main arena for the expression of our esthetics. Because it’s such a public medium, it is—intentionally or not—about how we live together. Because it’s such an expansive, encompassing medium, it offers heady and unrivaled opportunities for the expression of esthetic ideas and feelings.
了解电影历史形态的一种方法是识别似乎影响其发展每个时期的审美辩证法。当应用于如此丰富而复杂的表达媒介时，这些简洁的二元对立可能显得过于简单化，但它们提供了方便的处理方式。过去一百年来，大多数公共艺术家在个人与这些想法的斗争中创造了丰富的遗产。
One way to get a feel for the shape of cinema history is to identify the esthetic dialectic that seems to inform each period of its development. These neat binary oppositions may appear simplistic when applied to such a rich and complex medium of expression, but they offer convenient handles. Out of their personal struggles with these ideas, the most public artists of the last hundred years have created a rich heritage.
当然，不可能在一卷书中（更不用说单独的章节）提供电影风格和电影制片人的全面历史。以下只是一个草图。这个故事在很大程度上是个人和个人努力的问题；我们试图在接下来的几页中记下最重要的内容。
It’s impossible, of course, to offer a comprehensive history of film styles and filmmakers in a single volume (much less an individual chapter). What follows is just a sketch. The story is very much a matter of individuals, and individual efforts; we’ve tried to note the most significant in the pages that follow.
创造艺术：卢米埃尔与梅里爱
Creating an Art: Lumière versus Méliès
电影美学的第一个二分法是卢米埃尔兄弟奥古斯特和路易斯的早期作品与乔治·梅里爱之间的二分法。卢米埃尔夫妇通过摄影进入电影行业。他们在新发明中看到了再现现实的绝佳机会，而他们最有效的电影只是捕捉了事件：一列火车到达西奥塔车站，工人离开卢米埃尔摄影工厂。这些都是简单但引人注目的原型片。他们没有讲述任何故事，但他们有效地再现了地点、时间和氛围，以至于观众迫不及待地愿意付费观看这些现象。另一方面，舞台魔术师梅里爱立即看到了电影改变现实的能力——产生惊人的幻想。他的《月球之旅》（1902 年）是梅里爱彻底电影化幻觉形式的最著名例子，也是最精致的早期电影之一。显著地，梅里爱的许多电影的标题中都含有“噩梦”或“梦想”一词。卢米埃尔和梅里爱的对比手法所代表的二分法是电影的核心，并在随后的几年中以各种形式重复出现。
The first dichotomy of film esthetics is that between the early work of the Lumière brothers, Auguste and Louis, and Georges Méliès. The Lumières had come to film through photography. They saw in the new invention a magnificent opportunity to reproduce reality, and their most effective films simply captured events: a train arriving at the station at Ciotat, workers leaving the Lumière photographic factory. These were simple yet striking protofilms. They told no story, but they reproduced a place, time, and atmosphere so effectively that audiences paid eagerly to view the phenomena. On the other hand, Méliès, a stage magician, saw immediately film’s ability to change reality—to produce striking fantasies. His Voyage to the Moon (1902) is the best-known example of Méliès’s thoroughly cinematic form of illusion, and one of the most elaborate early films. Significantly, many of Méliès’s films had the words “nightmare” or “dream” in their titles. The dichotomy represented by the contrasting approaches of the Lumières and Méliès is central to film and is repeated through the years that followed in a variety of guises.
与此同时，在美国，托马斯·爱迪生的公司正在制作更简单的电影，这些电影很少表现出他的法国同时代人根深蒂固的电影感。弗莱德·奥特的《喷嚏》和约翰·赖斯与梅·欧文的吻是爱迪生羞怯态度的两个典型例子。
At the same time in the U.S., Thomas Edison’s company was turning out simpler films, which seldom exhibited the ingrained cinematic sense of his French contemporaries. Fred Ott’s Sneeze and the John Rice-May Irwin Kiss are two prototypical examples of Edison’s diffident approach.
1897 年，推销员埃德温·波特 (Edwin S. Porter) 加入了爱迪生的公司。在接下来的十一年里，他是美国电影界最重要的电影制片人。在完成了拍摄新闻片的学徒生涯后，波特于 1903 年制作了两部电影—— 《美国消防员的一生》和《火车大劫案》——成为电影史上的里程碑。波特以其流畅的并行剪辑而闻名（事实上，他经常被认为是电影剪辑的“发明者”），虽然这两部电影确实都具有创造性，但他作为电影技术之父之一的声誉提高了电影美学史上第一个严重的问题。波特后来的电影从未兑现他早期的承诺。此外，英国和法国的其他电影制作人同时也表现出了同样的流畅性。事实上，《美国消防员的一生》令人难忘的平行剪辑可能部分是偶然的，因为波特制作这部电影的目的之一就是使用他在爱迪生工厂发现的一些剩余镜头。然而，波特在标准电影史上被誉为创新者。迄今为止，电影史上的主要困难之一就是人们无法控制地渴望发现“第一”，创造电影中的吉尼斯世界纪录。
In 1897, Edwin S. Porter, a salesman, joined Edison’s company. For the next eleven years, he was the most important filmmaker on the American scene. After an apprenticeship filming newsreel footage, Porter produced in 1903 two films—The Life of an American Fireman and The Great Train Robbery—that are milestones of film history. Porter is known for his fluid parallel editing (indeed, he is often considered the “inventor” of film editing), and while it is true enough that both of these films are inventive, his reputation as one of the fathers of film technique raises the first serious problem in the history of film esthetics. Porter’s later films never fulfilled his early promise. Moreover, other filmmakers were exhibiting much the same fluency at the same time in England and France. In fact, the memorable parallel editing of The Life of an American Fireman may have been partly accidental, since one of Porter’s aims in making the film was to use some leftover footage he had discovered in the Edison factory. Yet Porter is praised in standard film histories as an innovator. One of the major difficulties with film history to date is this uncontrollable urge to discover “firsts,” to create a sort of Guinness Book of World Records in film.
事实是，波特（或其他人）很难不“发现”削减的潜力。它是电影的物理本质所固有的；即使对于这个被认为是最具电影感的设备，其他艺术中也有模型，任何聪明的艺术实践者都应该能够做出必要的逻辑跳跃。波特的平行剪辑、格里菲斯的特写、跟踪和平移都是迫切需要被发现和使用的技巧；以既定艺术的标准来判断，它们几乎没有创新。然而，在电影中，如果你是第一批玩这个游戏的人，那么创造记录是很容易的。
The truth is that it would have been difficult for Porter (or someone else) not to have “discovered” the potential of the cut. It is inherent in the physical nature of film; even for this, supposedly the most cinematic of devices, there are models in the other arts, and any intelligent practitioner of the art should have been able to make the necessary logical jump. Porter’s parallel cutting, Griffith’s closeups, tracking, and panning were all devices that cried out to be discovered and used; judged by the standards of the established arts, they were hardly innovative. In film, however, it was very easy to set records if you were among the first to play the game.
在二十世纪初的英国，罗伯特·W·保罗（Robert W. Paul）和塞西尔·赫普沃斯（Cecil Hepworth）所做的工作比波特更有趣。赫普沃斯的《罗弗的救援》（1905）比美国经典更能说明剪辑的潜力。20世纪后半叶，在法国，费迪南德·泽卡（Ferdinand Zecca）（在百代）和路易·福亚德（Louis Feuillade）（在高蒙）积极探索无数的电影可能性，马克斯·林德（百代饰）成为第一位成功的电影喜剧演员。埃米尔·科尔开始探索动画电影的可能性。在意大利，菲洛泰奥·阿尔贝里尼正在拍摄一些最早的历史剧。显然，电影史的第一个时期是欧洲成就的故事。*
In England in the early years of the twentieth century, Robert W. Paul and Cecil Hepworth were doing more interesting work than Porter. Hepworth’s Rescued by Rover (1905) is a better illustration of the potential of editing than the American classics. In France in the latter half of the decade, Ferdinand Zecca (at Pathé) and Louis Feuillade (at Gaumont) were actively exploring numerous film possibilities, and Max Linder (Pathé) became the first successful film comedian. Émile Cohl was beginning to explore the possibilities of the animated film. In Italy, Filoteo Alberini was shooting some of the earliest historical dramas. Clearly, the first period of film history is the story of European accomplishments.*
图 4-33。卢米埃尔的现实。_ 离开工厂（1895）：存在的事实。（MOMA/FSA。框架放大。）
Figure 4-33. LUMIÈRE’S REALITY. Leaving the Factory (1895): The fact of existence. (MOMA/FSA. Frame enlargement.)
DW 格里菲斯 (DW Griffith) 于 1907 年首次以演员身份进入电影界。在接下来的六年中，他为《传记》导演了数百部一、两部影片，并在此过程中建立了当时领先电影艺术家的声誉。格里菲斯在演员和戏剧设备（尤其是灯光）方面尤其有效。他沉着地使用特写镜头、轨道、平移和并行剪辑。他制作的电影在情感上产生了深远的影响，即使它们几乎总是按照维多利亚时代情节剧的惯例运作。他无疑是当之无愧的故事片“之父”。然而，他的工作存在许多严重问题。
D. W. Griffith first entered films as an actor in 1907. During the succeeding six years he directed hundreds of one- and two-reelers for Biograph and in the process established a reputation as the leading film artist of the day. Griffith was particularly effective with actors and theatrical devices—especially lighting. He used closeups, tracks, pans, and parallel editing with great aplomb. He made films that were emotionally profoundly affecting, even if they nearly always operated within the conventions of Victorian melodrama. He certainly deserves his reputation as the “father” of the feature film. Yet there are a number of serious problems with his work.
没有必要将格里菲斯的电影作品与同时期其他艺术的发展进行比较：毕加索的绘画；康拉德、乔伊斯和
It is not necessary to compare Griffith’s work in film with developments in the other arts of the period: Picasso in painting; Conrad, Joyce, and
图 4-34。梅里埃的幻想。_ 《仙女王国》（1903）：富有表现力的叙事。（MOMA/FSA。框架放大。）
Figure 4-34. MÉLIÈS’S FANTASY. The Kingdom of the Fairies (1903): the expressive narrative. (MOMA/FSA. Frame enlargement.)
小说中的德莱塞；斯特林堡、契诃夫和萧伯纳在剧院。这种比较当然是不公平的，因为电影仍然是一项脆弱的事业，很大程度上依赖于其大众观众。然而，大约在同一时间，其他电影制片人正在创作新鲜有趣的作品，不受十九世纪戏剧陈词滥调的阻碍。格里菲斯作为电影艺术元老的声誉很大程度上归功于一种审美自卑情结，这种自卑情结至少在 20 世纪 60 年代的电影史上留下了深刻的烙印。
Dreiser in the novel; Strindberg, Chekhov, and Shaw in the theater. That comparison is certainly unfair, since film was still a fragile enterprise that depended very much on its popular audience. Yet other filmmakers at about the same time were doing fresh and interesting work, unhampered by the clichés of the nineteenth-century theater. A good part of Griffith’s reputation as the patriarch of film art is due to a kind of esthetic inferiority complex, which marked film history until at least the 1960s.
格里菲斯的职业生涯始于剧院，他非常想拍出“受人尊敬”的电影。他希望将电影从低等的“坏对象”地位中解放出来。然而，电影的大部分活力和力量就在于这种叛逆的状态。到了 1911 年，麦克·森尼特 (Mack Sennett) 开始为格里菲斯 (Griffith) 表演和写作，开始制作他的第一部喜剧，这些喜剧表现出一种自由感和热情，这在格里菲斯 (Griffith) 的最佳作品中也很明显，但他似乎经常反对这些。格里菲斯的艺术是向后看的。森尼特的目光投向了达达主义和超现实主义。
Griffith, who had begun his career in the theater, wanted very much to make films that were “respectable.” He wanted to liberate film from its lower-class, “bad object” status. Yet much of the vitality and power of film lay in just that renegade status. By 1911, Mack Sennett, who had begun by acting and writing for Griffith, was making his first comedies, which show a sense of freedom and a gusto that are also evident in the best of Griffith, but which he often seems to be working against. Griffith’s art looked backward; Sennett’s looked forward, toward Dada and Surrealism.
格里菲斯的声誉存在双重问题：我们还没有足够认真地对待电影，因此我们倾向于诋毁闹剧；与此同时，我们对电影的态度过于严肃，因此我们向往可敬的父亲，格里菲斯扮演的角色非常出色。当平衡恢复时，格里菲斯的声誉将会受益，因为我们将能够在成功的同时接受错误。我们也会更好地理解为什么他早期的承诺会导致后来的宏伟计划并最终失败。
The problem with Griffith’s reputation is twofold: we don’t yet take cinema seriously enough, and so we tend to denigrate slapstick; and at the same time we take film too seriously, and so we yearn for the respectable father, the role that Griffith played so well. When the balance is redressed, Griffith’s reputation will benefit, since we will be able to accept the faults with the successes. We will also understand better why his early promise led to the grandiose schemes of later years and eventually to failure.
格里菲斯的情节剧和森内特的闹剧的核心都是追逐的概念，至今仍然是流行电影的主导元素。从波特和赫普沃斯的早期例子开始，加上维多利亚时代戏剧惯例的前身，追逐是叙事戏剧中唯一一个伟大的元素，而电影与戏剧不一样。它将戏剧从舞台拱门（真实的或理想的）带入现实世界，并成为驱动所有戏剧叙事的主角与对手之间战斗的典型模型。
Central to both Griffith’s melodrama and Sennett’s farce was the concept of the chase, still today a dominant element of popular film. Dating from the early examples of Porter and Hepworth, with antecedents in the conventions of Victorian theater, the chase was the single great element of narrative dramaturgy that film did not share with theater. It brought theater out of the proscenium arch (real or ideal) and into the world, and it became a quintessential model of the battle between protagonist and antagonist that drives all dramatic narrative.
当格里菲斯处于最佳状态时，在诸如《Lonedale Operator》（1911年）、《猪巷火枪手》 （1912年）、《不宽容》 （1916年）的结尾片段或《一路向东》（1920年）等影片中，追逐往往是手段（真实的或隐喻的）这使他能够摆脱维多利亚时代情感的停滞，发现情节剧固有的力量。同样，森尼特在洛杉矶早期荒凉的街道上进行的令人震惊的追逐提供了早期电影史上一些最具创意的电影时刻。
When Griffith is at his best, in such films as The Lonedale Operator (1911), The Musketeers of Pig Alley (1912), the closing sequence of Intolerance (1916), or Way Down East (1920), the chase is often the device (real or metaphorical) that allows him to free himself from the stasis of Victorian sentiment to discover the power inherent in melodrama. Likewise, Sennett’s reeling chases through the bleak streets of early Los Angeles provide some of the most inventive cinematic moments of early film history.
沉默的特征：现实主义与表现主义
The Silent Feature: Realism versus Expressionism
我们与格里菲斯联系在一起的场面、情节和情感是无声电影的商业标志，塞西尔·B·德米尔成功的职业生涯证明了这一点。我们还可以推测玛丽·碧克馥的电影在十几岁和二十年代的惊人受欢迎的至少最后两个要素。（她的丈夫道格拉斯·费尔班克斯（Douglas Fairbanks）夺得了第一名！）但从美学角度来看，森内特的传统在这些年里蓬勃发展。
The spectacle, melodrama, and sentiment we associate with Griffith were the commercial hallmarks of the silent feature, as the successful career of Cecil B. DeMille attests. We can also divine at least the last two elements in the phenomenal popularity of Mary Pickford’s films during the late teens and twenties. (Her husband Douglas Fairbanks commanded the first!) But esthetically, it was the Sennett tradition that flowered eloquently during these years.
美国的无声电影主要是喜剧。查尔斯·卓别林、巴斯特·基顿、哈罗德·劳埃德、哈利·兰登、马克·森尼特和哈尔·罗奇作为制片人主导了这一时期。卓别林、基顿和劳埃德创造的人物角色是电影史上最令人难忘和最有意义的创作之一。森尼特最早的电影围绕着一个简单的结构理念构建：他的故事没有道德意义；他的故事没有任何寓意。它们只是一些笑话的集合。十几岁和二十年代的伟大喜剧演员增加了评论的维度，将闹剧电影从机械能力的水平提升到隐喻和意义的水平。有趣的是，卓别林揭示了几乎与格里菲斯一样多的维多利亚时代情感，但以当代的方式表达了它。
Silent film in the U.S. is primarily a matter of comedy. Charles Chaplin, Buster Keaton, Harold Lloyd, Harry Langdon, and Mack Sennett and Hal Roach as producers dominate the period. The personas invented by Chaplin, Keaton, and Lloyd are among the most memorable and meaningful creations in film history. Sennett had built his earliest films around a simple structural idea: there was no moral to his stories; they were simply collections of gags. The great comic actors of the late teens and twenties added a dimension of commentary that raised the slapstick film from the level of mechanical competence to the level of metaphor and meaning. Interestingly, Chaplin reveals nearly as much Victorian sentiment as Griffith but expresses it in contemporary terms.
所有沉默的喜剧演员都将一个基本的政治问题——个人如何应对工业文明和强权政治？——转化为物理术语。观众做出了回应，并且仍然做出了发自内心的理解。如果说劳埃德是无声喜剧演员中最机械和抽象的，那么卓别林则是最具人性和政治性的，但他们所有人都在机械和道德之间建立了联系。卓别林的杰作《摩登时代》或许是无声喜剧风格和关注点的典型例子（虽然制作于 1936 年，但没有对白，只有音乐），这部关于机器和人类的电影至今仍然具有现实意义。
All the silent comedians translated a basically political problem—how can the individual cope with industrial civilization and power politics?—into physical terms. Audiences responded, and still respond, with visceral understanding. If Lloyd was the most mechanical and abstract of the silent comedians, Chaplin was the most human and political, but all of them made the connection between mechanics and morality. Probably the quintessential example of the styles and concerns of silent comedy is Chaplin’s masterpiece Modern Times (although made in 1936 it has no dialogue, only music), a film about machines and men that remains relevant today.
除了喜剧传统之外，二十年代美国电影中最有趣的审美力量是对电影现实主义可能性的探索。埃里希·冯·斯特罗海姆在不断发展的商业趋势中挣扎，只完成了少量的电影。他的观念常常被电影公司彻底重新编辑，但他仍然对美国电影的进程产生了深远的影响。《愚蠢的妻子》（1921）、《贪婪》（1923）和《婚礼进行曲》（1928）——都受到工作室负责人的蹂躏——尽管如此，它们仍然作为传奇和现实主义技术的重要力量（例如深度聚焦、复杂的场景调度）的实例而流传下来。 ，以及外景拍摄。电影制片人仍在探索这些设备的潜力。斯特罗海姆是最早认识到电影观众必须获得与创作者合作的自由的人之一。
Apart from the comic tradition, the most interesting esthetic force operating in American cinema in the twenties was the exploration of the possibilities of film realism. Erich von Stroheim, struggling against the developing commercial trend, managed to complete only a small number of films. More often than not, his conceptions were drastically reedited by studios, but he nevertheless had a profound influence on the course of American cinema. Foolish Wives (1921), Greed (1923), and The Wedding March (1928)—all savaged by studio heads—nevertheless survive as legends and object lessons on the vital power of realist techniques such as deep focus, complex mise-en-scene, and location shooting. Filmmakers are still exploring the potential of these devices. Stroheim was among the first to recognize that the observer of a film had to be given freedom to operate in concert with the creator.
在二十年代探索相机作为沟通者而不是操纵者的可能性时，斯特罗海姆也不是唯一的人。罗伯特·弗莱厄蒂在好莱坞体系之外工作，凭借《北方的纳努克》（Nanook of the North）（1922 年）和《莫阿娜》（ Moana ）（1926 年）等影片成为第一位著名的纪录片作家。FW Murnau 二十出头在德国取得了成功的职业生涯，1926 年抵达美国。《日出》（ Sunrise，1927 年）和《禁忌》（ Tabu，1929 年、1931 年，与弗莱厄蒂合作）仍然是戏剧性与现实主义融合的典范。在较小程度上，金·维多的《大游行》（1925）和《人群》（1928），以及后来的《我们的每日面包》（1934），都是政治现实主义的例子。
Nor was Stroheim alone during the twenties in exploring the possibilities of the camera as communicator rather than manipulator. Working outside the Hollywood system, Robert Flaherty became the first notable documentarist with such films as Nanook of the North (1922) and Moana (1926). F. W. Murnau, who had had a successful career in Germany in the early twenties, arrived in America in 1926. Sunrise (1927) and Tabu (1929, 1931, with Flaherty) remain fine examples of how theatricality can be fused with realism. To a lesser extent, King Vidor’s The Big Parade (1925) and The Crowd (1928), as well as the later Our Daily Bread (1934), stand as examples of political realism.
二十世纪二十年代，电影在美国迅速工业化，而在欧洲，它是一门生意，也被视为一门艺术。一般来说，电影制片人与知名画家、音乐家和剧作家的合作比美国人更密切，不仅因为他们发现自己身处同一个城镇，还因为新媒体吸引了当时正在兴起的先锋派运动。
While in America in the twenties film was rapidly industrializing, in Europe it was a business that was also seen as an art. Filmmakers in general worked more closely with established painters, musicians, and playwrights than the Americans did, not just because they found themselves in the same towns, but also because the new medium appealed to the avantgarde movement that was then establishing itself.
图 4-35。森尼特·蔡斯。_ _ _ Keystone Kops 在老洛杉矶的街道上进行骚乱：一场视觉滑稽的芭蕾舞。
Figure 4-35. THE SENNETT CHASE. The Keystone Kops in riotous action on the streets of old Los Angeles: a ballet of sight gags.
1925 年，伦敦电影协会成立，旨在推广电影艺术。在法国，路易·德吕克成为第一位重要的电影美学理论家，阿贝尔·冈斯、让·爱泼斯坦、杰曼·杜拉克、雷内·克莱尔、路易斯·布努埃尔、萨尔瓦多·达利、曼·雷、马塞尔·杜尚等电影人提供了电影作为艺术的实际例子，同时，商业电影产生的价值微乎其微。在德国，UFA开始有意识地提高德国电影的审美标准。其结果是电影史上最重要的才华横溢之一：德国表现主义。
In London, the Film Society was founded in 1925 to promote the art of film. In France, Louis Delluc became the first important esthetic theorist of film, and such filmmakers as Abel Gance, Jean Epstein, Germaine Dulac, René Clair, Luis Buñuel and Salvador Dali, Man Ray, and Marcel Duchamp provided practical examples of film as art while the commercial cinema produced little of value. In Germany, UFA set about consciously raising the esthetic standards of German film. The result was one of the major efflorescences of talent in cinema history: German Expressionism.
作家卡尔·梅尔、设计师/画家赫尔曼·沃姆、沃尔特·罗里格和沃尔特·雷曼在这场运动中发挥了重要作用，导演罗伯特·维恩（《卡里加里博士的内阁》， 1919 年）、弗里茨·朗（《马布斯博士》， 1922 年；《大都会》， 1927 年）、茂瑙（《诺斯费拉图》， 1922 年；《最后的笑》， 1924 年）和保罗·莱尼（蜡像馆， 1924 年，以及好莱坞的《猫与金丝雀》， 1927 年）。与此同时，GW Pabst（《无趣的街》， 1925）探索了现实主义的替代方案。尽管这段电影史令人着迷，但只有朗和穆瑙被证明是主要的艺术家，也只有朗幸存下来并创作出任何可观的作品。
Writer Carl Mayer, designer/painters Hermann Warm, Walter Röhrig, and Walter Reimann played significant roles in the movement, as did directors Robert Wiene (The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, 1919), Fritz Lang (Dr. Mabuse, 1922; Metropolis, 1927), Murnau (Nosferatu, 1922; The Last Laugh, 1924), and Paul Leni (Waxworks, 1924, and in Hollywood The Cat and The Canary, 1927). Meanwhile, G. W. Pabst (The Joyless Street, 1925) explored realist alternatives. As fascinating as this period of film history is, only Lang and Murnau proved to be major artists, and only Lang survived to produce any considerable body of work.
虽然德国表现主义在世界范围内产生了更大的影响，但有趣的、富有成效的传统正在瑞典和丹麦发展起来。十几岁和二十出头的时候。瑞典导演莫里茨·斯蒂勒和维克多·斯约斯特罗姆都有剧院背景。从早期到英格玛·伯格曼的职业生涯，瑞典电影一直与戏剧界密切相关。斯蒂勒最初专注于诙谐喜剧（爱情与新闻， 1916 年；托马斯·格拉尔的最佳电影， 1917 年），然后转向更多的文学项目（哥斯塔柏林的传奇， 1924 年），最后与他的明星葛丽泰·嘉宝一起移居好莱坞。Sjöström 是一名演员，以其诗意的社会评论而闻名（《亡命之徒和他的妻子》，1917年；Körkarlen，1921 年）。
While German Expressionism had a far greater effect worldwide, interesting, productive traditions were developing in Sweden and Denmark as well during the teens and early twenties. Swedish directors Mauritz Stiller and Victor Sjöström shared a background in the theater. From its earliest days through the career of Ingmar Bergman, Swedish film has been closely associated with the theatrical world. Stiller at first specialized in witty comedies (Love and Journalism, 1916; Thomas Graal’S Best Film, 1917) before moving on to more literary projects (Gösta Berling’s Saga, 1924) and finally emigrating to Hollywood with his star, Greta Garbo. Sjöström, an actor, is best known for his poetic social commentary (The Outlaw and His Wife, 1917; Körkarlen, 1921).
图 4-36。扎苏·皮茨和一床金币：冯·斯特罗海姆的《贪婪》 (1923)。（现代艺术博物馆/金融服务局。）
Figure 4-36. Zasu Pitts and a bed of gold coins: von Stroheim’s Greed (1923). (MOMA/FSA.)
丹麦导演卡尔·西奥多·德雷叶的职业生涯跨越了五十多年，尽管他执导的电影相对较少。他的《圣女贞德受难记》（1928）已成为世界电影公认的杰作之一，《吸血鬼》（1932）和《格特鲁德》（1964）也是如此。德雷叶的电影以其超然的简单性和对残酷、羞辱和痛苦的迷恋而闻名。
Danish director Carl Theodor Dreyer’s career spanned more than fifty years, although he directed relatively few films. His Passion de Jeanne d’Arc (1928) has become one of the recognized masterpieces of world film, as have Vampyr (1932) and Gertrud (1964). Dreyer’s cinema is notable for its transcendental simplicity and fascination with cruelty, humiliation, and suffering.
二十年代也是苏联电影的伟大时代。列夫·库列绍夫（Lev Kuleshov）和弗谢沃洛德·梅耶荷德（Vsevolod Meyerhold）建立了独立但平行的理论，这些理论被谢尔盖·爱森斯坦（Strike， 1924年；波将金， 1925年； 1927年10月）、VI·普多夫金（Mother， 1926年； 《圣彼得堡末日》， 1927 年）和亚历山大·多夫任科（《阿森纳》， 1929 年；《地球》， 1930 年）。这些电影仍然是电影史上的重要里程碑，尤其是《波将金号》，可能是爱森斯坦有影响力的蒙太奇理论的最明显例子。
The twenties were also the great age of Soviet cinema. Lev Kuleshov and Vsevolod Meyerhold had established separate but parallel theories that were taken up and greatly elaborated on by Sergei Eisenstein (Strike, 1924; Potemkin, 1925; October, 1927), V. I. Pudovkin (Mother, 1926; The End of St. Petersburg, 1927), and Alexander Dovzhenko (Arsenal, 1929; Earth, 1930). These films remain major landmarks in the history of cinema, especially Potemkin, probably the clearest example of Eisenstein’s influential theories of montage.
爱森斯坦将电影视为一个辩证的过程，他在《波将金号》中的技巧证明了这种方法的有效性。他使用“类型”而不是完全发展的角色，为这个 1905 年战列舰波将金号船员叛变的故事创造了一个强有力的、持续不断的逻辑。敖德萨台阶序列（见图 5-1 至 5-4）是他著名的蒙太奇技术最著名的例子之一，纯粹通过镜头的并置来构建戏剧性和意义。
Eisenstein saw film as a dialectical process, and his technique in Potemkin demonstrates the effectiveness of that approach. Using “types” rather than fully developed characters, he created a forceful, incessant logic for this story of the 1905 mutiny of the crew of Battleship Potemkin. The Odessa Steps sequence (see Figures 5-1 to 5-4) is one of the most famous examples of his celebrated montage technique, building both drama and significance purely through the juxtaposition of shots.
与此同时，吉加·维尔托夫在《电影真理》（Kino-Pravda，1922-25）、《电影之眼》（Kino-Eye，1924）和《拿着摄像机的人》（Man with a Movie Camera，1929）等电影中发展了他的“电影真相”理论。正如德国人研究了人工布景和场面调度的表现力一样，苏联革命电影制片人也探索了蒙太奇强大的表现力。他们的理论是电影中最重要的理论之一，将在下一章中讨论。
At the same time, Dziga Vertov was developing his theory of “film-truth” in such films as Kino-Pravda (1922-25), Kino-Eye (1924), and Man with a Movie Camera (1929). As the Germans had investigated the expressiveness of artificial setting and mise-en-scène, so the Soviet revolutionary filmmakers explored the powerful expressive intelligence of montage. Their theories, among the most important in cinema, will be discussed in the following chapter.
好莱坞：类型与导演
Hollywood: Genre versus Auteur
到三十年代初，美国电影已在世界银幕上取得了主导地位。1932 年至 1946 年间，除了两个例外，电影史就是好莱坞的历史。例外的是法国的导演团体有时在“诗意现实主义”的标题下联系在一起，以及约翰·格里尔森和他在英国的团体开始的英国纪录片传统。格里尔森本人只制作了一部电影，但他却担任三十年代英国纪录片传统的制片人、组织者和先驱者，这场运动对英国电影未来发展的影响比由此产生的实际电影更为重要。尽管与格里尔森无关，汉弗莱·詹宁斯在战争期间创作了此类题材中最经久不衰的例子：《倾听英国》（Listen to Britain，1942）、《火灾开始了》（Fires Were Started，1943）和《蒂莫西日记》（A Diary for Timothy，1945）都是来自一个人的纪录片式的个人陈述。前诗人和画家。
By the early thirties, American cinema had achieved a position of dominance on world screens. Between 1932 and 1946, the history of film is, with two exceptions, the history of Hollywood. The exceptions are the group of directors in France sometimes linked together under the rubric “Poetic Realism,” and the beginnings of the British documentary tradition with John Grierson and his group in England. Grierson, who made only one film himself, acted as producer, organizer, and herald for the British documentary tradition in the thirties, a movement whose effect on the future development of British cinema was more important than the actual films that issued from it. Although not associated with Grierson, Humphrey Jennings produced possibly the most enduring examples of this genre during the war: Listen to Britain (1942), Fires Were Started (1943), and A Diary for Timothy (1945) are all documentary personal statements from a former poet and painter.
正如阿尔弗雷德·希区柯克 (Alfred Hitchcock) 在 20 世纪 30 年代的英国故事片中占据主导地位一样，让·雷诺阿 (Jean Renoir) 也傲视那十年的法国电影界。雷诺阿当时不像现在那样受到重视（当时他被认为是世界电影公认的大师之一），雷诺阿创造了一种新的融合模式，将卓别林等无声艺术家的人文主义与现实主义技巧结合起来非凡的系列电影：《布杜从溺水中救出》（1932年）、《托尼》（1934年）、《兰格之罪》（1935年）、《大幻象》（1937年）和《游戏规则》（1939年）。他的人道、社会敏感、滑稽的喜剧风格的影响至今仍被感受到。
As Alfred Hitchcock dominated British fiction film in the 1930s, so Jean Renoir towered over the French film scene of that decade. Less appreciated then than now (when he is regarded as one of the acknowledged masters of world cinema), Renoir created a new fusion of modes that combined the humanism of such silent artists as Chaplin with realist technique in an extraordinary series of films: Boudu Saved from Drowning (1932), Toni (1934), The Crime of M. Lange (1935), Grand Illusion (1937), and The Rules of the Game (1939). The influence of his humane, socially sensitive, drolly comic style is still being felt.
图 4-37。德国表现主义明暗对比：罗伯特·维内的《Raskolnikow》（1923）。光影的运用是一个主要的法则。（现代艺术博物馆/金融服务局。）
Figure 4-37. German Expressionist chiaroscuro: Robert Wiene’s Raskolnikow (1923). The play of light and shade was a major code. (MOMA/FSA.)
与此同时，在法国，许多其他强烈且非常个人化的风格正在发展：马塞尔·帕尼奥尔（Marcel Pagnol）指导了一系列流行的、抒情的和羞涩的法国地方主义研究。雷内·克莱尔（René Clair）的声誉多年来一直受到损害，他执导了几部有趣但轻松的电影。马塞尔·卡尔内 (Marcel Carné) 创作了多部极具戏剧性的诙谐戏剧，其中《天堂之子》 (1944) 中的巅峰之作。雅克·普雷韦尔 (Jacques Prévert) 是他的常合作者。最令人难忘的也许是让·维戈在二十九岁去世前拍摄的两部主要电影：《零行为》（1933年）和《亚特兰大》（ 1934年）是维戈目光敏锐、艺术大师的新鲜而直接的作品。电影。
At the same time in France, a number of other strong and very personal styles were developing: Marcel Pagnol directed a series of popular, lyrical, and diffident studies of French provincialism. René Clair, whose reputation has suffered with the years, directed several amusing, if lightweight, films. Marcel Carné was responsible for a number of highly theatrical witty dramas, culminating in Children of Paradise (1944). Jacques Prévert was his frequent collaborator. Most memorable, perhaps, are the two major films made by Jean Vigo before he died at the age of twenty-nine: Zero for Conduct (1933) and L’Atalante (1934) are fresh and direct products of Vigo’s clear-eyed, virtuoso cinema.
当时在好莱坞很少有如此清晰可辨的个人签名。阿尔弗雷德·希区柯克 (Alfred Hitchcock) 在英国成熟，1940 年抵达好莱坞后成为最著名的导演。他统治了惊悚片类型长达半个世纪。
There were few such clearly identifiable personal signatures in Hollywood at the time. Alfred Hitchcock, who had matured in England, became the most obvious of the Hollywood auteurs after his arrival in 1940. He dominated the genre of the thriller for half a century.
图 4-38。阿斯塔·尼尔森是欧洲第一位明星，就像玛丽·碧克馥一样，既是一位精明的女商人，也是一位名人。图中她与康拉德·维特 (Conrad Veidt) 一起出现在《Der Reigen》（理查德·奥斯瓦尔德，1920 年）中。（由汉堡 Cinegraph 提供。）
Figure 4-38. Asta Neilsen was Europe’s first star—like Mary Pickford, a savvy businesswoman as well as a celebrity. Here she is seen with Conrad Veidt in Der Reigen (Richard Oswald, 1920). (Courtesy Cinegraph Hamburg.)
他应该有；他发明了它。希区柯克在美国头几年拍摄的多部影片中，进一步完善了他在 20 世纪 30 年代在英国尝试过的政治偏执的基本含义。《外国记者》（1940）是一部充满微妙反转和指向未来的对应的电影。《破坏者》（1942）是他第一部通过从东海岸到西海岸的追逐向我们展示美国风景的电影。在其中，他对战时个人与国家之间的关系提出了一些有趣的想法。《疑云》（Shadow of a Doubt，1943）改编自剧作家桑顿·怀尔德（Thornton Wilder）的剧本，将小镇生活与犯罪人物进行了对比，通常被认为是希区柯克经典电影中的主要电影之一。《着迷》（1945）在今天看来过于简单化，但却是美国电影中最早引入弗洛伊德概念的电影之一。《美人计》（1946）将加里·格兰特和英格丽·褒曼搭档，对战争造成的偏执对人际关系的影响进行了深入的个人探索。
He should have; he invented it. In a number of films made during his first years in America, Hitchcock further refined the basic sense of political paranoia with which he had experimented in England in the 1930s. Foreign Correspondent (1940) was a film of subtle reversals and correspondences that pointed toward the future. Saboteur (1942) was the first of his films to spread the American landscape before us in a coast-to-coast chase. In it he developed some interesting ideas about the relationship between the individual and the state in wartime. Shadow of a Doubt (1943), from a script by the playwright Thornton Wilder, contrasted small-town life with the criminal personality and is generally regarded as one of the major films of the Hitchcock canon. Spellbound (1945) seems simplistic today but was one of the earliest introductions of Freudian concepts in American film. Notorious (1946) paired Cary Grant and Ingrid Bergman in an intensely personal exploration of the effects on a relationship of the paranoia engendered by war.
图 4-39。吉加·维尔托夫 (Dziga Vertov) 的《拿着摄影机的人》(Man with a Movie Camera ) (1929)：独特的电影真理。（MOMA/FSA。框架放大。）
Figure 4-39. Dziga Vertov’s Man with a Movie Camera (1929): idiosyncratic kino-pravda. (MOMA/FSA. Frame enlargement.)
也是在这一时期：约瑟夫·冯·斯滕伯格在一系列视觉上精致的爱情故事中留下了自己的印记（《蓝色天使》，摩洛哥， 1930 年；《上海快车》， 1932 年；《猩红皇后》， 1934 年）。巴斯比·伯克利发明了一种独特的音乐剧电影形式（《Gold Diggers of 1935》、 1935 年；《The Gang's All Here》、 1943 年）。约翰·福特使西部片的歌唱形式产生了新的共鸣（《驿马车》， 1939 年；《我亲爱的克莱门汀》， 1946 年），并在他执导的其他电影的配乐中将这种本质上是美国类型的许多隐喻扩展到其他方向。
Also during this period: Josef von Sternberg left his mark in a series of visually elaborate romances (The Blue Angel, Morocco, 1930; Shanghai Express, 1932; The Scarlet Empress, 1934). Busby Berkeley invented a uniquely cinematic form of Musical (Gold Diggers of 1935, 1935; The Gang’s All Here, 1943). John Ford made the form of the Western sing with new resonance (Stagecoach, 1939; My Darling Clementine, 1946) and extended many of the metaphors of that essentially American genre in other directions in the scores of other films he directed.
霍华德·霍克斯在多种类型的电影中留下了自己的印记，他的电影总是以其机智、善良和丰富的质感给人留下深刻的印象。其中包括所谓的怪诞喜剧（《二十世纪》， 1934 年；《抚养婴儿》， 1939 年；《他的女孩星期五》， 1939 年）、剧情片（《有与无》， 1944 年）和西部片（《红河》， 1948 年；《里奥布拉沃》， 1959 年） ）。霍克斯的《长眠不醒》（1946 年）是经典的黑色电影侦探故事，改编自雷蒙德·钱德勒的小说，由亨弗莱·鲍嘉和劳伦·白考尔主演。它也是好莱坞电影中所有精华的近乎完美的典范。钱德勒、霍克斯、鲍嘉以及编剧威廉·福克纳、利·布拉克特和朱尔斯·福斯曼将才华横溢，将他们的不同关注点和风格紧密地编织在一起。值得注意的是，尽管这部电影是许多艺术界人士的作品，但其统一性令人印象深刻。作为娱乐节目，它在好莱坞经典中很少有对手。博加特和巴考尔的动人关系与霍克斯机智的场景融为一体；钱德勒简洁、诗意的存在主义；编剧们（在霍克斯的指导下）提供了坚韧、丰富、幽默的对话和优雅复杂的情节。结果是产生丰富共鸣的娱乐。
Howard Hawks left his imprint on a wide variety of genres, his films always impressive for their wit, good nature, and richness of texture. Among them were so-called Screwball Comedies (Twentieth Century, 1934; Bringing Up Baby, 1939; His Girl Friday, 1939), dramas (To Have and Have Not, 1944), and Westerns (Red River, 1948; Rio Bravo, 1959). Hawks’s The Big Sleep (1946) is the classic Film Noir detective story, based on Raymond Chandler’s novel and starring Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall. It is also a near-perfect model of all that is best in the Hollywood film. Chandler, Hawks, Bogart, and screenwriters William Faulkner, Leigh Brackett, and Jules Furthman combined talents to produce a tightly woven fabric of their various concerns and styles. It is significant that the film, despite being the product of a number of artistic personalities, nevertheless impresses with its unity. As entertainment it has few equals in the Hollywood canon. The electric Bogart-Bacall relationship merges with Hawks’s witty mise-en-scene; Chandler’s laconic, poetic existentialism; and the tough, rich, humorous dialogue and elegantly complicated plot provided by the screenwriters (under Hawks’s direction). The result is richly resonant entertainment.
图 4-40。让·雷诺阿的《游戏规则》（1939）中的动作和构图。（图框放大）
Figure 4-40. Action and composition in Jean Renoir’s The Rules of the Game (1939). (Frame enlargement)
但《长眠不醒》，就像所有好莱坞最好的电影一样，几乎是无意识的。霍克斯的女性画廊在人物刻画的深度上是无与伦比的，更重要的是，她们所展现的力量和智慧是无与伦比的。（这出自一位以处理男性友谊而闻名的导演之手！）影片中男女之间平衡的紧张关系赋予了它特殊的心理相关性。与此同时，《长眠不醒》以一种不太令人钦佩的方式代表了好莱坞风格：钱德勒小说中的大部分直接政治内容都被删掉了，因此从这方面来说，这部电影与其原始来源相比只是一个苍白的影子。近三十年后，由罗伯特·汤恩编剧、罗曼·波兰斯基执导的《唐人街》在银幕上探讨了雷蒙德·钱德勒在包括《长眠不醒》在内的几乎所有小说中讨论的相同的腐朽和腐败主题。只是在 20 世纪 40 年代制作的许多关于他的故事的电影版本中有所暗示。
But The Big Sleep, like all of Hollywood’s best films, is more as well, almost unconsciously. Hawks’s gallery of women is unmatched for the depth of characterization and, more important, the strength and the intelligence they exhibit. (And this from a director known best for his treatment of male friendships!) The balanced tension between the men and the women in the film gives it a special psychological relevance. At the same time, The Big Sleep is representative of the Hollywood style in a less admirable way: most of the directly political material of Chandler’s novel was cut out so that the film is, in this respect, a pale shadow of its original source. It was nearly thirty years before Chinatown (1974), written by Robert Towne and directed by Roman Polanski, explored on the screen the same subjects of decay and corruption that Raymond Chandler discussed in nearly all his novels, including The Big Sleep, but which were only hinted at in the many film versions of his stories made in the 1940s.
图 4-41。1932 年，霍华德·霍克斯 (Howard Hawks) 为制片人霍华德·休斯 (Howard Hughes) 制作了经典黑帮电影《疤面煞星》（改编自本·赫克特 (Ben Hecht) 的剧本），然后转向其他类型。安·德沃夏克、保罗·穆尼和乔治·拉夫特主演。
Figure 4-41. In 1932 Howard Hawks made the classic Gangster film Scarface (from a Ben Hecht screenplay) for producer Howard Hughes before moving on to other genres. Ann Dvorak, Paul Muni, and George Raft starred.
在好莱坞的伟大时代，希区柯克、福特、霍克斯、冯·斯登伯格和其他一些人可能能够在每部电影中保持可识别的个人签名。然而，在很大程度上，好莱坞电影是众多工匠的产物：导演、演员、摄影师、作家、设计师、制片人。威廉·威尔曼、刘易斯·迈尔斯通、里奥·麦卡里和约翰·休斯顿等导演毫无疑问地展示了个人风格，并且是作者论批评家的正确研究，但好莱坞体系的结构使得即使是强大的导演人物也常常被淹没在工作室风格、演员风格、制片人要求和编剧特质的海洋中。
Hitchcock, Ford, Hawks, von Sternberg, and a few others may have been able to maintain a recognizable personal signature from film to film during the great age of Hollywood. For the most part, however, Hollywood cinema was the product of numerous craftspeople: directors, actors, cinematographers, writers, designers, producers. Directors such as William Wellman, Lewis Milestone, Leo McCarey, and John Huston display personal styles, no doubt, and are proper studies of auteurist critics, yet the structure of the Hollywood system was such that even powerful directorial personalities were more often than not submerged in a sea of studio styles, actors’ styles, producers’ requirements, and writers’ idiosyncrasies.
这条规则最有趣的例外之一是普雷斯顿·斯特奇斯。作为一名二十多岁的剧作家，他和他的许多同事一样，随着有声技术的出现从纽约移居到好莱坞。20世纪30年代，他作为编剧取得了成功的职业生涯。《轻松生活》（1937 年，由米切尔·莱森执导）可能是他这一时期最好的剧本。他于 1940 年开始执导，在近十年的时间里，他能够对自己的电影保持出色的控制力，创作出他所有的作品。拥有自己的剧本并定期与同一组演员合作。他古怪而尖锐的讽刺作品在《夏娃女士》（1941）、《沙利文游记》（1942）和《摩根溪的奇迹》（1944）中得到了最好的体现。
One of the most interesting exceptions to this rule was Preston Sturges. A playwright in the twenties, he, like so many of his colleagues, migrated from New York to Hollywood with the advent of sound. He enjoyed a successful career as screenwriter during the 1930s. Easy Living (1937, directed by Mitchell Leisen) is probably the best of his scripts from this period. He began directing in 1940, and for almost a decade was able to maintain a remarkable measure of control over his films, writing all his own scripts and working regularly with the same group of actors. His eccentric, pointed satire is best represented by The Lady Eve (1941), Sullivan’s Travels (1942), and The Miracle of Morgan’s Creek (1944).
图 4-42。《长眠不醒》 （霍华德·霍克斯，1945 年）中的劳伦·白考尔和汉弗莱·鲍嘉：男女之间的关系比当今更为平衡。（现代艺术博物馆/金融服务局。）
Figure 4-42. Lauren Bacall and Humphrey Bogart in The Big Sleep (Howard Hawks, 1945): a more balanced relationship between women and men than is common today. (MOMA/FSA.)
另一位具有尖刻智慧的编剧兼导演比利·怀尔德（Billy Wilder，1906 年出生于加利西亚苏查）是欧洲移民中最成功的一位（也是最多产的）。1934 年，他为了逃离欧洲的纳粹主义而来到好莱坞。他与查尔斯·布拉克特（Charles Brackett，1938-1950）以及后来的 IAL Diamond 的编剧合作帮助他成为最美国化的移民导演，并取得了一系列的好评和商业成功。尽管他以愤世嫉俗而闻名，但他的作品却揭示了为真正的社会智慧服务的更深刻、更聪明的智慧。从四十年代的黑色电影（《双重赔偿》， 1944 年；《失去的周末》， 1945 年；《日落大道》， 1950 年）到五十年代的爱情片和喜剧（《龙凤配》， 1954 年； 《七年之痒》， 1955 年；《热情似火》， 1959 年），并在 60 年代以《公寓》（1960）、《一、二、三》（1961）和《幸运饼干》（1966）达到顶峰，怀尔德创造了数量无与伦比的美国文化试金石。《一、二、三》问世三十年后，柏林墙倒塌后成为德国年轻人的最爱。这就是持久力。
Another writer-director with a mordant wit, Billy Wilder (born in Sucha, Galicia, in 1906) was the most successful of the émigrés from Europe (as well as the most prolific). He arrived in Hollywood in 1934, fleeing Nazism in Europe. His writing partnerships with Charles Brackett (1938-1950) and later I. A. L. Diamond helped him to become the most American of immigrant directors, with a long string of critical and commercial hits. Although he is famed for his cynicism, his work reveals a deeper, brighter wit in the service of real social wisdom. From the films noirs of the forties (Double Indemnity, 1944; The Lost Weekend, 1945; Sunset Boulevard, 1950) through the romances and comedies of the fifties (Sabrina, 1954; The Seven-Year Itch, 1955; Some Like It Hot, 1959) and culminating in the sixties with The Apartment (1960), One, Two, Three (1961) and The Fortune Cookie (1966), Wilder was responsible for an unrivaled number of American cultural touchstones. Thirty years after it was made, One, Two, Three became a cult favorite of young Germans after the fall of the Berlin wall. That’s staying power.
图 4-43。乔尔·麦克雷 (Joel McCrea) 饰演成功导演沙利文 (Sullivan)，在普雷斯顿·斯特吉斯 (Preston Sturges) 1941 年剪辑的好莱坞讽刺片《沙利文游记》中，与维罗妮卡·莱克 (Veronica Lake) 一起受苦受难。
Figure 4-43. Joel McCrea, as Sullivan the successful director, sets out with Veronica Lake to suffer in Preston Sturges’s cutting 1941 satire on Hollywood, Sullivan’s Travels.
正是作者与流派之间的这种辩证关系推动了经典的好莱坞电影：艺术家的感性与流行故事类型的既定神话结构之间的冲突。这些类型中最重要的可能是西部片，因为它体现了许多神话——边疆、个人主义、土地、法律和秩序与无政府状态——美国的民族心理仍然依赖于这些神话。音乐剧可能位居第二受欢迎，无论是伯克利华纳兄弟系列的几何练习还是雷电华弗雷德·阿斯泰尔复杂的轻松喜剧。
It was this dialectic between auteur and genre that drove the classic Hollywood cinema: the clash between an artist’s sensibility and the defined mythic structures of the popular story types. Probably the most important of these genres was the Western, since it embodied so many of the myths—the frontier, individualism, the land, and law and order versus anarchy—upon which the national psyche of the United States still depends. Musicals were probably second in popularity, whether the geometric exercises of Berkeley’s Warner Brothers series or the sophisticated, light comedies of Fred Astaire at RKO.
喜剧在三十年代依然强劲，因为二十年代的百老汇作家大量引进，为有声电影提供对话。再次，是表演者带路，就像默片时代一样。马克思兄弟、梅·韦斯特和 WC·菲尔兹（他们以默片开始）创作了一些最有趣的喜剧人物，马克思兄弟设定了一种不合逻辑的模式，这种模式一直持续到世纪之交。20 年代百老汇的快节奏和漫不经心催生了怪诞喜剧，这种类型可能最能代表 1930 年代美国银幕。黑帮片、恐怖片、历史爱情片和刚刚萌芽的惊悚片也是当时的重要类型。
Comedy remained strong in the thirties, as the Broadway writers of the twenties were imported en masse to provide dialogue for sound films. Again, it was the performers who led the way, as it had been in the silent era. The Marx Brothers, Mae West, and W. C. Fields (who had begun in silents) produced some of the most intriguing comic personas, the Marxes setting a mode of illogic that was to last past the turn of the century. The quick patter and insouciance of Broadway in the twenties gave rise to the Screwball Comedy, the genre that probably best identifies the 1930s on American screens. Gangster films, Horror films, Historical Romances, and embryonic Thrillers were also important genres of the time.
四十年代，情绪发生了变化。当然，战争片也被添加到类型目录中。从四十年代中期开始，战后的愤世嫉俗给美国的调色板增添了黑暗和不祥的色彩，这种独特的都市犬儒主义、悲观的题材和被称为“黑色电影”的黑暗阴影的混合体开始出现。
In the forties, the mood changed. War films, of course, were added to the genre catalogue. Beginning in the mid-forties, that peculiar blend of urban cynicism, downbeat subject matter, and dark shadows known as “Film Noir” made its appearance, as post-war cynicism added dark and foreboding colors to the American palette.
在整个经典的好莱坞时期，各种类型都在不断完善。到最后，他们几乎成了自我嘲讽。然而，它们在两个方面被证明是引人入胜的：一方面，就其本质而言，流派是神话般的。观看恐怖片、黑帮片或怪诞喜剧都是一种宣泄。这些元素是众所周知的：每种流行类型都有一长串。他们的部分乐趣在于看看这一次将如何处理这些基本元素。另一方面，一种流派的个别例子也常常是具体的陈述。对于更有见识的观察者来说，电影中的多重风格冲突也同样令人感兴趣——工作室、导演、明星、制片人的风格，有时甚至是编剧、设计师或电影摄影师的风格。流派提供了有限数量元素的无数组合。
Throughout the classic Hollywood period, the genres refined themselves; by the end they were nearly self-parodies. Yet they proved engrossing in two respects: on the one hand, by their nature, genres were mythic. To experience a Horror film, a Gangster film, or a Screwball Comedy was cathartic. The elements were well known: there was a litany to each popular genre. Part of their pleasure lay in seeing how those basic elements would be treated this time around. On the other hand, individual examples of a genre were also often specific statements. For the more knowledgeable observer, there was an equal interest in the multiple clash of styles in the film—styles of the studio, the director, the star, the producer, occasionally even the writer or designer or cinematographer. Genres offered myriad combinations of a finite number of elements.
在这片流派、风格、作者和明星的森林中，矗立着奥森·威尔斯的《公民凯恩》（1941）的纪念碑，这可能是有史以来最重要的美国电影。（该片于 1998 年由美国电影学会的评论小组投票选出。）威尔斯的这部经典之作不属于任何特定类型，但它的运作方式就像类型电影一样，通过挖掘神话共鸣并将其塑造成戏剧性的结局。查尔斯·福斯特·凯恩（Charles Foster Kane）是媒体大亨、政治家、公众人物和私人人物，他的传奇故事是二十世纪上半叶美国生活的象征。此外，威尔斯以大师般的沉着态度，用丰富的电影术语塑造了他的叙事。就好像这个好莱坞的陌生人，纽约剧院和广播电台的孩子，客观地看待了三十年代好莱坞的所有电影技术并将它们编织在一起。作为联合编剧、制片人、导演和明星，他臭名昭著的自我意识也使威尔斯的电影成为作者导演的典范。
In the middle of this often confusing forest of genres, styles, auteurs, and stars stands the monument of Orson Welles’s Citizen Kane (1941), possibly the most important American movie ever made. (It was voted as such by the American Film Institute’s panel of critics in 1998.) Welles’s classic belongs to no specific genre, but it operates like genre films by tapping mythic resonances and shaping them to dramatic ends. The saga of Charles Foster Kane, media baron and politician, public figure and private man, is an emblem of American life in the first half of the twentieth century. Moreover, Welles—with the aplomb of a master—shapes his narrative in exuberant cinematic terms. It was as if this stranger to Hollywood, child of New York theater and radio, had viewed objectively all the various strands of film technique of thirties Hollywood and woven them all together. His notorious ego, which he exerted as cowriter, producer, director, and star, also makes Welles’s film a prime example of auteurship.
他的第二部电影《伟大的安伯森一家》（1942）从未以他准备的版本发行，威尔斯也再也没有取得与《公民凯恩》相媲美的成功。这种强有力的作者导演和强烈的类型元素的结合是一种独特的现象，也是电影史上最伟大的杰作。
His second film, The Magnificent Ambersons (1942), was never released in the version he had prepared, and Welles never again matched his success with Citizen Kane. This union of the strong auteur and strong genre elements was a singular phenomenon, as well as the greatest tour de force in film history.
图 4-44。类型：音乐剧。_ _ 三十年代在华纳兄弟，巴斯比·伯克利使精心编排的几何舞蹈动作闻名，但这不仅仅是他的发明。这是第一部 Fred Astaire-Ginger Rogers 音乐剧《RKO飞向里约》（1933 年，Thornton Freeland 导演）中的场景。它结合了阿斯泰尔-罗杰斯团队生动的明星作品和伯克利著名的千步舞。编舞是戴夫·古尔德。（现代艺术博物馆/金融服务局。）
Figure 4-44. GENRES: THE MUSICAL. At Warner Brothers in the thirties, Busby Berkeley made the elaborately choreographed geometric dance routine famous, but it was not solely his invention. Here a scene from the first Fred Astaire-Ginger Rogers Musical, RKO’s Flying Down to Rio (1933, directed by Thornton Freeland). It combines the vivid star work of the Astaire-Rogers team with the pas de milles made famous in Berkeley’s work. The choreographer was Dave Gould. (MOMA/FSA.)
新现实主义及其之后：好莱坞与世界
Neorealism and After: Hollywood versus the World
电视并不是好莱坞电影公司在四五十年代末面临的唯一挑战。在法西斯主义和战争的瘫痪之后，其他国家的电影院正在成熟和重组。为战争期间使用而完善的 16 毫米装备使得替代性的分配系统得以缓慢而稳定地发展，并在 20 世纪 60 年代成熟。电影节和电影协会蓬勃发展，为那些没有好莱坞商业联合体资源的电影制片人提供了有效的宣传工具。例如，法国将电影视为一种出口商品，将戛纳电影节打造成主要的国际市场，并成立了Unifrance推广组织。
Television was not the only challenger the Hollywood studios faced during the late forties and fifties. Cinemas in other countries were maturing and reorganizing after the paralysis of fascism and the war. The 16 mm equipment perfected for use during the war permitted an alternate system of distribution that grew slowly but steadily, coming of age in the sixties. Film festivals and film societies bloomed, providing effective promotional tools for filmmakers who did not have the resources of the Hollywood business combines behind them. Recognizing film as an export commodity, France, for example, built the Cannes festival into the major international marketplace and established the Unifrance promotion organization.
这种更加流动的经济环境使主要艺术家，即使是小国家的艺术家，也能够找到国际市场。如果好莱坞必须在经济上与电视竞争才能在五十年代生存，它就必须在美学上进行竞争二十世纪四十年代末、五十年代和六十年代，世界范围内涌现出新的人才。旧的流派依然存在。添加了一些新的；好莱坞的老手们越来越老了。但在欧洲和亚洲，一种新型电影正在脱颖而出：个性化、创造性、非通用性，并直接反映当代体验。
This more fluid economic environment allowed major artists, even in small countries, to find an international market. If Hollywood had to battle television economically to survive the fifties, it had to contend esthetically with a worldwide flowering of new talent during the late forties, fifties, and sixties. The old genres remained; a few new ones were added; the old Hollywood hands grew older. But in Europe and Asia a new type of cinema was coming to the fore: personal, inventive, nongeneric, and speaking directly to the contemporary experience.
第一批影片在战争结束时的意大利上映，是新现实主义运动的产物。切萨雷·扎瓦蒂尼 (Cesare Zavattini) 是一位评论家和作家，他为新现实主义确立了基本规则，并负责了几部重要电影的剧本（《擦鞋》， 1946 年；《自行车贼》 ， 1948 年；翁贝托·D， 1952 年）。维托里奥·德·西卡（Vittorio De Sica）是三十年代浪漫主义的领军明星，他执导了这三个剧本（以及扎瓦蒂尼的其他几个剧本），从而为新现实主义做出了重要贡献，然后在五十年代中期又回到了更加商业化、不那么有趣的作品中。 。卢奇诺·维斯康蒂执导了最早的新现实主义电影之一（《Ossessione》， 1942 年），是新现实主义运动鼎盛时期的经典之作（《La Terra Trema》， 1948 年），也是该风格的最新范例之一（《罗科和他的兄弟》， 1960 年） ，尽管他的大部分作品在风格上更接近他的初恋歌剧，而不是新现实主义。
The first group of these films appeared in Italy just at the end of the war, the product of the Neorealist movement. Cesare Zavattini, a critic and writer, had established the ground rules for Neorealism and was responsible for the scripts of several important films (Shoeshine, 1946; Bicycle Thief 1948; Umberto D, 1952). Vittorio De Sica, who had been a leading romantic star of the thirties, directed these three scripts (and several others by Zavattini), thereby making an important contribution to Neorealism, before falling back into more commercial, less interesting work in the mid-fifties. Luchino Visconti directed one of the earliest Neorealist films (Ossessione, 1942), a classic during the height of the movement (La Terra Trema, 1948), as well as one of the latest examples of the style (Rocco and His Brothers, 1960), although most of his work was closer in style to his first love, opera, than to Neorealism.
最重要的是罗伯托·罗西里尼的作品（《罗马，不设防的城市， 1945年；派桑， 1946年；德国零年， 1947年；斯特龙博利， 1949年）》，因为他是三位主要导演中唯一一位以新现实主义经验为基础的导演。他在整个五十年代以及1960年转向电视领域的作品（《路易十四的权力崛起》， 1966年；《使徒行传》， 1968年；苏格拉底， 1970年）为唯物主义电影奠定了基础，而唯物主义电影是新现实主义的直接后代。
Most important was the work of Roberto Rossellini (Rome, Open City, 1945; Paisan, 1946; Germany—Year Zero, 1947; Stromboli, 1949), for he was the only one of the three major directors to build on the experience of Neorealism. His work throughout the fifties and in television, to which he turned in 1960 (The Rise to Power of Louis XIV, 1966; Acts of the Apostles, 1968; Socrates, 1970), established the foundation for materialist cinema, the direct descendant of Neorealism.
罗马，不设防的城市仍然是电影史上的主要地标之一。这部电影是在德国占领罗马期间秘密策划的，在盟军解放罗马后不久就拍摄了。影片的拍摄条件极大地增强了其紧迫的现实感。一名抵抗运动领袖和一名牧师被罗马不设城盖世太保逮捕并杀害的故事，其紧迫性和强度与拍摄的时间和地点直接相关。罗西里尼用他能找到的任何胶片进行拍摄，通常是卷轴的剩余部分。在这样的条件下拍摄，即使罗西里尼愿意，也不可能给影片赋予专业的光泽。专业演员安娜·马格纳尼 (Anna Magnani) 和阿尔多·法布里兹 (Aldo Fabrizi) 与完全非专业的演员阵容合作。其结果是表演的真实性只有真正的纪录片才能媲美。影片的风格非常高有影响。从那时起，现实主义电影技术的元素就成为世界电影美学的一个组成部分。
Rome, Open City remains one of the major landmarks of film history. Secretly planned during the German occupation of Rome, the film was shot soon after the Allies liberated the city. The conditions under which it was shot add much to its sense of urgent realism. The story of a resistance leader and a priest who are arrested and killed by the Gestapo, Rome, Open City is marked by an urgency and intensity that are directly related to the time and place in which it was filmed. Rossellini shot with whatever filmstock he could find, often leftover portions of reels. Working under such conditions there was no possibility that the film could be given a professional gloss, even if Rossellini had wanted to do so. Professional actors Anna Magnani and Aldo Fabrizi worked with a cast that was otherwise entirely nonprofessional. The result was an authenticity of performance that is rivaled only in true documentaries. The style of the film was highly influential. Ever since, the elements of realist film technique have been an integral part of world film esthetics.
图 4-45。蒂姆·霍尔特、安·巴克斯特、约瑟夫·科顿、多洛雷斯·科斯特洛和艾格尼丝·摩尔黑德在威尔斯的《伟大的安伯森一家》 (1942) 中与“原始摩根无敌”合作。《安伯森一家》不像《公民凯恩》（1941）那样令人震惊，它对美国状况的敏锐洞察力丝毫不亚于它对汽车对美国社会影响的评论，而且还具有奇怪的预言性。在他的前两部电影中，威尔斯研究了定义二十世纪美国人生活的两个主要因素——媒体和汽车。（现代艺术博物馆/金融服务局。）
Figure 4-45. Tim Holt, Ann Baxter, Joseph Cotten, Dolores Costello, and Agnes Moorehead with ’The Original Morgan Invincible” in Welles’s The Magnificent Ambersons (1942). A less startling film than Citizen Kane (1941), Ambersons was no less perceptive about the American condition and—in its commentary on the effect of the automobile on American society—strangely prophetic. In his first two films, Welles investigated the two major factors—the media and the automobile—that defined twentieth-century American life. (MOMA/FSA.)
新现实主义者正在为一家与生活体验密切相关的电影院工作：非专业演员、粗糙的技术、政治观点、思想而不是娱乐——所有这些元素都直接违背了好莱坞流畅、无缝的专业精神的审美观。虽然新现实主义运动只持续了几年，但其美学的影响仍然可见。事实上，扎瓦蒂尼、罗西里尼、德西卡和维斯康蒂定义了一套将在未来五十年运行的基本规则。从审美角度来看，好莱坞从未完全恢复过来。
The Neorealists were working for a cinema intimately connected with the experience of living: nonprofessional actors, rough technique, political point, ideas rather than entertainment—all these elements went directly counter to the Hollywood esthetic of smooth, seamless professionalism. While Neorealism as a movement lasted only a few years, the effects of its esthetics are still being felt. In fact, Zavattini, Rossellini, De Sica, and Visconti defined a set of ground rules that would operate for the next fifty years. Esthetically, Hollywood never quite recovered.
与此同时，回到南加州牧场，生意一切如常。好莱坞既没有空间容纳新现实主义的政治评论，也没有空间容纳整个欧洲正在发展的个人非流派风格。虽然偶尔会有惊喜，例如弗兰克·卡普拉的《生活多美好》（It's a Wonderful Life，1947），这是他的民粹主义情感剧系列中最有趣的一部，它清晰、直接地教导了合作性社会和经济组织的好处，但正如我们之前指出的，好莱坞是反动的。
Meanwhile, back at the Southern California ranches, business proceeded much as usual. There was room in Hollywood neither for the political commentary of Neorealism nor for the personal, non-genre style that was developing throughout Europe. While there were occasional surprises, such as Frank Capra’s It’s a Wonderful Life (1947), which was the most interesting of his series of populist sentimental dramas and a crisp, direct lesson in the benefits of cooperative social and economic organizations, the political mood of Hollywood, as we noted earlier, was reactionary.
这种黑暗、偏执的情绪所产生的最有趣的美学结果是四十年代末和五十年代初的黑色电影循环。黑色电影是一种定义模糊的类型（正如其名称所示，它首先由法国人定义），是一种更具参与性和智慧的好莱坞风格。黑色电影一半是侦探故事，一半是黑帮，一半是都市情节剧，最容易被识别的是其黑暗和悲观的暗流。虽然该类型的许多例子都带有冷战色彩，但这不一定是一个条件：如果该类型有文学来源的话，那就是达希尔·哈米特和雷蒙德·钱德勒的侦探小说，他们都表达了对左派的同情。
The most intriguing esthetic result of this dark, paranoiac mood was the cycle of Films Noirs of the late forties and early fifties. A vaguely defined genre (as the name announces, it was first defined by the French), Film Noir is one of the more involved and intelligent Hollywood styles. Part detective story, part gangster, part urban melodrama, Film Noir was identified most easily by its dark and pessimistic undercurrents. While many examples of the genre had Cold-War overtones, this was not necessarily a condition: if the genre had a literary source it was in the detective novels of Dashiell Hammett and Raymond Chandler, both of whom evinced sympathies with the Left.
黑色电影的早期例子之一是霍克斯的《长眠不醒》（1946），改编自雷蒙德·钱德勒的小说。将钱德勒笔下的主人公菲利普·马洛的厌世愤世嫉俗与另一部令人难忘的黑色电影——拉乌尔·沃尔什的《白热》（1949）中的弗洛伊德风格结合起来，你就得到了这一类型的良好典范。有趣的是，把这两部电影的片名结合起来，你就得到了《大热》（The Big Heat，1953），这是弗里茨·朗最深刻的宿命论电影之一，也是该类型的核心电影
One of the earlier examples of Film Noir was Hawks’s The Big Sleep (1946), from Raymond Chandler’s novel. Combine the weary cynicism of Chandler’s hero Philip Marlowe with the Freudian aspects of another memorable Film Noir, Raoul Walsh’s White Heat (1949), and you have a good model for the genre. Combine the titles for those two films and you have, interestingly, The Big Heat (1953), one of Fritz Lang’s most deeply fatalistic movies and a central film of the genre
雅克·图尔纳的《走出过去》（1947 年）是最被忽视、最美丽的黑色电影之一，尼古拉斯·雷的《他们夜里生活》（1948 年）是最令人难忘的电影之一。朱尔斯·达辛 (Jules Dassin) 的《赤裸城市》 (The Naked City，1948) 和约翰·休斯顿 (John Huston) 的《沥青丛林》(The Asphalt Jungle ) (1950) 雄辩地利用了城市环境这一重要元素，萨姆·富勒 (Sam Fuller) 的《南街皮卡》 (1953)也是如此，这部电影也展示了寒冷是如何发生的。 -战争心理可以适应黑色电影的形式。卡罗尔·里德的《第三人》（1950）在欧洲战后背景下确立了这一类型，并通过其明星奥逊·威尔斯和约瑟夫·科顿将其与美国传统联系起来。威尔斯的《阿卡丁先生》（ Mr. Arkadin，1955）向我们展示了这一流派情绪的精髓。罗伯特·罗森短暂的职业生涯包括两部出色的黑色电影：与约翰·加菲尔德合作的《肉体与灵魂》（1947 年），以及后来与保罗·纽曼合作的《骗子》（1961 年）。
Jacques Tourneur’s Out of the Past (1947) is one of the most neglected and most beautiful Films Noirs, Nicholas Ray’s They Live by Night (1948) one of the best remembered. Jules Dassin’s The Naked City (1948) and John Huston’s The Asphalt Jungle (1950) make eloquent use of the urban settings that were such an important element, as does Sam Fuller’s Pickup on South Street (1953), a film that also shows how Cold-War psychology could be adapted to the form of the Film Noir. Carol Reed’s The Third Man (1950) established the genre in a European postwar context and connected it to the American tradition via its stars, Orson Welles and Joseph Cotten. Welles’s Mr. Arkadin (1955) gives us the essence of the mood of the genre. Robert Rossen’s short career included two outstanding Films Noirs: Body and Soul (1947) with John Garfield, and, later, The Hustler (1961) with Paul Newman.
黑色电影的定义可以延伸到包括20世纪50年代崭露头角的“硬汉”导演的大部分电影：塞缪尔·富勒（《竹屋》， 1955年；《中国门》， 1957年；《震撼走廊》， 1963年），罗伯特·奥尔德里奇（《致命吻》、《大刀》，均 1955 年）、菲尔·卡尔森（《堪萨斯城机密》， 1952 年；《凤凰城故事》， 1955 年；《昂首阔步》， 1974 年）和唐·西格尔（《11 号牢房暴动》， 1954 年；《犯罪》在街上， 1956）。从视觉上看，西格尔在《逃离恶魔岛》（1979）中将这种类型发挥到了极致，这部电影的光线非常少，以至于它一定创下了黑暗类型的记录。罗伯特·本顿的《深夜秀》（1977）给了我们三十年后阿特·卡尼版的刑警反英雄。二十年后，本顿凭借优雅、陈年的《暮光之城》（1998）重返这一类型。
The definition of Film Noir can be stretched to include most of the films of the “tough guy” directors who came to the fore in the 1950s: Samuel Fuller (House of Bamboo, 1955; China Gate, 1957; Shock Corridor, 1963), Robert Aldrich (Kiss Me Deadly, The Big Knife, both 1955), Phil Karlson (Kansas City Confidential, 1952; The Phenix City Story, 1955; Walking Tall, 1974), and Don Siegel (Riot in Cell Block 11, 1954; Crime in the Streets, 1956). Visually, Siegel took the genre to its extreme in Escape from Alcatraz (1979), a film made with so little light that it must have set a record for the dark genre. Robert Benton’s The Late Show (1977) gave us Art Carney’s version of the gumshoe antihero thirty years on. Benton returned to the genre twenty years later with the elegant, well-aged Twilight (1998).
图 4-46。阿尔多·法布里齐 (Aldo Fabrizi) 在罗西里尼的新现实主义巨著《罗马，不设防的城市》 (1945) 中饰演唐·彼得罗。（MOMA/FSA。画框放大）
Figure 4-46. Aldo Fabrizi as Don Pietro in Rossellini’s monumental Neorealist document Rome, Open City (1945). (MOMA/FSA. Frame enlargement)
从五十年代初杰克·韦伯的《天罗地网》到七十年代的《科雅克》和《科伦坡》，都市、悲观、侦探类型一直是美国电视的主要内容。虽然八十年代和九十年代见证了作为旧类型直接后代的戏剧电影的定期发展，但电视编剧兼制片人给它带来了新的生命。八十年代，迈克尔·曼 (Michael Mann) 在极具风格影响力的系列剧《迈阿密风云》 (Miami Vice) 中为黑色电影增添了色彩，而史蒂文·博赫科 (Steven Bochco) 在尊重这一悠久传统的同时，也在富有创意的希尔街蓝调 (Hill Street Blues) 中讽刺了这一传统。九十年代，迪克·沃尔夫（Dick Wolf）通过他的分析性作品《法律
秩序》和《罪与罚》将其形式化和理性化，而博赫科则通过《纽约警察蓝色》将其推向了新的电视极端。显然，黑色电影整个二十世纪下半叶电影制片人的丰富流派。
The urban, downbeat, detective genre had been a staple of American television from Jack Webb’s Dragnet of the early fifties to Kojak and Columbo in the seventies. While the eighties and nineties saw a regular progression of theatrical films that were direct descendants of the old genre, it was television writer-producers who brought it new life. In the eighties, Michael Mann colorized Film Noir in the stylistically influential series Miami Vice, while Steven Bochco honored the long tradition at the same time that he satirized it in the inventive Hill Street Blues. In the nineties, Dick Wolf formalized and intellectualized it with his analytical homage Law Order and Crime and Punishment, while Bochco took it to new television extremes with NYPD Blue. Clearly, Film Noir has been a fertile genre for filmmakers throughout the last half of the twentieth century.
五十年代的另外两种流行类型，西部片和科幻片，也以各自的方式展现了黑色电影的悲观情绪。西方开始处理更严肃、更悲观的主题；这部科幻电影为这十年来的文化偏执建立了许多客观的关联。
Two other popular genres of the fifties, the Western and the Science Fiction film, also exhibited the downbeat mood of Film Noir, each in its own way. The Western began to treat more serious and more pessimistic themes; the Science Fiction film developed a number of objective correlatives for the cultural paranoia of the decade.
德尔默·戴夫斯 (Delmer Daves) 是最被低估的好莱坞工匠之一，他于 1950 年执导了《断箭》，这是自无声时代以来第一部让印度人获得一定程度自尊的西部片。他还负责《3:10 to Yuma》（1957）。约翰·斯特吉斯拍摄了多部经典西部片，包括《OK 畜栏枪战》(1957)、《枪山末班车》 (1958) 和《豪勇七人》 (1960)。安东尼·曼凭借《温彻斯特 73》 (1950)、《遥远的国度》 (1954) 和《拉勒米来的人》 (1955) 等影片赢得了狂热的声誉。最早的两部“成人”西部片是弗雷德·齐尼曼的《正午》（1952）和乔治·史蒂文斯的《肖恩》（1953）。约翰·福特的作品《搜索者》 (1956)（可能是他最好的西部片）和《两人同行》 (1961)也参与其中。亨利·金执导了《枪手》 (1950)、《亨利·海瑟薇从地狱到德克萨斯》(1958)。阿瑟·佩恩的第一部电影是《左手枪》 (1958)。
Delmer Daves, one of the more underrated of Hollywood craftsmen, directed Broken Arrow in 1950, the first Western since silent days to allow Indians some measure of self-respect. He was also responsible for 3:10 to Yuma (1957). John Sturges made a number of classic Westerns, including Gunfight at the O.K. Corral (1957), Last Train from Gun Hill (1958), and The Magnificent Seven (1960). Anthony Mann developed a cult reputation with such films as Winchester 73 (1950), The Far Country (1954), and The Man from Laramie (1955). Two of the first “adult” Westerns were Fred Zinnemann’s High Noon (1952) and George Stevens’s Shane (1953). John Ford weighed in with The Searchers (1956), possibly his best Western, and Two Rode Together (1961). Henry King directed The Gunfighter (1950), Henry Hathaway From Hell to Texas (1958). Arthur Penn’s first film was The Left-Handed Gun (1958).
六十年代出现了一些重要的西部片，如马龙·白兰度的《独眼杰克》（1961）、约翰·休斯顿的《乱点鸳鸯》（1961）、大卫·米勒的《孤独是勇敢》（1962），以及山姆·佩金帕的许多电影，尤其是《骑上高地》（ 1962 年）和《狂野的一群》（1969 年）。与此同时，在意大利，“意大利西部片”已经成熟。塞尔吉奥·莱昂内在《荒野大镖客》（1964 年）和美国人克林特·伊斯特伍德主演的《黄金三镖客》 （1967 年）等电影中重新演绎了这一类型的元素。
The sixties saw such significant Westerns as Marlon Brando’s One-Eyed Jacks (1961), John Huston’s The Misfits (1961), David Miller’s Lonely Are the Brave (1962), and a number of films by Sam Peckinpah, notably Ride the High Country (1962) and The Wild Bunch (1969). In Italy, meanwhile, the “Spaghetti Western” had come of age. Sergio Leone reworked the elements of the genre in films like A Fistful of Dollars (1964) and The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly (1967), starring an American, Clint Eastwood.
七十年代，随着日益城市化的美国失去了对广阔空间的热情，西部片陷入了衰落。我们可以用罗伯特·奥尔特曼（Robert Altman）的反传统和大气的《麦凯布和米勒夫人》（McCabe and Mrs. Miller ，1971）来标志着这次日食的开始。西部片长期的干旱只有泰伦斯·马力克出色的《天堂之日》（1978 年）打破，并在 20 世纪 90 年代初结束，两部令人惊讶的奥斯卡奖得主凯文·科斯特纳的《与狼共舞》（1990 年）是一部糟糕的电影，但却是一个伟大的项目，克林特·伊斯特伍德的《不可饶恕》 (1992)。这些修正主义的致敬是对该流派的挽歌。我们是否应该将后西部片《断背山》（2006 年，李安）添加到这个列表中？
In the seventies, the Western fell into decline as an increasingly urbanized America lost its zest for the wide-open spaces. We can mark the beginning of this eclipse with Robert Altman’s iconoclastic and atmospheric McCabe and Mrs. Miller (1971). The long Western drought, broken only by Terrence Malick’s remarkable Days of Heaven (1978), came to an end in the early 1990s with two surprising Oscar winners, Kevin Costner’s Dances with Wolves (1990), a poor movie but a great project, and Clint Eastwood’s Unforgiven (1992). These revisionist homages serve as elegies to the genre. Should we add the post-Western Brokeback Mountain (2006, Ang Lee) to this list?
五十年代的科幻电影讲述的是精神分析文件：对移动的斑点、入侵的豆荚、具体化的身份的偏执幻想，以及变态。其中最重要的是：《怪形》（1951 年，克里斯蒂安·尼比）、《地球停转之日》（1951 年，罗伯特·怀斯）、《掠尸者的入侵》 （1956 年，唐·西格尔）、《禁忌星球》（1956 年，弗雷德·威尔科克斯）、《不可思议的缩小人》（1957 年，杰克·阿诺德）、《苍蝇》（1958 年，库尔特·纽曼）和《时间机器》（1960 年，乔治·帕尔）。1968 年，斯坦利·库布里克 (Stanley Kubrick) 执导的精彩影片《2001：太空漫游》使这一类型得以重生，这部电影可以说是过去 50 年来最具影响力的电影，因为它催生了 1970 年代和 1980 年代最强大的类型。从《星球大战》到《星际迷航》，从《外星人》到《侏罗纪公园》，自 20 世纪 70 年代末以来，科幻小说类型一直占据着至高无上的地位，《终结者》和《黑客帝国》系列的成功就证明了这一点。
Science Fiction films of the fifties were telling psychoanalytic documents: paranoid fantasies of moving blobs, invading pods, reified ids, and metamorphoses. Among the most important were: The Thing (1951, Christian Nyby), The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951, Robert Wise), Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1956, Don Siegel), Forbidden Planet (1956, Fred Wilcox), The Incredible Shrinking Man (1957, Jack Arnold), The Fly (1958, Kurt Neumann), and The Time Machine (1960, George Pal). The genre was reborn in 1968 with Stanley Kubrick’s magnificent 2001: A Space Odyssey, arguably the most influential film of the past fifty years, since it gave rise to the strongest genre of the 1970s and 1980s. From Star Wars to Star Trek, from E.T. to Jurassic Park, the Science Fiction genre has strangely reigned supreme since the late 1970s, as the success of the Terminator and Matrix series have shown.
图4-47。约翰·福特最喜欢的两位西部片明星——约翰·韦恩和纪念碑谷——他们出现在福特最引人入胜的西部片之一《搜索者》（1956 年）中。作为一部“修正主义”西部片，《探索者》批判性地审视了迄今为止被视为理所当然的真理的西方神话元素。韦恩饰演的伊桑·爱德华兹是当代英雄：孤独、执着又英勇，神经质、强迫又忠诚。种族主义的潜在文本在《搜索者》中浮出水面。此后的西方人将不再一样。（比较图 4-27。）（MOMA/FSA。）
Figure 4-47. John Ford’s two favorite Western stars—John Wayne and Monument Valley—as they appeared in one of Ford’s most intriguing Westerns, The Searchers (1956). A “revisionist” Western, The Searchers critically examined elements of the Western myth that had hitherto been taken for granted as truths. Wayne’s Ethan Edwards is a hero in the contemporary mold: lonely and obsessive as well as heroic, neurotically compulsive as well as faithful. The underlying text of racism was brought to the surface in The Searchers. Westerns would never be the same afterwards. (Compare Figure 4-27.) (MOMA/FSA.)
这部音乐剧和西部片一样，极大地受益于彩色和宽银幕技术，并在米高梅制片人阿瑟·弗里德的赞助下于五十年代迎来了复兴。文森特·明奈利执导了《美国人在巴黎》（1951）和《吉吉》（1958）。斯坦利·多南与吉恩·凯利合作拍摄了《小镇上》（1949）和《雨中曲》（1952），并与弗雷德·阿斯泰尔合作拍摄了《皇家婚礼》（1951）和《滑稽面孔》（1957，由罗杰·伊登斯为派拉蒙制作）。阿斯泰尔还主演了鲁本·马莫利安的《丝袜》（1957 年，由弗里德制作）。马穆利安负责制作了好莱坞最早的一部重要音乐剧《掌声》(Applause )（1929 年）。在短短几部电影中，他在这一类型上留下了不可磨灭的印记。他的电影以罕见的智慧和复杂的节奏感为特点。
The Musical, like the Western, benefited greatly from the technologies of color and widescreen and enjoyed a renaissance during the fifties under the sponsorship of producer Arthur Freed at MGM. Vincente Minnelli directed An American in Paris (1951) and Gigi (1958). Stanley Donen worked with Gene Kelly in On the Town (1949) and Singin’ in the Rain (1952) and with Fred Astaire in Royal Wedding (1951) and Funny Face (1957, produced by Roger Edens for Paramount). Astaire also starred in Rouben Mamoulian’s Silk Stockings (1957, produced by Freed). Mamoulian had been responsible for one of the very first significant Hollywood Musicals, Applause (1929). In just a few films he left an indelible mark on the genre. His films were characterized by a rare wit and a sophisticated sense of pace.
虽然百老汇音乐剧在过去四十年中持续蓬勃发展，但电影音乐剧却陷入了衰退。马丁·斯科塞斯的《纽约，纽约》（1977 年）和弗朗西斯·科波拉的《棉花俱乐部》（1984 年）是雄心勃勃的例外。尽管斯蒂芬·桑德海姆在七八十年代继续创作了格什温这一方面最好的美国音乐剧，但他的戏剧很少被搬上银幕，自他的第一部以来，没有一个成功的（在去论坛的路上发生了一件有趣的事情， 1966）。蒂姆·伯顿在《理发师陶德：舰队街的恶魔理发师》 （2007）中试图捕捉桑德海姆的魔力，这简单地证实了老好莱坞的智慧：当你的明星是缺乏经验的歌手时，请聘请后期配音员。尽管如此，伯顿的努力值得赞扬。桑德海姆引起共鸣的音乐剧将为下一代音乐电影导演提供丰富的素材。尽管在电影院看过《悲惨世界》（或《猫》）的人比去看大多数电影的人还要多，但这些仿制的英语音乐剧并没有在银幕上赚到钱。为什么？嗯，一方面，音乐剧不适合拍续集。在过去的十五年里，交通一直在向相反的方向发展。自从迈克尔·艾斯纳（Michael Eisner）认为百老汇可能对该公司有利可图以来，迪士尼凭借其动画电影的改编版占据了纽约音乐剧的主导地位。让我们希望美国音乐剧——我们伟大的本土艺术形式之一——能够在《狮子王》和它的仿制品同胞中幸存下来。
While the Broadway Musical has continued to thrive throughout the past forty years, the film Musical has languished. Martin Scorsese’s New York, New York (1977) and Francis Coppola’s The Cotton Club (1984) stand as ambitious exceptions. Although Stephen Sondheim continued through the seventies and eighties to produce the best American musical theater this side of Gershwin, few of his plays have been translated to the screen, and none successfully since his first (A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum, 1966). Tim Burton’s attempt to capture the Sondheim magic in Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (2007) simply confirmed the wisdom of old Hollywood: when your stars are inexperienced singers, hire post-dubbers. Nevertheless, give Burton credit for trying. Sondheim’s resonant music dramas will provide the next generation of musical film directors a rich source of material. Although more people have seen Les Misérables (or Cats) in theaters than go to most movies, the ersatz English Musicals haven’t made money on the screen. Why? Well, for one thing, Musicals don’t lend themselves to sequels. In the last fifteen years the traffic has been moving in the opposite direction. Since Michael Eisner decided Broadway might be lucrative for the firm, Disney has dominated New York musical theater with adaptations of their animated films. Let us hope the American Musical—one of our great native artforms—will survive The Lion King and its ersatz compatriots.
尽管类型继续占据主导地位，但四五十年代末和五十年代的一些美国导演仍设法在他们的电影中传达强烈的个人风格感。这些导演包括埃利亚·卡赞（《君子协定》， 1947 年；《萨帕塔万岁！》 ， 1952 年；《海滨》， 1954 年；《伊甸园之东》， 1955 年）、奥托·普雷明格（《劳拉》， 1944 年；《金臂人》， 1955 年；《解剖一个女人》）。 《谋杀》， 1959）、尼古拉斯·雷（《约翰尼吉他》， 1954；《无因的反叛》， 1955；《比生命更伟大》， 1956）和道格拉斯·瑟克（《天堂允许的一切》， 1955；《风中写》， 1956）。雷和塞克在接下来的二十年里都被欧洲年轻一代电影制作人奉为英雄：雷被六十年代的法国人奉为英雄塞克因他的存在主义倾向而在七十年代因其狂热的感伤主义而受到德国人的青睐。
Despite the continued dominance of genres, a few American directors of the late forties and fifties managed to convey a strong sense of personal style in their films. Among these auteurs were Elia Kazan (Gentleman’s Agreement, 1947; Viva Zapata!, 1952; On the Waterfront, 1954; East of Eden, 1955), Otto Preminger (Laura, 1944; The Man with the Golden Arm, 1955; Anatomy of a Murder, 1959), Nicholas Ray (Johnny Guitar, 1954; Rebel Without a Cause, 1955; Bigger Than Life, 1956) and Douglas Sirk (All That Heaven Allows, 1955; Written on the Wind, 1956). Both Ray and Sirk were taken up as heroes by the generation of younger European filmmakers in the next two decades: Ray by the French in the sixties for his existential bent, Sirk by the Germans in the seventies for his rabid sentimentalism.
尽管好莱坞产品的流动出现了这些有趣的潮流和漩涡，美国电影在整个五十年代经历了缓慢但稳定的衰退。随着艺术分裂为大众派和精英派，电影领域的真正创新正在其他地方发生，后者由越来越多的“艺术影院”服务。
Despite these interesting currents and eddies in the flow of Hollywood product, American film experienced a slow but steady decline throughout the fifties. Real innovations in cinema were occurring elsewhere as the art split into popular and elite factions, the latter served by the growing number of “art-house” cinemas.
世界观众首次发现亚洲电影。日本电影有着悠久的传统可供借鉴，其中包括一种更有趣的无声电影风格，其中使用“朗诵者”来描述和解释动作——这是一种从歌舞伎剧院借来的装置。直到黑泽明的《罗生门》在 1951 年威尼斯电影节上获得成功，日本以外的电影制片人才意识到这些成就。虽然黑泽明的武士电影获得了最多的关注，但他也拍摄了许多现代背景的电影。他最重要的电影包括《生》（1952）、《七武士》（1954）、《血之王座》 （麦克白的一个版本， 1957）和《用心棒》（1961）。
World audiences were discovering the Asian cinema for the first time. Japanese cinema had a long tradition to draw on, including one of the more interesting styles of silent film in which “reciters” were used to describe and explain the action—a device borrowed from Kabuki theater. Filmmakers outside Japan were unaware of these accomplishments until the success of Akira Kurosawa’s Rashomon at the Venice Film Festival of 1951. Although it was Kurosawa’s Samurai films that gained the most attention, he made many films in modern settings as well. Among his most important films were Ikiru (1952), Seven Samurai (1954), Throne of Blood (a version of Macbeth, 1957), and Yojimbo (1961).
黑泽明的成功带动了 20 世纪 50 年代其他日本电影的出口。沟口健二的职业生涯始于 1922 年，他在 50 年代执导了多部成为世界经典的电影：《大春的一生》（1952 年）、《雨月物语》（1953 年）、《法警三省》 （1954 年）、《千松物语》（1954 年） ），其中还有杨贵妃公主（1955）。
Kurosawa’s success led to the export of other Japanese films in the 1950s. Kenji Mizoguchi, whose career dated from 1922, directed a number of films in the fifties that became classics of the world repertory: The Life of Oharu (1952), Ugetsu Monogatari (1953), Sansho the Bailiff (1954), Chikimatsu Monogatari (1954), and Princess Yang Kwei Fei (1955) among them.
日本三巨头中最后一个被西方“发现”的是小津安二郎，他可能是这群人中最有趣的一个。作为一位不同寻常的造型师，小津以一种非常非西方的敏感和宁静来思考地点和季节，而黑泽明的电影更容易被西方人理解。小津最重要的电影是“季节”系列：《晚春》（1949）、《初夏》 （1951）、《早春》（1956）、《晚秋》（1960）、《早秋》（1961）和《秋天的午后》（1962），以及他在西方最受欢迎的电影《东京物语》 （1953）。
The last of the Japanese triumvirate to be “discovered” in the West was Yasujiro Ozu, possibly the most interesting of the group. An unusual stylist, Ozu contemplated locales and seasons with a very un-Western sensitivity and tranquility, whereas the films of Kurosawa are much more easily understood by Westerners. Among Ozu’s most important films are the “season” series: Late Spring (1949), Early Summer (1951), Early Spring (1956), Late Autumn (1960), Early Autumn (1961), and An Autumn Afternoon (1962), as well as Tokyo Story (1953), his most popular film in the West.
和日本一样，印度长期以来也拥有丰富的电影业。印度电影的主要内容是冗长、高度风格化的音乐剧，该剧仍有待引入世界市场。然而，在五十年代末，一位电影制片人萨蒂亚吉特·雷 (Satyajit Ray) 开始制作更具普遍吸引力的电影。阿普三部曲（《帕瑟·潘查利》（Pather Panchali）， 1955 年；《阿帕拉吉托》（Aparajito）， 1957 年；《阿普的世界》（The World of Apu）， 1959 年）立即在西方受到赞赏，雷凭借《音乐》等电影成为电影节和艺术机构的最爱 《房间》（1958）、《干城章嘉峰》（1962）、《森林里的日与夜》（1970）和《远方的雷霆》（1973）。
Like Japan, India has long had a prolific film industry. The staple of Indian cinema is the lengthy, highly stylized Musical, which still remains to be introduced to the world market. In the late fifties, however, one filmmaker—Satyajit Ray—began producing films with more universal appeal. The Apu trilogy (Pather Panchali, 1955; Aparajito, 1957; The World of Apu, 1959) was immediately appreciated in the West, and Ray became a favorite of film festivals and art houses with such films as The Music Room (1958), Kanchenjunga (1962), Days and Nights in the Forest (1970), and Distant Thunder (1973).
20 世纪 50 年代，英国在世界银幕上放映了一系列无价的亚历克·吉尼斯喜剧（《白衣人》、《薰衣草山黑帮》，均 1951 年；《马嘴》， 1959 年），随后是 60 年代的彼得·塞勒斯喜剧（《白衣人》、《薰衣草山黑帮》，1959 年）。 《我很好，杰克》， 1959 年；《只有两个人可以玩》， 1961 年；《天堂之上！》， 1963 年）以及音乐厅低俗喜剧系列《Doctor...》和《Carry On ...》闹剧。直到 1970 年，德国电影才从战争和纳粹主义的破坏中恢复过来。
During the 1950s England gave world screens the series of priceless Alec Guinness comedies (The Man in the White Suit, The Lavender Hill Mob, both 1951; The Horse’s Mouth, 1959), which were followed by the Peter Sellers comedies of the sixties (I’m All Right Jack, 1959; Only Two Can Play, 1961; Heavens Above!, 1963) and the Music-Hall low-comedy series of Doctor… and Carry On… farces. German cinema didn’t recover from the destruction of the war and Nazism until 1970.
五十年代，法国银幕上的主导者是年轻评论家弗朗索瓦·特吕弗（François Truffaut）所说的“爸爸电影”（cinema du papa），这是一种过于文学化且（特吕弗认为）愚蠢的风格，但新浪潮即将爆发，至少有三位独立的、对比鲜明的导演出现。 ——让·谷克托，诗人；雅克·塔蒂，喜剧演员；和禁欲主义审美家罗伯特·布列松（Robert Bresson）正在创作有趣的作品。科克托于 1950 年完成了《俄耳甫斯》 ，十年后完成了《俄耳甫斯的遗嘱》 。塔蒂自导自演了《于洛先生的假期》 (1953) 和《我的叔叔》 (1958)。布列松是一位一丝不苟的工匠，完成了《乡村牧师日记》（1951）、《逃亡者》（1956）和《扒手》（1959）。
In the fifties, French screens were dominated by what the young critic François Truffaut termed the “cinema du papa,” an overly literary and—Truffaut thought—stultifying style, but the New Wave was about to break and at least three independent, contrasting auteurs—Jean Cocteau, the poet; Jacques Tati, the comedian; and Robert Bresson, the ascetic esthete—were producing interesting work. Cocteau completed Orpheus in 1950 and The Testament of Orpheus a decade later. Tati directed and starred in Mr. Hulot’s Holiday (1953) and Mon Oncle (1958). Bresson, a meticulous craftsman, finished Diary of a Country Priest (1951), A Man Escaped (1956), and Pickpocket (1959).
大约在同一时间，马克斯·奥菲尔斯 (Max Ophüls) 的职业生涯始于三十年代初期的德国，并在五十年代穿过法国和意大利进入好莱坞，他回到法国制作了三部极具影响力的电影：《轮舞》( La Ronde) (1950)、 《Madame de…》 （1953）和Lola Montes（1955）的耳环。奥菲尔斯最出名的是这些讽刺性的爱情故事，以及他长长、流畅、令人兴奋的追踪镜头，这是他风格的标志。（见图3-66。）
At about the same time Max Ophüls, whose career had begun in Germany in the early thirties and wound its way through France and Italy to Hollywood in the fifties, returned to France to produce three films that were highly influential: La Ronde (1950), The Earrings of Madame de… (1953), and Lola Montes (1955). Ophüls is best known for these ironic love stories and for his long, fluid, exhilarating tracking shots, which were the hallmark of his style. (See Figure 3-66.)
随着英格玛·伯格曼（Ingmar Bergman）和费德里科·费里尼（Federico Fellini）两位极其独特的电影制片人的到来，电影美学走向个人艺术、远离集体制作的流派的运动在五十年代中期达到了顶峰。这两个人，连同阿尔弗雷德·希区柯克，他在五十年代的作品代表了他职业生涯的顶峰，主导了五十年代末的电影艺术，并为导演电影铺平了道路，导演电影成为了电影界的规则而不是例外。六十年代。有趣的是，这三者都以某种方式处理了焦虑，这种焦虑也激发了那个时期的流行流派，诗人 WH 奥登也宣称了这个时代的特有情感。
The movement of film esthetics toward personal art and away from collectively produced genres reached a climax in the middle fifties with the coming of age of two profoundly idiosyncratic filmmakers: Ingmar Bergman and Federico Fellini. These two, together with Alfred Hitchcock, whose work in the fifties represents the summit of his career, dominated the art of film in the late fifties and prepared the way for the cinéma d’auteur, which became the rule rather than the exception in the sixties. Interestingly, all three deal in one way or another with the anxiety that also motivated the popular genres of the period and that the poet W. H. Auden had declared the characteristic emotion of the age.
对于伯格曼来说，焦虑是用精神分析和宗教术语来表达的。对于希区柯克来说，焦虑是日常生活中的程式化偏执问题生活; 对于费里尼来说，痛症既是个人问题，也是社会问题。
For Bergman, angst was expressed in psychoanalytic and religious terms; for Hitchcock, anxiety was a matter of stylized paranoia of everyday life; for Fellini, angoscia was a social problem as much as it was personal.
图 4-48。小津安二郎的《东京物语》（1953）。小津的电影具有日本特有的清晰、敏感和尊重，通常处理代际之间的家庭关系。《东京故事》的老夫妇在首都探望孩子时发现，年轻一代忙于自己的事业，已经没有太多时间陪伴父母。（纽约客电影公司。）
Figure 4-48. Yasujiro Ozu’s Tokyo Story (1953). With characteristic Japanese clarity, sensitivity, and respect, Ozu’s films most often deal with family relationships between generations. The old couple of Tokyo Story find on a visit to their children in the capital that the younger generation, busy with their own endeavors, no longer has much time for their parents. (New Yorker Films.)
伯格曼在四十年代中期开始拍电影，但直到《夏夜的微笑》（1955年）、《第七封印》（1957年）、《野草莓》（1958年）和《处女泉》（1959年）才享誉世界。 。第七印的影响力尤其大。它的象征意义很快就被受过文学文化训练、刚刚开始发现电影“艺术”的人所理解，并且它很快成为高中和大学文学课程的主要内容。《第七封印》根据伯格曼自己的戏剧改编，由马克斯·冯·赛多 (Max von Sydow) 主演，他后来成为伯格曼 20 世纪 60 年代非凡剧团的主要演员。安东尼斯·布洛克是一位从十字军东征归来的中世纪骑士，经历了一系列与死亡的遭遇。瑞典饱受鼠疫蹂躏。每一次真实的遭遇——与一群散步的玩家、一个被烧死、鞭打的农民——都与与黑衣死亡人物的象征性遭遇平行，布洛克正在与死亡人物进行一场赛跑棋局，赌注是这就是生命本身。
Bergman began making films in the mid-forties, but it wasn’t until Smiles of a Summer Night (1955), The Seventh Seal (1957), Wild Strawberries (1958), and The Virgin Spring (1959) that he gained world renown. The Seventh Seal was especially influential. Its symbolism was immediately apprehensible to people trained in literary culture who were just beginning to discover the “art” of film, and it quickly became a staple of high school and college literature courses. Based on Bergman’s own play, The Seventh Seal starred Max von Sydow, who was to become the main actor in Bergman’s extraordinary repertory company of the 1960s. Antonius Blok, a medieval knight returning from the Crusades, undergoes a series of encounters with death. Sweden is ravaged by the plague. Each of the real encounters—with a group of strolling players, a witch-burning, flagellating peasants—is paralleled by a symbolic encounter with the black-clad figure of death, with whom Blok is engaged in a running chess game, the stakes of which are life itself.
鲜明的黑白图像有效地传达了影片的中世纪氛围，伯格曼对中世纪绘画和文学的视觉和戏剧性参考进一步增强了这种氛围。与好莱坞“电影”不同，《第七封印》显然了解精英艺术文化，因此很容易受到知识分子观众的欣赏。伯格曼最好的作品出现在六十年代，当时宗教象征主义已被驱除，他能够专注于更多的心理、更少的象征性的情况。他最好的电影之一《野草莓》指出了这个方向。
Images of stark blacks and whites effectively convey the medieval mood of the film, which is further enhanced by Bergman’s visual and dramatic references to medieval painting and literature. Unlike Hollywood “movies,” The Seventh Seal clearly was aware of elite artistic culture and thus was readily appreciated by intellectual audiences. Bergman’s best work lay ahead in the sixties, after the religious symbolism had been exorcised and he was able to concentrate on more psychological, less symbolic situations. Wild Strawberries, one of his best films, points in this direction.
图 4-49。在伯格曼的《野草莓》 （1958）中，维克多·肖斯特罗姆接受了自己的过去。瑞典电影之父之一斯约斯特罗姆以这部电影结束了他的职业生涯。伯格曼选择一位导演来扮演伊萨克·博格教授的核心角色并非偶然，因为《野草莓》也标志着伯格曼自己与过去斗争的一个重要阶段。
Figure 4-49. Victor Sjostrom comes to terms with his past in Bergman’s Wild Strawberries (1958). Sjöström, one of the fathers of Swedish cinema, capped his career with this film. It was not by accident that Bergman chose a fellow director to play the central role of Professor Isak Borg, for Wild Strawberries also marked an important stage in Bergman’s own struggle with his past.
费德里科·费里尼 (Federico Fellini) 在四十年代末的新现实主义时期首次进入电影界。他于 1950 年首次执导电影。《La Strada》（1954 年）对世界银幕的影响几乎与几年后的《第七封印》一样深远。《卡比利亚之夜》（1956）也广受好评，而《甜蜜的生活》（1959）则标志着电影史上新时期的开启。《甜蜜的生活》是一部长达三小时的大型宽银幕壁画，描绘了 20 世纪 50 年代末罗马上流社会的生活，与开放城市罗马形成了讽刺性的对比。费里尼的电影采用了文艺复兴时期逍遥史诗的形式，将一系列场景和冒险串联在一起，并通过八卦专栏作家马塞洛（Marcello Mastroianni）的形象将它们结合在一起。“甜蜜的生活”是空虚而毫无意义的，但关于它的电影却是一幅丰富而讽刺的礼仪和道德挂毯。费里尼敏锐地预示了“摇摆的六十年代”的情绪，这部电影在意大利以外甚至在美国都非常成功
Federico Fellini had first entered the film world during the Neorealist period of the late forties. He first directed a film in 1950. La Strada (1954) had nearly as profound an effect on world screens as The Seventh Seal had a few years later. Nights of Cabiria (1956) was also widely hailed, while La Dolce Vita (1959) marked the opening of a new period in cinema history. A sprawling, widescreen, three-hour fresco of life among the upper classes in the Rome of the late 1950s, La Dolce Vita contrasts ironically with Rome, Open City. Fellini’s film takes the form of the Renaissance peripatetic epic poem, stringing a series of tableaux and adventures together, uniting them by the figure of Marcello (Marcello Mastroianni), a gossip columnist. The “sweet life” is empty and meaningless, but the film about it is a rich and ironic tapestry of manners and morals. Fellini sharply prefigured the mood of the “swinging sixties,” and the film was very successful outside of Italy, even in the U.S.
图 4-50。与伯格曼这一时期的电影一样，费德里科·费里尼的电影也反映出一种基本的内省性质。《8 112》（1962）探讨了电影导演吉多（马塞洛·马斯楚安尼饰）的生存困境，他与费里尼没有什么不同。影片从一个水疗中心开始，透明的、近乎神话般的克劳迪娅·卡汀娜 (Claudia Cardinale) 为吉多提供净化水。这是费里尼电影中不断出现的纯真形象。（图框放大）
Figure 4-50. Like Bergman’s films of the period, Federico Fellini’s also reflect a basically introspective nature. 8 112 (1962) examines the existential dilemma of a film director, Guido (Marcello Mastroianni), who is not unlike Fellini. The film begins at a spa where the diaphanous, quasi-mythical Claudia Cardinale offers Guido the purifying waters. It is an image of innocence that constantly recurs in Fellini’s films. (Frame enlargement)
图 4-51。《甜蜜的生活》（ La Dolce Vita，1959）以这种遥不可及的纯真形象结束。在海边，记者马塞洛（又是马斯楚安尼）发现无法与这位年轻女子沟通。（图框放大）
Figure 4-51. La Dolce Vita (1959) had ended with this image of unreachable innocence. At the seashore, the journalist Marcello (Mastroianni, again) found it impossible to communicate with this young woman. (Frame enlargement)
图 4-52。整个 20 世纪 50 年代，费里尼对这种意象（及其所代表的情感）着迷。在《拉斯特拉达》（La Strada， 1954 年）和《卡比利亚之夜》（The Nights of Cabiria ，1957 年）中，他围绕它制作了整部影片，因为它的化身是他的妻子朱丽叶塔·马西娜（Giulietta Masina），图中在《拉斯特拉达》中扮演的是吉尔索米娜（Gelsomina） 。（另见图3-59。）（框架放大）
Figure 4-52. Fellini was obsessed with this imagery (and the emotions it represents) throughout the 1950s. In La Strada ( 1954) and The Nights of Cabiria (1957), he had built whole films around it as it was personified by his wife, Giulietta Masina, here shown as Gelsomina in La Strada. (See also Figure 3-59.) (Frame enlargement)
图 4-53。到 20 世纪 50 年代末，西部广阔开放空间的挑战和宏伟已经成为一场偏执的噩梦。图中，身着灰色法兰绒西装的广告人罗杰·桑希尔（加里·格兰特饰）在中西部荒凉的玉米田中逃命，被一名手持农作物喷粉机的无名刺客追赶——这是一个生态预兆！桑希尔的西装和领带与希区柯克的乡村中心地带显得格格不入。西北偏北。（对比图4-47。）（仍为阶段性宣传。）
Figure 4-53. The challenge and the grandeur of the wide open spaces of the Western had become a paranoid nightmare by the late 1950s. Here advertising-man-in-the-gray-flannel-suit Roger Thornhill (Cary Grant) runs for his life through desolate midwestern cornfields, chased by a faceless assassin flying a crop-duster—an ecological portent! Thornhill’s suit and tie are peculiarly but aptly out of place in the heart of the country in Hitchcock’s. North by Northwest. (Compare Figure 4-47.) (Staged publicity still.)
阿尔弗雷德·希区柯克比伯格曼和费里尼年长一代，他仍然是一位完全在流派工厂体系中制作出极其个人化的电影的导演。从某种意义上说，他的职业生涯不是一项而是四项（无声电影、英国有声电影、四十年代的好莱坞黑白电影、以及1952年后的彩色电影），其中任何一项都将保证他在电影界的地位。电影史。可以说，他最具代表性的电影（以及他的许多最好的电影）可以追溯到 20 世纪 50 年代，在这个时期，他巩固了自己的地位，成为美国每个电影观众（和电视观众）都知道名字的导演。在《后窗》（1953）、《迷魂记》（1958）和《西北偏北》（1959）中，他构建了三部焦虑的杰作——分别是感性焦虑、性心理焦虑和政治焦虑。
A generation older than Bergman and Fellini, Alfred Hitchcock remains the one director to have made exceptionally personal films working entirely within the genre factory system. He had, in a sense, not one but four careers (in silent film, in sound film in Britain, in Hollywood in black and white in the forties, and after 1952 in color), any one of which would guarantee his position in the history of cinema. Arguably, his most representative films (and many of his best) date from the 1950s, the period in which he consolidated his position, becoming the one director whose name was known to every filmgoer (and television viewer) in America. In Rear Window (1953), Vertigo (1958), and North by Northwest (1959) he constructed three masterpieces of anxiety—as perceptual, as psychosexual, and as political, respectively.
其中最后一部《西北偏北》非常有先见之明：它是六七十年代美国的象征。一天下午，罗杰·奥·桑希尔（加里·格兰特饰）被误认为是一位神秘的卡普兰先生，并被外国特工从西北向北追赶到全国大部分地区。事实证明，卡普兰是一个政府机构的虚构发明——希区柯克强烈暗示它是中央情报局（见图3-79）——这相当很高兴找到一个真实的人来扮演想象中的角色。影片以拉什莫尔山上国父们额头上一场精彩的追逐结束。当格兰特逃命时，国家象征目不转睛地盯着前方。欧内斯特·雷曼 (Ernest Lehman) 编剧的《西北偏北》是一部令人愉悦、诙谐、技巧精湛的惊悚片，在上映十年后，当美国人民与政府之间的对抗公开化时，它呈现出新的意义。
The last of these, North by Northwest, was exceptionally prescient: an emblem for America in the sixties and seventies. Roger O. Thornhill (Cary Grant) is mistaken one afternoon for a mysterious Mr. Kaplan and chased, north by northwest, across most of the nation by foreign agents. Kaplan, it turns out, is the fictional invention of a government agency—Hitchcock suggests strongly that it is the CIA (see Figure 3-79)—which is quite happy to find a real person acting out the imaginary role. The film ends with a spectacular chase across the foreheads of the fathers of the country at Mount Rushmore. As Grant runs for his life, the national symbols stare ahead, unblinking and unseeing. A pleasant and witty thriller directed with consummate skill, North by Northwest, written by Ernest Lehman, took on new dimensions of meaning a decade after it was released, when the antagonism between the people of the U.S. and its government came out into the open.
这一时期，电影作为艺术在世界范围内确立了其优先地位，并达到了一个显着的高潮。1959 年，或多或少的六个月，是一个奇迹之年：才华横溢的非凡结合。在法国，特吕弗、戈达尔、夏布洛尔、侯麦、里维特和雷乃都拍摄了他们的第一部长片——新浪潮由此诞生。在意大利，费里尼凭借《甜蜜的生活》走上了一条新路，米开朗基罗·安东尼奥尼则凭借《冒险》走上了新的道路。在英国，剧院里的愤怒年轻人开始涉足电影制作。在美国，随着约翰·卡索维茨的《影子》的上映，个人独立电影成为一条可行的道路。
This period, in which film as art established its precedence worldwide, came to a notable climax. The year 1959, give or take six months, was an annus mirabilis: an extraordinary conjunction of talents bloomed. In France, Truffaut, Godard, Chabrol, Rohmer, Rivette, and Resnais all made their first features—the New Wave was established. In Italy, Fellini took a new path with La Dolce Vita, and Michelangelo Antonioni with L’Avven-tura. In England, the Angry Young Men of the theater were moving into film production. In America, the personal, independent cinema was established as a viable path with the release of John Cassavetes’s Shadows.
新浪潮与第三世界：娱乐与传播
The New Wave and the Third World: Entertainment versus Communication
法国的新浪潮标志着人们对电影的新态度。这些电影人是在有声电影发展之后诞生的，他们是带着电影文化和电影传承意识成长起来的；他们制作的电影展现了这种感觉。克洛德·夏布洛尔、弗朗索瓦·特吕弗、让-吕克·戈达尔、埃里克·侯麦和雅克·里维特都曾在 20 世纪 50 年代为《电影手册》撰稿，并受到安德烈·巴赞理论的影响。路易斯·马勒和阿兰·雷乃一开始并不是批评家，但也表现出了类似的态度。
The New Wave in France signaled a new attitude toward film. Born after the development of the sound film, these filmmakers grew up with a sense of film culture and film heritage; the movies they made exhibited that sense. Claude Chabrol, François Truffaut, Jean-Luc Godard, Eric Rohmer, and Jacques Rivette had all written for Cahiers du Cinéma in the 1950s and been influenced by the theories of Andre Bazin. Louis Malle and Alain Resnais did not begin as critics, but nevertheless exhibited similar attitudes.
特吕弗的早期经典作品《四百击》（1959 年）、《射杀钢琴师》（1961 年）和《朱尔斯和吉姆》（1962 年）是该乐队第一批广受欢迎的成功作品。在这三部不同的电影中，他都展现了精湛的技艺、人性和深刻的情感，很快赢得了全世界观众的青睐。在那段早期时期之后，特吕弗退回到更抽象的关注点，开始拍摄一系列类型研究电影：《柔软的皮肤》（1964）、《华氏 451》（1966）和《密西西比美人鱼》（1969），正如他所说，试图“通过组合来爆炸流派。” 这家电影院几乎坚持要求观众与电影制片人分享对过去形式和惯例的理解。另一个自我安托万·杜瓦内尔（由让-皮埃尔·利奥德饰演）的故事从《400》开始 在接下来的二十年里，特吕弗跟随这个角色一直到中年，在另外四部电影中继续进行打击。其中一部《偷吻》（ Stolen Kisses，1968 年）至今仍是 20 世纪 60 年代的浪漫偶像。七十年代，特吕弗转向更为内向的流派研究。两部电影脱颖而出：《野孩子》（1970），他在这部电影中研究了语言和爱情；《昼夜》（1973）是他对自己的爱情和语言：电影的赞歌。
Truffaut’s early classics, The 400 Blows (1959), Shoot the Piano Player (1961), and Jules and Jim (1962), were the first great popular successes of the group. In each of those three disparate films he displayed a virtuosity, humanity, and depth of feeling that quickly won audiences worldwide. After that early period Truffaut retreated to more abstract concerns, beginning a series of films that were studies in genre: The Soft Skin (1964), Fahrenheit 451 (1966), and Mississippi Mermaid (1969) attempted, as he put it, “to explode genres by combining them.” This was a cinema that came close to insisting that viewers shared with the filmmaker an understanding of past forms and conventions. The story of alter ego Antoine Doinel (played throughout by Jean-Pierre Léaud) that begins with The 400 Blows, continued through four other films over the next twenty years, as Truffaut followed the character to middle age. One of these, Stolen Kisses (1968), remains a romantic icon of the 1960s. In the seventies, Truffaut turned to more introverted genre studies. Two films stand out: The Wild Child (1970), in which he investigated language and love, and Day For Night (1973), his paean to his own love and language: cinema.
1984 年，特吕弗在位于纳伊的美国医院因脑肿瘤而戏剧性地、任意地去世，年仅 52 岁。
Truffaut died—dramatically and arbitrarily—of a brain tumor in the American Hospital at Neuilly in 1984. He was only 52.
和他的朋友特吕弗一样，戈达尔也开始创作一些类型电影的个人版本：黑帮电影（《屏息》， 1960年）、音乐剧（《女人就是女人》， 1961年）、两部黑色电影（《小士兵》， 1960年；《我的》） 《Life to Live》， 1962）——甚至是一部明星云集的好莱坞情节剧（《Contempt》， 1963）。他的第一部电影《屏息》是一部令人耳目一新的反传统研究，立即使他成为新一代电影制片人中最具创新性和思想性的成员之一。戈达尔无视既定的叙事惯例，甚至像伯格曼和费里尼这样的个人电影制作人都或多或少地遵守这些惯例，戈达尔同时在多个层面上进行操作。《气喘吁吁》既是一部黑帮故事，又是一篇关于黑帮电影的文章。
Like his friend Truffaut, Godard also began with a number of personal versions of genre films: the Gangster film (Breathless, 1960), the Musical (A Woman Is a Woman, 1961), two Films Noirs (Le Petit Soldat, 1960; My Life to Live, 1962)—even a star-filled Hollywood melodrama (Contempt, 1963). His first film, Breathless, was a refreshingly iconoclastic study that immediately marked him as one of the most innovative and thoughtful members of the new generation of filmmakers. Ignoring the established conventions of narrative, which even such personal filmmakers as Bergman and Fellini more or less observed, Godard operated on a number of levels simultaneously. Breathless was at one and the same time a Gangster story and an essay about Gangster films.
让-保罗·贝尔蒙多饰演的米歇尔·波卡德杀死了一名警察，结识了一位名叫帕特里夏（让·塞伯格饰）的美国女子，在巴黎闲逛了一段时间，躲避警察的追捕，最终被帕特里夏出卖并被枪杀。波伊卡德对亨弗莱·鲍嘉的形象着迷，因为他从好莱坞老电影中了解到这一形象。他为自己发明了一个化名。与其说他是一个黑帮，不如说他是一个年轻人，扮演着他从美国电影中学到的黑帮角色。就帕特里夏而言，戈达尔在视觉上将她与许多女性艺术形象进行了比较，尤其是毕加索的作品。与其说她是一个角色，“情妇”，不如说她是电影中绘画模型上的女性审美形象。就连影片结尾米歇尔的死也是一次性播放的，米歇尔竭尽全力英勇地死去，就像他从电影中学到的那样，而帕特里夏则坚持她的情感孤立，从来没有完全理解潜在的戏剧性。剧情。
Michel Poiccard, played by Jean-Paul Belmondo, kills a cop, meets up with an American woman named Patricia (Jean Seberg), hangs out in Paris for a while, evading the police, and is eventually betrayed by Patricia and shot down. Poiccard is fascinated by the image of Humphrey Bogart as he knows it from the old Hollywood films. He invents a pseudonym for himself. He isn’t so much a gangster as he is a young man acting out the role of gangster that he has learned from American films. Patricia, for her part, is compared visually by Godard to a number of artistic images of women, notably those by Picasso. She is not so much a character, the “moll,” as she is an esthetic image of woman on the model of the paintings in the film. Even the death of Michel, which closes the film, is played at one remove, Michel doing his best to die a heroic death as he has learned it from the movies, while Patricia persists in her emotional isolation, never quite understanding the potential drama of the plot.
随着戈达尔事业的进展，他越来越多地转向散文形式，最终完全放弃了虚构叙事。在六十年代中后期一系列非凡的电影中，他建立了一种具有世界影响力的电影制作方法。《已婚女人》（1964 年）、《阿尔法城》、《狂人皮埃罗》（均 1965 年）、《男性与女性》、《我对她了解的两三件事》（均 1966 年）、《中国女人》 （1967）和《周末》（1968）将电影作为个人论文认真而兴奋地探索。
As Godard’s career progressed, he turned more and more to the essay form, eventually abandoning fictional narrative altogether. In an extraordinary series of films in the mid- and late sixties, he established an approach to filmmaking that has had worldwide influence. A Married Woman (1964), Alphaville, Pierrot le fou (both 1965), Masculine-Feminine, 2 or 3 Things That I Know About Her (both 1966), La Chinoise (1967), and Weekend (1968) explored cinema as personal essay conscientiously and with exhilaration.
图 4-54。在特吕弗令人心酸的《四百击》中，安托万·杜瓦内尔（让-皮埃尔·利奥饰）和朋友逃到宽阔的香榭丽舍大街。
Figure 4-54. Antoine Doinel (Jean-Pierre Léaud) and friend escape to the broad boulevard of the Champs-Élysées in Truffaut’s poignant The 400 Blows.
在这些电影中，戈达尔与观众建立了直接的沟通，利用类型惯例来达到自己的目的，并避免因制作精良、引人入胜的戏剧体验而分心。六十年代末，戈达尔在“吉加-维尔托夫集团”的庇护下，退回到更加个人化、政治化的电影领域，拍摄了一系列电影，这些电影完全没有成品的伪装，而明显是正在进行中的作品。这一时期的电影沉思的成果是《Tout va bien》（1972）。戈达尔随后将注意力转向录像，然后于 1980 年凭借《拯救生命》重返影院银幕，这标志着一系列重演的开始，其中包括《名字：卡门》（1983 年，女性英雄）、《侦探》（1985 年，类型片）电影）、万福玛丽（1985 年，戈达尔再次饰演可怕的婴儿）和新浪潮（1990 年，一篇关于电影的文章）。他经常与妻子安妮-玛丽·米耶维尔合作，在整个九十年代继续创作了许多关于语言、哲学和电影的挽歌和反思性文章——所有这些都是戈达尔世界中同一现实的各个方面。其中：JLG/JLG—十二月自画像(1995)、爱情记录(2001) 和音乐圣母院(2004)。也许是他这一时期最大的成就是他的电视剧《电影史》（1996-1998），这是一篇将电影与二十世纪历史进行对比的文章和诗歌。
In these films, Godard set up a direct communication with the viewer, using the conventions of genre to his own ends and avoiding the distractions of the well-made, absorbing dramatic experience. In the late sixties, Godard withdrew into an even more personal, political cinema under the shelter of the “Dziga-Vertov Group” for a series of films that lacked all pretense as finished products and were meant clearly as works in progress. The result of this period of cinematic contemplation was Tout va bien (1972). Godard then turned his attention to video before returning to theatrical screens with Sauve qui peut la vie in 1980, which marked the beginning of a series of reprises that included First Name: Carmen (1983, woman as hero), Détective (1985, the genre film), Hail Mary (1985, Godard as the enfant terrible again), and New Wave (1990, an essay on cinema). Often working with his wife Anne-Marie Miéville he continued through the nineties and the oughts to produce a number of elegiac and reflective essays on language, philosophy, and cinema—all of which are facets of the same reality in Godard’s world. Among them: JLG/JLG—autoportrait de décembre (1995), Éloge de l’amour (2001) and Notre Musique (2004). Perhaps his greatest accomplishment during this period was his television series Histoire(s) du Cinéma (1996-1998), an essay and a poem contrasting cinema with twentieth-century history.
尽管戈达尔在过去三十年对世界电影的影响远不如他在新浪潮鼎盛时期的影响，但他仍然是二十世纪最能表达电影智慧及其诗意的电影人之一。
Although Godard has had far less impact on world cinema the last thirty years than he had during the heyday of the New Wave, he remains the one filmmaker of the twentieth century to best express the intelligence of cinema together with its poetry
与特吕弗和戈达尔不同，克洛德·夏布洛尔将注意力集中在一种类型上。夏布洛尔深受希区柯克（他与埃里克·侯麦合着的一项研究的主题）的影响，用法语重新定义了希区柯克的宇宙，并从六十年代末开始创作了一系列精彩的戏仿惊悚片，在资产阶级价值观颂扬时有效地讽刺了它们。《Les Biches》（1968）、《La Femme infidèle》（1969）和《Le Boucher》（1970）脱颖而出。经过一段休整期后，夏布洛尔在八十年代中期回归，对这一流派进行了新的探索，包括《Cop au vin》（1985）和《女人的故事》（1988）。与戈达尔·夏布洛尔一样，他在整个九十年代和二十世纪九十年代继续创作（La Cérémonie， 2002；L'ivresse du pouvoir， 2006）。和戈达尔的电影一样，这些电影在法国以外的地方很少有人看到。
Unlike Truffaut and Godard, Claude Chabrol confined his attention to one genre. Strongly influenced by Hitchcock, the subject of a study he wrote with Eric Rohmer, Chabrol redefined the Hitchcockian universe in French terms and contributed, beginning in the late sixties, a fine series of parodic thrillers that effectively satirized bourgeois values as they celebrated them. Les Biches (1968), La Femme infidèle (1969), and Le Boucher (1970) stand out. After a fallow period, Chabrol returned to form in the mid-eighties with new explorations of the genre, including Cop au vin (1985) and Story of Women (1988). Like Godard Chabrol continued to produce throughout the nineties and oughts (La Cérémonie, 2002; L’ivresse du pouvoir, 2006). Like Godard’s these films were little seen outside of France.
埃里克·侯麦 (Eric Rohmer) 为电影带来了对数百年历史文学文化的熟悉。他的“道德故事”系列——包括《La Collection-neuse》（1967年）、《莫德家的夜晚》（1968年）、《克莱尔的膝盖》（1970年）和《下午的克洛伊》（1972年）——展示了叙事的许多文学乐趣，设定和合理的分析可以从电影中得出。20 世纪 80 年代，侯麦开始了一个新系列，他称之为“喜剧与谚语”，围绕设法生存的古怪人物展开，并关注女性的观点（Pauline a la plage， 1983；Le Rayon vert， 1986）。第三个系列“四个季节的故事”始于 1990 年的《春天的故事》 ，结束于 1998 年的《秋天的故事》。二十世纪末，这位 79 岁的导演正在尝试 DV：1999 年 5 月在戛纳电影节上以数字方式放映了他的短片《坎布鲁尔》，随后几周，乔治·卢卡斯的《幽灵的威胁》具有里程碑意义的数字放映。
Eric Rohmer brought to cinema familiarity with a literary culture hundreds of years old. His series of “Moral Tales”—including La Collection-neuse (1967), My Night at Maud’s (1968), Claire’s Knee (1970), and Chloë in the Afternoon (1972)—demonstrated that many of the literary pleasures of narrative, setting, and reasoned analysis could be derived from film. In the 1980s Rohmer began a new series he called “Comedies and Proverbs,” revolving around quirky characters who all manage to survive and focusing on the women’s point of view (Pauline a la plage, 1983; Le Rayon vert, 1986). A third series, “Tales of Four Seasons,” began in 1990 with Conte de printemps and ended in 1998 with Conte d’automne. At the end of the twentieth century the 79-year-old director was experimenting with DV: a digital screening of his short “Cambrure” at the Cannes Film Festival in May 1999 preceded by several weeks the landmark digital projection of George Lucas’s The Phantom Menace.
侯麦的电影受到小说的影响，而雅克·里维特的电影则受到舞台剧的影响。里维特是《手册》小组中最后一位崭露头角的人，他痴迷于戏剧叙事的结构。在《L'Amour fou》（1968）、《Out One》（1971）和《Céline et Julie vont en bateau》（1973）中，他研究了塑造我们虚构世界的持续时间和心理强度现象。
While Rohmer’s cinema was influenced by the novel, Jacques Rivette’s was informed by stage drama. The last of the Cahiers group to come to prominence, Rivette was obsessed with the structures of dramatic narrative. In L’Amour fou (1968), Out One (1971), and Céline et Julie vont en bateau (1973) he examined the phenomena of duration and psychological intensity that shape our fictional world.
图 4-55。查尔斯·阿兹纳沃尔在特吕弗的《射击钢琴演奏家》中饰演查理·科勒，这是一篇关于流派的文章。像大多数新浪潮一样，特吕弗对美国电影着迷。在这里，他将黑色电影、西部片和黑帮电影的元素与明显的法国哲学态度结合起来。不同文化的融合令人兴奋。
Figure 4-55. Charles Aznavour as Charlie Kohler in Truffaut’s Shoot the Piano Player, an essay in genres. Like most of the New Wave, Truffaut was fascinated by American films. Here he combined elements of Film Noir and the Western and Gangster films with a notably French philosophical attitude. The mixture of cultures was exhilarating.
阿兰·雷乃将法国新小说的前卫复杂性带入了电影。雷奈通常与小说家（其中几位，例如阿兰·罗伯-格里耶和玛格丽特·杜拉斯，后来转向电影制作）密切合作，探索了时间和记忆在叙事中的作用，在《夜》和《雾》等电影中取得了惊人的效果（1956年，纳粹集中营）、《广岛，我的爱》（1959年，原子弹）、《去年在马里昂巴德》（1962年，作为审美抽象的记忆）、《La Guerre est finie》（1965年，左派接受历史），以及Je t'aime, je t'aime（1968 年，时代音乐）。20 世纪 70 年代，雷奈在三部出色的电影中总结了他对叙事与记忆关系的迷恋：《斯塔维斯基……》(1973)，一篇关于 20 世纪 30 年代流氓名人的文章，由斯蒂芬·桑德海姆配乐；《普罗维登斯》（ Providence，1977），大卫·默瑟（David Mercer）对剧本写作功能的超后现代研究；《 Mon Oncle d'Amérique》（1979）是一篇关于生物学家亨利·拉博里特（Henri Laborit）理论的挑衅性、幽默的文章。
Alain Resnais brought some of the avant-garde complexity of the new French novel to cinema. Usually working in close collaboration with novelists (several of whom—Alain Robbe-Grillet and Marguerite Duras, for example—later turned to filmmaking themselves), Resnais explored the function of time and memory in narrative with stunning effect in such films as Night and Fog (1956, Nazi concentration camps), Hiroshima, mon amour (1959, the atomic bomb), Last Year at Marienbad (1962, memory as esthetic abstraction), La Guerre est finie (1965, the Left coming to terms with history), and Je t’aime, je t’aime (1968, the music of time). In the 1970s Resnais summarized his fascination with the relation of narrative and memory in three remarkable films: Stavisky… (1973), an essay on the 1930s rogue celebrity with a score by Stephen Sondheim; Providence (1977), a super-postmodern investigation of the function of writing with a script by David Mercer; and Mon Oncle d’Amérique (1979), a provocative, humorous essay on the theories of biologist Henri Laborit.
与侯麦一样，雷奈在八十多岁时仍继续执导电影。《罗马的生活》（ La Vie est un roman，1983 年）讲述了一座城堡及其三座城堡 70 年的生命历程套居住者。《吸烟/禁止吸烟》（Smoking/No Smoking，1993）改编自艾伦·艾克伯恩的戏剧，为一组角色呈现了一系列不同的生活场景。《On connaît le chanson》（1997）是对丹尼斯·波特作品的音乐致敬。《公共场所的私人恐惧》（2006 年，同样改编自艾克伯恩的戏剧）在威尼斯电影节上获奖。雷乃当时84岁。
Like Rohmer, Resnais continued directing well into his eighties. La Vie est un roman (1983) covered 70 years in the life of a chateau and its three sets of occupants. Smoking/No Smoking (1993), based on a play by Alan Ayckbourn, presented a set of different life scenarios for one set of characters. On connaît le chanson (1997) was a musical homage to the work of Dennis Potter. Private Fears in Public Places (2006, again from an Ayckbourn play) won awards at the Venice Film Festival. Resnais was 84 at the time.
路易斯·马勒（Louis Malle）和雷奈一样，都是新浪潮中最不拘一格的成员：《情人》（1958）是一部高度浪漫的戏剧，《地铁里的扎齐》（1960）是一部怪诞喜剧，《印度》（1969）是一部独特的纪录片， 《吕西安的拉科姆》（Lacombe, Lucien，1973）是当时有关纳粹占领法国的电影中最好的一部。马勒于七十年代移居美国。《漂亮宝贝》 （Pretty Baby ，1978 年）由准儿童演员波姬·小丝 (Brooke Shields) 饰演一名妓女，这引起了争议。《我与安德烈的晚餐》（1981）成为八十年代罕见的流行艺术电影之一。他的个人回忆录《再见，孩子们》（Au Revoir, les enfants , 1987）取得了进一步的成功。Malle 于 1995 年 11 月因癌症去世。
Louis Malle, like Resnais trained as a technician, was the most eclectic member of the New Wave: The Lovers (1958) was a highly romantic drama, Zazie dans le Métro (1960) a Screwball Comedy, India (1969) an idiosyncratic Documentary, and Lacombe, Lucien (1973) one of the best of the then current cycle of films about the Nazi occupation of France. Malle moved to the U.S. in the seventies. Pretty Baby (1978), with quasi-child-actor Brooke Shields as a prostitute proved controversial. My Dinner with Andre (1981) became one of the rare popular art films of the eighties. He achieved further popular success with Au Revoir, les enfants (1987), his personal memoir. Malle died of cancer in November 1995.
阿涅斯·瓦尔达 (Agnès Varda) 为新浪潮带来了纪录片的情感。她的《从五点到七点》（ Cleo from 5 to 7）（1961）是早期新浪潮的试金石。Le Bon-heur (1965) 仍然是 1968 年之前最有趣的色彩实验之一，也是一篇不同寻常的浪漫主义文章。《达盖尔照相法》（Daguerreotypes，1975）是对瓦尔达在达盖尔街的邻居的诙谐而富有洞察力的致敬，而《流浪者》（ Vagabond，1985）是她最受欢迎的作品。在Jane B. par Agnès V中。(1988) 瓦尔达在一篇关于她的老朋友女演员简·伯金的文章中找到了一种新颖的方式来讨论女权主义和独立的主题。
Agnès Varda brought a documentary sensibility to the New Wave. Her Cleo from 5 to 7 (1961) was a touchstone of the early New Wave. Le Bon-heur (1965) remains one of the more interesting experiments in color prior to 1968 and an unusual romantic essay. Daguerreotypes (1975) was a witty and insightful homage to Varda’s neighbors in the rue Daguerre, and Vagabond (1985) her best-received work. In Jane B. par Agnès V. (1988) Varda found a novel way to discuss the themes of feminism and independence in an essay about her old friend, actress Jane Birkin.
新浪潮曾对好莱坞电影着迷，但在 20 世纪 60 年代的美国，人们对电影的兴趣却很少。1930 年代和 1940 年代的大师们正在走向衰落，而自此统治好莱坞舞台的新一代尚未到来。希区柯克继续拍摄《惊魂记》( Psycho ) (1960)、《鸟儿》 (1963)、《玛妮》(Marnie ) (1964) 和《黄玉》( Topaz ) (1969)，这些电影即使不如他 50 年代的主要作品那么重要，也是很有趣的电影。霍克斯和福特做出了微小的贡献。20 世纪 60 年代确实发生了一件好事：乔治·阿克塞尔罗德（《如何谋杀你的妻子》， 1965 年）和布莱克·爱德华兹（《粉红豹》， 1964 年）重新启动了推动美国文化的漫画引擎。爱德华兹还创作了近十年来的两部浪漫经典电影（《蒂凡尼的早餐》， 1961 年；《美酒与玫瑰的日子》， 1962 年）。爱德华兹在七八十年代继续创作了一系列脍炙人口的热门影片，这些影片赢得了评论家的勉强尊重，其中最著名的是他对好莱坞的个人攻击《SOB》（1981）。
The New Wave had been fascinated by Hollywood cinema, but in the 1960s little of major interest was happening in America. The masters of the 1930s and 1940s were winding down and the new generation, which has dominated the Hollywood scene ever since, had not yet arrived. Hitchcock continued with Psycho (1960), The Birds (1963), Marnie (1964), and Topaz (1969), all interesting films if not as important as his major work in the fifties. Hawks and Ford made minor contributions. One good thing did happen in the 1960s: George Axelrod (How to Murder Your Wife, 1965) and Blake Edwards (The Pink Panther, 1964) restarted the comic engine that drives American culture. Edwards was also responsible for two of the romantic classics of the decade (Breakfast at Tiffany’s, 1961; Days of Wine and Roses, 1962). Edwards continued through the seventies and eighties to produce a string of popular hits which gained grudging respect from the critics, most notably S.O.B. (1981), his personal attack on Hollywood.
图 4-56。美国和法国文化在《气喘吁吁》中在香榭丽舍大街上的新浪潮中首次相遇。米歇尔·波伊卡德（让·保罗·贝尔蒙多饰）是鲍嘉和黑帮神话的忠实拥护者，爱上了《纽约先驱论坛报》报童帕特里夏·弗兰基尼（让·塞伯格饰），她是六十年代初期典型的巴黎美国女孩。也许是T恤的原因。（框架放大。）
Figure 4-56. American and French culture meet for the first time in the New Wave on the Champs-Élysées in Breathless. Michel Poiccard (Jean-Paul Belmondo), a devotee of Bogart and the Gangster mythos, falls for New York Herald Tribune newspapergirl Patricia Franchini (Jean Seberg), the archetypal American girl in Paris in the early sixties. Maybe it was the T-shirt. (Frame enlargement.)
然而，总的来说，六十年代是美国电影的转型期。从美学角度来看，美国最有趣的发展发生在地下，强大的前卫传统在肯尼思·安格、罗恩·赖斯、布鲁斯·贝利、罗伯特·布里尔、斯坦·范德贝克、斯坦·布拉哈奇、格雷戈里·马科普洛斯、艾德的电影中结出硕果。埃姆什-威勒、乔纳斯和阿道法斯·梅卡斯、詹姆斯和约翰·惠特尼、乔丹·贝尔森等。在地上，安迪·沃霍尔的工厂制作了许多“地下”电影，并取得了一些奇怪的商业成功。
Generally, however, the sixties were years of transition in American cinema. Esthetically, the most interesting developments in the U.S. were taking place underground, where a strong avant-garde tradition was bearing fruit in the films of Kenneth Anger, Ron Rice, Bruce Baillie, Robert Breer, Stan Vanderbeek, Stan Brakhage, Gregory Markopoulos, Ed Emsh-willer, Jonas and Adolfas Mekas, James and John Whitney, Jordan Belson, and others. Aboveground, Andy Warhol’s Factory produced a number of “Underground” films that had some curious commercial success.
当许多受过电视训练的导演转向电影时，好莱坞感受到了电视美学的第一推动力。其中最著名的是阿瑟·佩恩（《邦妮和克莱德》， 1967 年；《爱丽丝餐厅》， 1969 年；《夜行》， 1976 年）、西德尼·卢美特（《团体》， 1966 年； 《狗日午后》， 1975 年；《网络》， 1976 年；《告诉我你想要什么》） 1980年）、约翰·弗兰肯海默（《满洲候选人》， 1962年）、马丁·里特（《Hud》， 1963年；《发声器》， 1972年；《前线》， 1976年；诺玛·雷， 1979年）和富兰克林·沙夫纳（《伴郎》， 1964年；巴顿， 1969年）。在这群人中，吕美特脱颖而出，并通过八十年代、九十年代和应该（《城市王子》， 1981 年；《QA 》， 1990 年； 《格洛丽亚》， 1999 年，翻拍约翰·卡索维茨的电影；《在魔鬼知道你死之前》， 2007 年）。
Hollywood felt the first thrust of the television esthetic as a number of directors trained in television turned to film. Among the most prominent were Arthur Penn (Bonnie and Clyde, 1967; Alice’s Restaurant, 1969; Night Moves, 1976), Sidney Lumet (The Group, 1966; Dog Day Afternoon, 1975; Network, 1976; Just Tell Me What You Want, 1980), John Frankenheimer (The Manchurian Candidate, 1962), Martin Ritt (Hud, 1963; Sounder, 1972; The Front, 1976; Norma Rae, 1979), and Franklin Schaffner (The Best Man, 1964; Patton, 1969). Of this group, Lumet stands out and continued to produce a varied body of work through the eighties, nineties, and oughts (Prince of the City, 1981; QA, 1990; Gloria, 1999, a remake of the John Cassavetes film; Before the Devil Knows You’re Dead, 2007).
也许美国最有影响力的发展不是在电影屏幕上而是在电视上。五十年代末和六十年代初，轻型、适应性强的 16 毫米设备的完善使一种新的纪录片风格成为可能，这种风格与传统的、高度“加工”且通常半虚构的风格截然不同，值得一个新名字：直接电影。电影制片人成为了记者，几乎拥有与印刷记者一样多的自由，而电视是观看他们作品的地方。罗伯特·德鲁 (Robert Drew) 领导了一个名为德鲁联合公司 (Drew Associates) 的团队，该团队制作了许多重要的电视电影。与他一起工作的有理查德·利科克（Richard Leacock）和唐恩·彭尼贝克（Donn Pennebaker），以及阿尔伯特·梅索斯（Albert Maysles）和大卫·梅索斯（David Maysles），他们都成为了这场运动的主要人物。《Primary》（1960）是直接电影技术的第一个主要成果。彭尼贝克的《别回头》（1966）是鲍勃·迪伦的肖像。梅索斯兄弟将这些技术应用于院线上映，拍摄了一系列他们称之为“非虚构故事片”的电影，其中最著名的是《推销员》（1969 年）、《给我庇护所》（1970 年，讲述滚石乐队音乐会）和《灰色花园》 （1975 年）。三十年后，《灰色花园》成为一部广受欢迎的百老汇音乐剧；这告诉我们关于美国流行文化的发展的什么信息？
Perhaps the most influential development in the U.S. was seen not on movie screens but on television. The perfection of lightweight, adaptable 16 mm equipment in the late fifties and early sixties made possible a new style of documentary, so different from the traditional, highly “worked,” and often semifictional style as to deserve a new name: Direct Cinema. Filmmakers became reporters, with nearly as much freedom as print journalists, and television was the place to view their work. Robert Drew headed a group, Drew Associates, that produced a number of important films for television. Working with him were Richard Leacock and Donn Pennebaker, as well as Albert and David Maysles, all to become major figures in the movement. Primary (1960) was the first major result of Direct Cinema techniques. Pennebaker’s Don’t Look Back (1966) was a portrait of Bob Dylan. The Maysles brothers adapted the techniques to theatrical release in a series of films they called “nonfiction features,” most notably Salesman (1969), Gimme Shelter (1970, about a Rolling Stones concert), and Grey Gardens (1975). Thirty years later Grey Gardens became a popular Broadway Musical; what does that tell us about the progression of American popular culture?
九十年代，彭尼贝克和阿尔伯特·梅索斯仍然表现强劲。（大卫·梅索斯于 1987 年去世。）彭尼贝克通过《战争室》（1992 年）和《月亮飞越百老汇》（1997 年）找到了新的观众。梅索斯与克里斯托在巴黎（1991）合作，他对艺术家的简介，以及《意志的协调：建立盖蒂中心》（1998），揭示了负责洛杉矶庞大新博物馆的建筑师和官僚的肖像。
In the nineties both Pennebaker and Albert Maysles were still going strong. (David Maysles died in 1987.) Pennebaker found new audiences with The War Room (1992), an inside look at the Clinton presidential campaign, and Moon Over Broadway (1997), about the making of a Musical. Maysles scored with Christo in Paris (1991), his profile of the artist, and Concert of Wills: Making the Getty Center (1998), a revealing portrait of the architects and bureaucrats responsible for the gargantuan new museum in Los Angeles.
直接电影的主要理论是电影制片人不参与行动。早期纪录片中措辞优美的叙述已经不复存在。相机是全视的：拍摄了数百小时的胶片来捕捉拍摄对象的现实感。
The principal theory of Direct Cinema was that the filmmakers not involve themselves in the action. Gone were the well-phrased narrations of earlier documentaries. The camera was all-seeing: hundreds of hours of film were shot to capture a sense of the reality of the subject.
受过律师训练的弗雷德里克·怀斯曼（Frederick Wiseman）在一系列广受好评的公共电视机构研究中完善了这一技术，其中包括《提提卡特歌舞团》（Titicut Follies，1967 年，讲述精神病院）、《高中》（High School，1968 年）、 《医院》（ Hospital，1970 年） 、灵长类动物（1974）和肉类（1976）。
Frederick Wiseman, trained as a lawyer, brought this technique to perfection in a well-received series of studies of institutions for public television, among them Titicut Follies (1967, about a mental institution), High School (1968), Hospital (1970), Primate (1974), and Meat (1976).
六十年代的法国，一种平行风格的新纪录片正在发展。它被称为“真实电影”，它与直接电影的不同之处在于它承认相机的存在产生了影响，并且确实根据这一事实进行了交易。人类学家让·鲁什（Jean Rouch）和社会学家埃德加·莫林（Edgar Morin）创作的《Chronique d'un été》（1960）是第一部也是至今仍经典的真实电影的例子。由于真实电影和直接电影都大大扩展了电影的允许范围，因此它们所产生的影响与实际确定为这些风格的电影数量不成比例。
In France during the sixties, a parallel style of new documentary was developing. Called “cinema vérité,” it differed from Direct Cinema in that it admitted that the presence of the camera made a difference and indeed traded on that fact. Chronique d’un été (1960), by anthropologist Jean Rouch and sociologist Edgar Morin, was the first and still classic example of cinéma vérité. Because cinéma vérité and Direct Cinema both measurably expand the boundaries of the permissible in film, they have had an effect out of all proportion to the number of films actually identified as being in those styles.
图 4-57。雷乃的《马里昂巴德的最后一年》是对记忆的研究，在这个认识论花园里，客人投下了阴影，但树木却没有。（比较图1-4和图3-38。）（框架放大。）
Figure 4-57. The guests cast shadows, but the trees don’t in this epistemological garden from Resnais’s Last Year at Marienbad, a study in memory. (Compare Figures 1-4 and 3-38.) (Frame enlargement.)
例如，传统的音乐剧被电影化的音乐会所取代，而音乐会又变成了一场戏剧性的事件。更重要的是，随着大量的非虚构电影让我们为现实的节奏做好了准备，我们对叙事中“正确”的感觉已经发生了巨大的改变。我们不再坚持好莱坞的剪纸经典。
The traditional Musical, for example, was superseded by the filmed concert, which in its turn has become a dramatic event. More important, our sense of what is “correct” in narrative has been drastically altered as the profusion of nonfiction films has prepared us for the rhythms of real time. We no longer insist on Hollywood’s découpage classique.
四十年代末，法国评论家亚历山大·阿斯特鲁克（Alexandre Astruc）发表了一份宣言，其中他呼吁围绕“caméra-stylo”（“相机笔”）建立电影，这将像文学一样灵活和个性化（见第1章）。 5 ). 在很大程度上，随着电影从流水线产品转向个人陈述，他的愿望在五十年代实现了。他没有预见到的是，相机笔的灵活性也将导致电影现实主义达到一个新的水平：新设备鼓励电影制片人更接近他周围的世界，在外景而不是在工作室里拍摄，并且拍摄现实而不是演员。直接电影和真实电影只是这种态度彻底转变的两个证据。电影已经成为一种可以应用于广泛主题的媒介。
In the late forties, the French critic Alexandre Astruc had composed a manifesto in which he called for a cinema built around the “caméra-stylo” (“camera-pen”), which would be just as flexible and personal as literature (see Chapter 5). To a large extent, his wish was fulfilled in the fifties, as cinema shifted from assembly-line product to personal statement. What he did not foresee was that the flexibility of the caméra-stylo would also lead to a new level of film realism: the new equipment encouraged the filmmaker to get closer to the world around him, film on location rather than in the studio, and shoot actualities rather than actors. Direct Cinema and cinéma vérité were only two evidences of this radical change in attitude. Cinema had become a medium that could be applied to a wide range of subjects.
英国在六十年代出现了短暂的繁荣。1958年，当时舞台复兴的主要人物约翰·奥斯本与导演托尼·理查森合作成立了伍德法尔电影公司。六十年代英国最优秀的电影大多与那个时期的重要戏剧密切相关。托尼·理查森首先对约翰·奥斯本的戏剧进行了两部改编——《愤怒的回顾》（1959）和《艺人》（1960），然后继续改编谢拉·德莱尼的《蜂蜜的味道》（1961），然后转向艾伦·西利托的故事《孤独》长跑运动员（1962）。理查森凭借亨利·菲尔丁 (Henry Fielding) 的 18 世纪小说《汤姆·琼斯》(Tom Jones )（1963 年）荣获奥斯卡奖。
In England there was a brief burst of prosperity in the sixties. In 1958, John Osborne, the major figure of the stage renaissance taking place at that time, formed Woodfall Films in collaboration with the director Tony Richardson. Much of the best British cinema of the sixties was closely connected with the vital theater of that period. Tony Richardson began with two adaptations of plays by John Osborne—Look Back in Anger (1959) and The Entertainer (1960)—and continued with an adaptation of Shelagh Delaney’s A Taste of Honey (1961) before turning to Alan Sillitoe’s story Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner (1962). Richardson won an Oscar for Tom Jones (1963), from Henry Fielding’s eighteenth-century novel.
卡雷尔·雷兹执导了一部更有趣的“厨房水槽”电影《周六夜和周日早晨》（1960 年，同样由西利托编剧），然后转向《摩根》（1966 年）和《伊莎多拉》（1968 年），然后移居美国，在那里他执导《赌徒》 (1974) 他因《法国中尉的女人》(1981)回归。约翰·施莱辛格更有趣的电影包括《一种爱》（1962年）、《比利说谎》（1963年）、《亲爱的》 （1965年，由弗雷德里克·拉斐尔编剧）和《星期日，血腥星期日》（1971年，由影评人佩内洛普·吉列特编剧）。在美国，他执导了20 世纪 60 年代美国电影的里程碑之一的《午夜牛仔》 （1969 年）和《马拉松人》（1976 年）。林赛·安德森可能是这个群体中最雄心勃勃的导演：他的电影包括《运动生活》（1963年，改编自大卫·斯托里的小说）、《如果……》（1968年）、《幸运儿》（1973年）和严厉的《不列颠尼亚医院》（1982年） ）。
Karel Reisz directed one of the more interesting “kitchen-sink” films, Saturday Night and Sunday Morning (1960, also written by Sillitoe), then turned to Morgan (1966) and Isadora (1968) before moving to the U.S., where he directed The Gambler (1974) He returned for The French Lieutenant’s Woman (1981). John Schlesinger’s more interesting films include A Kind of Loving (1962), Billy Liar (1963), Darling (1965, written by Frederic Raphael), and Sunday, Bloody Sunday (1971, written by film critic Penelope Gilliatt). In the U.S. he directed Midnight Cowboy (1969), one of the landmarks of 1960s U.S. cinema, and Marathon Man (1976). Lindsay Anderson may have been the most ambitious director of this group: his films included This Sporting Life (1963, from a novel by David Storey), If… (1968), Oh Lucky Man (1973), and the scathing Britannia Hospital (1982).
这些导演的所有早期电影都对工人阶级主题感兴趣，尽管随着它们的成熟，所有四部电影都转向了更多中产阶级的关注。除了极少数例外，他们后来的电影几乎没有早年的激情。
All of the earlier films of these directors shared an interest in working-class subjects, although as they matured, all four turned toward more middle-class concerns. With few exceptions, their later films share little of the passion of the early years.
安德森、赖兹和理查森与五十年代的自由电影纪录片运动有联系。纪录片传统在六十年代继续对英国电影产生影响。彼得·沃特金斯（Peter Watkins）关于原子战争影响的尖锐的《战争游戏》（1966）被认为太有说服力，无法在 BBC 播出。凯文·布朗洛和安德鲁·莫洛的《It Happened Here》（1963）记录了一个同样虚构的历史事件：第二次世界大战期间德国对英国的占领。
Anderson, Reisz, and Richardson were associated with the Free Cinema Documentary movement in the fifties. The Documentary tradition continued to have an effect on British cinema in the sixties. Peter Watkins’s strident The War Game (1966), about the effects of atomic war, was considered too convincing to be broadcast on the BBC. Kevin Brownlow and Andrew Mollo’s It Happened Here (1963) documented an equally fictitious historical event: the German occupation of Britain during the Second World War.
六十年代英国更有趣的是几位美国流亡者的作品。被列入好莱坞黑名单的约瑟夫·洛西 (Joseph Losey) 执导了多部电影平庸的电影虽然不少，但哈罗德·品特创作的那些作品—— 《仆人》（1963年）、 《意外》（1967年）和《中间人》（1971年）——成功地捕捉到了这位剧作家对资产阶级社会的滑稽、扭曲的看法。
More interesting in England during the sixties was the work of several American exiles. Joseph Losey, blacklisted in Hollywood, directed a number of mediocre films, but those written by Harold Pinter—The Servant (1963), Accident (1967), and The Go-Between (1971)—managed to capture the playwright’s droll, warped view of bourgeois society.
图 4-58。阿兰·雷乃 (Alain Resnais) 的《我爱你，我爱你》(Je t'aime, je t'aime) (1968)中奥尔加·乔治-皮科 (Olga Georges-Picot) 和克劳德·里奇 (Claude Rich) 在海滩上，这是雷乃对时间和记忆最有力的研究之一。这个场景在整部电影中以不同的版本多次重复，是里奇穿越过去的科幻冒险的焦点。雷乃利用时间机器旅行的小说来尝试场景的重复和叙事的断裂。结果就像电影一样接近音乐。（法国电影局。）
Figure 4-58. Olga Georges-Picot and Claude Rich on the beach in Alain Resnais’s Je t’aime, je t’aime (1968), one of Resnais’s most vigorous studies in time and memory. This scene, repeated many times throughout the film in varying versions, is the focal point of Rich’s science-fiction odyssey through his past. Resnais uses the fiction of a journey by time machine to experiment with the repetition of scenes and the disjuncture of narrative. The result is as close to music as film gets. (French Film Office.)
斯坦利·库布里克在定居英国之前在美国拍摄了几部有趣的小电影。《奇爱博士》（1963）仍然是对冷战思维的绝妙讽刺；它的重要性逐年增加。《2001太空漫游》（2001：A Space Odyssey，1968）是电影摄影与科学和宗教理论的巧妙融合。它为几十年来流行且赚钱的科幻小说奠定了风格。《发条橙》（1971）是一部震撼人心的暴力交响乐，也许仍然是关于我们现在所居住的未来最具先见之明的电影。《巴里·林登》（1975）不仅极其准确地再现了时间和地点（十八世纪的欧洲），而且在叙事风格上也具有冒险精神：这是一个非常昂贵的商业主张，但它却避开了所有好莱坞的节奏规则。《闪灵》（1980）是库布里克试图在一种高利润但道德上受到质疑的类型上取得成功的尝试，而《全金属外壳》（1987）则让他回到了战争主题。他刚刚完成《睁大眼睛》 关闭，这是一项关于性痴迷的研究——自《洛丽塔》（ Lolita ，1962）以来他就没有治疗过这一主题——当时他于 1999 年 3 月突然去世。
Stanley Kubrick had made several interesting minor films in the U.S. before he settled in England. Dr. Strangelove (1963) remains a superb satire of the Cold-War mentality; its significance increases with each passing year. 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) is a masterful blending of cinematography with scientific and religious theory. It set the style for decades of popular and remunerative Science Fiction. A Clockwork Orange (1971), a striking symphony of violence, remains perhaps the most prescient film about the future that we now inhabit. Barry Lyndon (1975) was not only a superbly accurate evocation of time and place (eighteenth-century Europe), but also adventurous in narrative style: a very expensive commercial proposition, it nevertheless eschews all the Hollywood rules of pace. The Shining (1980) was Kubrick’s attempt to succeed at a highly profitable, if ethically suspect, genre, while Full Metal Jacket (1987) brought him back to the subject of war. He had just finished Eyes Wide Shut, a study in sexual obsession—a subject he hadn’t treated since Lolita (1962)—when he died suddenly in March 1999.
理查德·莱斯特 (Richard Lester) 在费城开始了他的电视导演生涯，五十年代中期搬到伦敦，并与彼得·塞勒斯 (Peter Sellers) 和 Goon Show 人员交往。他作为披头士乐队电影的导演首次受到关注（A Hard Day's Night， 1964 年；Help！， 1965 年），此后因其所谓的疯狂剪辑风格而受到许多评论家的严厉批评。他们几乎不知道他会成为继威尔斯之后在风格上最具影响力的导演，只要看一下在几十个国家播出的 MTV 就可以证明这一点。
Richard Lester began his career directing television in Philadelphia, moved to London in the mid-fifties, and became involved with Peter Sellers and the Goon Show people. He first gained attention as a director with The Beatles films (A Hard Day’s Night, 1964; Help!, 1965) and was castigated by many critics thereafter for his supposedly frenetic editing style. Little did they know he would turn out to be the most stylistically influential director since Welles, as any glance at MTV in any of the scores of countries in which it airs will attest.
莱斯特的《去论坛路上发生的一件有趣的事》（1965）仍然是舞台音乐剧的最佳电影改编作品之一。《佩图利亚》（ Petulia，1967）在旧金山拍摄，既具有先见之明，又具有尖锐的讽刺意味，是当时两三部最好的美国电影之一。《我如何赢得了战争》（1967）和《床客厅》（1968）是为数不多的成功运用布莱希特技巧的英语电影。后两部电影在商业上并不成功。莱斯特沉寂了五年多，最终以不那么雄心勃勃、商业上更安全的影片重返电影院，如《三个火枪手》 (1973)、《剑圣》 (1974)、《罗宾和玛丽安》 (1978)、《超人 II和III》 (1980) 1983）。
Lester’s A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1965) remains one of the best film adaptations of stage musicals. Petulia (1967), shot in San Francisco, was as prescient as it was sharply ironic—one of the two or three best American films of the period. How I Won the War (1967) and The Bed-Sitting Room (1968) are among the few English-language films to employ Brechtian techniques successfully. These latter two films were commercially unsuccessful. Lester was inactive for more than five years, finally returning to the cinema with less ambitious, commercially safer projects such as The Three Musketeers (1973), Juggernaut (1974), Robin and Marian (1978), and Superman II and III (1980,1983).
当六十年代末资金来源枯竭时，英国电影制片人有两个选择：离开这个国家，或者转向电视。约翰·保尔曼（John Boorman）和彼得·耶茨（Peter Yates）等导演来到美国，并在那里确立了自己作为高效工匠的地位。肯·洛奇（《Poor Cow》， 1967 年；Kes， 1969 年；《家庭生活》， 1972 年）一直认为电视与电影一样重要。他的电影和电视作品（尤其是1976 年的《希望之日》系列剧）都展示了现实主义技巧的复杂精炼。整个九十年代，他一直致力于制作有影响力的政治文件。
When sources of funding dried up in the late sixties, British filmmakers had two choices: to leave the country, or to turn to television. Directors like John Boorman and Peter Yates came to the U.S., where they established themselves as effective craftsmen. Ken Loach (Poor Cow, 1967; Kes, 1969; Family Life, 1972) had always considered television as important as cinema. His films demonstrate sophisticated refinements of realist techniques, as do his television efforts (notably the series Days of Hope, 1976). He has continued through the nineties an oughts to produce affecting political documents.
莫里斯·哈顿和洛奇一样，选择坚守自己的英国根源。他的第一部长片《赞美马克思并传递弹药》（1968）是少有的将政治与幽默成功结合的电影之一。哈顿的《远景》（1979）将同样尖刻的智慧运用到了垂死的英国电影业。《远景》是一部讲述 20 世纪 70 年代末英国电影制作人所面临的困难的电影，它是完全独立制作的——这是一项非凡的经济和艺术成就。在《美国轮盘赌》 （1988）之后，哈顿发现在英国独立制作变得更加困难。1997 年，他突然去世时，正在制作一部筹备已久的纪录片。
Maurice Hatton, like Loach, chose to stick close to his English roots. His first feature, Praise Marx and Pass the Ammunition (1968), was one of the rare films that combined politics with humor successfully. Hatton’s Long Shot (1979) applied the same mordant wit to the moribund British film industry. A film about the difficulties of remaining a filmmaker in Britain in the late 1970s, Long Shot was made entirely independently—a remarkable economic as well as artistic achievement. After American Roulette (1988) Hatton found it ever more difficult to produce independently in Britain. He was at work on a long-planned documentary when he died suddenly in 1997.
图 4-59。奥黛丽·赫本 (Audrey Hepburn) 在布莱克·爱德华兹 (Blake Edwards) 六十年代初的浪漫经典作品《蒂凡尼的早餐》( Breakfast at Tiffany's) 中饰演霍莉·戈莱特利 (Holly Golightly) 参加派对。作为五六十年代的浪漫偶像，赫本唯一的对手是雪莉·麦克雷恩。
Figure 4-59. Audrey Hepburn as Holly Golightly parties in Blake Edwards’s romantic classic of the early sixties, Breakfast at Tiffany’s. As a romantic icon of the fifties and sixties, Hepburn’s only peer was Shirley MacLaine.
肯·拉塞尔 (Ken Russell) 和尼古拉斯·罗伊格 (Nicolas Roeg) 是 20 世纪 60 年代末美国资本撤离后幸存下来的少数英国电影制片人之一。拉塞尔最初因为 BBC 制作的一系列不同寻常的音乐家传记而受到关注，随后继续拍摄故事片，专注于电影传记，尽管他的方法逐渐变得更加古怪（音乐爱好者， 1970；马勒， 1974）。他的耸人听闻的波普艺术漫画风格可能在《汤米》（ Tommy，1975）中得到了最好的体现。罗伊格曾是一名电影摄影师，他制作了几部影片，尽管在其他方面不太有趣，但拍摄效果却令人惊叹（《Walkabout》， 1971 年；《Don't Look Now》， 1973 年；《坠落地球的人》， 1976 年）。
Ken Russell and Nicolas Roeg were among the few British filmmakers to survive the withdrawal of American capital in the late sixties. Russell, who first gained attention with a series of unusual biographies of musicians done for the BBC, continued in feature films to specialize in cinematic biography, although his approach became progressively more eccentric (The Music Lovers, 1970; Mahler, 1974). His lurid, pop art, comic strip style was probably shown to best advantage in Tommy (1975). Roeg, a former cinematographer, produced several films that are stunningly photographed although less interesting in other respects (Walkabout, 1971; Don’t Look Now, 1973; The Man Who Fell to Earth, 1976).
20 世纪 70 年代末，新一代英国电影制片人（其中大多数接受过电视广告培训）在国际市场上取得了商业成功。雷德利·斯科特以浪漫的《决斗者》 （1977）试水，然后推出了高度操纵性（且利润丰厚）的《异形》（1979）。斯科特凭借人人喜爱的黑色科幻电影《银翼杀手》 （1982 年）和90 年代女性公路电影《末路狂花》（1991 年）获得了狂热的崇拜。后来他凭借《角斗士》 (2000) 取得了一些成功，但最被电影史学家铭记的可能是他执导的具有里程碑意义的 1984 年苹果麦金塔广告。（见图7-3。）
During the late 1970s, a new generation of British filmmakers—most of them trained in television commercials—found commercial success in the international market. Ridley Scott tested the waters with the romantic The Duellists (1977), then delivered the highly manipulative (and profitable) Alien (1979). Scott achieved cult status with Blade Runner (1982), everyone’s favorite Science Fiction Film Noir, and Thelma Louise (1991), the women’s road movie for the nineties. He later achieved some success with Gladiator (2000), but may well be best remembered by film historians for his direction of the landmark 1984 Apple Macintosh commercial. (See Figure 7-3.)
在 20 世纪 80 年代初的一段时间内，Goldcrest 电影公司（《甘地》， 1982 年；《地方英雄》， 1983 年；《杀戮战场》， 1984 年）取得的巨大成功表明英国电影业可能有一个未来，但事实证明这一希望是虚幻的。由于管理不善和资金不足，该公司于 1987 年自毁。
For a while in the early 1980s, the remarkable success of Goldcrest Films (Gandhi, 1982; Local Hero, 1983; The Killing Fields, 1984) suggested that there might be a future for the British film industry, but the hope proved illusory as Goldcrest self-destructed in 1987 due to a combination of mismanagement and underfinancing.
在意大利，费里尼和安东尼奥尼这两位颇具影响力的大师统治了整个六十年代。费里尼完成了几部主要电影，包括《81/2》（1962）、《灵魂的朱丽叶》（1965）和《费里尼的萨蒂里孔》（1969），之后他将注意力转向电视，创作了一系列半自传体文章，最终在戏剧中达到顶峰。电影《罗马》 (1972) 和《阿玛科德》 (1973)。八十年代，费里尼凭借《船扬帆起航》(And the Ship Sails On，1983)、 《金格·弗雷德》( Ginger Fred，1984) 和《Intervista》 (1987) 愉快地步入晚年，为世界带来了一系列令人振奋的生命力庆典。很大胆。他于 1993 年去世。
In Italy, Fellini and Antonioni, two influential masters, held sway throughout the sixties. Fellini completed several major films, including 81/2 (1962), Juliet of the Spirits (1965), and Fellini Satyricon (1969), before turning his attention to television, where he produced a series of semiautobiographical essays that eventually culminated in the theatrical films Roma (1972) and Amarcord (1973). In the eighties, Fellini sailed pleasantly into old age with And the Ship Sails On (1983), Ginger Fred (1984), and Intervista (1987), having given the world a panoply of celebrations of the life force that are as invigorating as they are audacious. He died in 1993.
安东尼奥尼凭借《冒险》 （1960）崭露头角，这是三部曲中的第一部电影，包括《夜》（1961）和《落日》（1962），重新定义了电影叙事的基本概念。《红色沙漠》（1964）和《放大》（1966）继续他在存在主义背景下进行叙事和感知的实验。《Zabriskie Point》（1970 年）是他关于 20 世纪 60 年代美国的文章。《乘客》（1975）是安东尼奥尼非常特殊的电影的缩影，一部充满存在主义焦虑的电影，以漫长的、周期性的、催眠的节奏构建。
Antonioni came into his own with L’Avventura (1960), the first film of a trilogy that included La Notte (1961) and L’Eclisse (1962), which redefined basic concepts of film narrative. Red Desert (1964) and Blow-Up (1966) continued his experiments with narration and perception in an existential setting. Zabriskie Point (1970) was his essay on the America of the 1960s. The Passenger (1975) was the epitome of Antonioni’s very special cinema, a film redolent of existential angst, constructed in long, periodic, hypnotic rhythms.
卢奇诺·维斯康蒂的后期电影（《被诅咒的人》， 1970年；《威尼斯之死》， 1971年；《对话片》， 1975年）与他早期的新现实主义电影一样警惕和尖锐，表现出慵懒的颓废。《工作》（出自薄伽丘 70，1962；见图2-46）和《豹》（1963）虽然不那么引人注目，但更成功。
Luchino Visconti’s latter films (The Damned, 1970; Death in Venice, 1971; Conversation Piece, 1975) were as languorously decadent as his earlier Neorealistic films had been alert and pointed. “The Job” (from Boccaccio 70, 1962; see Figure 2-46) and The Leopard (1963) were more successful if less remarkable.
彼得罗·热尔米（Pietro Germi）曾是新现实主义运动的主要导演之一（《以法律的名义》， 1949年），但他在意大利以外从未取得过太大的成功，他凭借两部有把握的喜剧为六十年代奠定了国际喜剧风格。礼仪，《意大利式离婚》（1961）和《诱惑与遗弃》（1963）。
Pietro Germi, who had been one of the leading directors of the Neorealist movement (In the Name of the Law, 1949), but who had never had much success outside of Italy, established an international comic style for the sixties with two assured comedies of manners, Divorce Italian Style (1961) and Seduced and Abandoned (1963).
诗人和理论家皮尔·保罗·帕索里尼 (Pier Paolo Pasolini) 在 60 年代转向电影，并完成了《阿卡托尼》 ( Accattone ) (1961)、 《圣马太福音》 (1964)、《老鹰与麻雀》 (1966) 以及在他之前的许多其他象征性练习。 1975 年去世。弗朗西斯科·罗西 (Francesco Rosi) 是二十世纪最被低估的意大利导演之一，执导了许多引人入胜的政治电影，包括《萨尔瓦多·朱利亚诺》(Salvatore Giuliano，1962)、《Le Mani Sulla》 《西塔》（1963）、《马泰事件》（1972）、《幸运的卢西亚诺》（1973）和《基督停在埃博利》（1979）。
Pier Paolo Pasolini, poet and theorist, turned to film in the sixties and completed Accattone (1961), The Gospel According to St. Matthew (1964), The Hawks and the Sparrows (1966), and a number of other symbolic exercises before his death in 1975. Francesco Rosi, one of the most underrated of twentieth-century Italian directors, directed a number of intriguing political films, including Salvatore Giuliano (1962), Le Mani Sulla Città (1963), The Mattei Affair (1972), Lucky Luciano (1973), and Christ Stopped at Eboli (1979).
图 4-60。理查德·莱斯特的《Petulia》（1967）中的朱莉·克里斯蒂和乔治·C·斯科特。《佩图利亚》上映时并不受欢迎，但现在普遍被认为是六十年代美国的里程碑式电影之一。从欧洲回来十五年，莱斯特能够看到我们，就像我们看不到自己一样，他所投射的时髦社会的偏见愿景比当时的反主流文化神话更真实。
Figure 4-60. Julie Christie, George C. Scott in Richard Lester’s Petulia (1967). Not highly popular when it was released, Petulia is now generally regarded as one of the landmark films about America in the sixties. Returning from fifteen years in Europe, Lester was able to see us as we could not see ourselves, and the jaundiced vision of the hip society he projected held more truth than the counterculture myths of the time.
在下一代意大利电影制作人中，贝尔纳多·贝托鲁奇凭借《革命前夕》（1964年）、《墨守成规》（1970年）和《巴黎最后的探戈》（1972年）率先引起人们的关注。贝托鲁奇很快就陷入了对资产阶级颓废的形状和表面的维斯康蒂式的迷恋，他表面上对此进行了批评。巴黎最后的探戈因其明星（马龙·白兰度饰）与坦率性爱的巧妙结合而获得了一定的国际声誉。它标志着性观念的转折点。在长达五小时的史诗《1900》（1976）中，贝托鲁奇似乎又回到了他早期的史诗社会愿景。《卢娜》（1979）的主题是乱伦，遵循探戈路线，但贝托鲁奇在《末代皇帝》（1987）中回归了史诗形式，该片在国际上取得了重大成功。《庇护的天空》（1990）也受到好评。
Of the next generation of Italian filmmakers, Bernardo Bertolucci was the first to attract attention with Before the Revolution (1964), The Conformist (1970), and Last Tango in Paris (1972). Bertolucci quickly fell into a Visconti-like fascination with the shapes and surfaces of bourgeois decadence, which he ostensibly criticized. Last Tango in Paris achieved a certain international reputation for its clever combination of star (Marlon Brando) and frank sex. It marked a turning point in sexual mores. In his five-hour epic 1900 (1976), Bertolucci seemed to return to his earlier epic social vision. Luna (1979), whose subject was incest, follows the Tango line, but Bertolucci returned to the epic form in The Last Emperor (1987), which was a major international success. The Sheltering Sky (1990) was also well regarded.
虽然像这样的导演明星在意大利地平线上不断崛起，但也有一些不太引人注目的导演，他们的作品从未得到国际应有的评价。他们的大部分电影都具有很强的社会性影响；罗西和科斯塔-加夫拉斯开创的政治情节剧在意大利最为成功。该组的一些导演包括：马里奥·莫尼切利（《组织者》， 1963 年）、朱利亚诺·蒙塔尔多（萨科和万泽蒂， 1971 年）、埃利奥·佩特里（《对一个毫无疑问的公民的调查》， 1970 年；《工人阶级走向天堂》， 1971 年）、 Gillo Pontecorvo（《阿尔及尔之战》， 1965 年；《Burn》， 1968 年）、Gianni Amico（《Tropici》， 1968 年；Ritorno， 1973 年）、Nelo Risi（《一个精神分裂女孩的日记》， 1969 年）和 Ermanno Olmi（《Il Posto》， 1961 年；Un Certo）乔鲁诺， 1969 年；杜兰特·维斯塔特， 1971 年）。
While directorial stars such as these rose with regularity on the Italian horizon, there were a number of less spectacular directors whose work never received its international due. Most of their films had strong social implications; the political melodrama pioneered by Rosi and Costa-Gavras has been most successful in Italy. Some of the directors in this group were: Mario Monicelli (The Organizer, 1963), Giuliano Montaldo (Sacco and Vanzetti, 1971), Elio Petri (Investigation of a Citizen above Suspicion, 1970; The Working Class Goes to Heaven, 1971), Gillo Pontecorvo (The Battle of Algiers, 1965; Burn, 1968), Gianni Amico (Tropici, 1968; Ritorno, 1973), Nelo Risi (Diary of a Schizophrenic Girl, 1969), and Ermanno Olmi (Il Posto, 1961; Un Certo Giorno, 1969; Durante V’estate, 1971).
奥尔米的《木鞋树》（1978）是一部感人至深、令人着迷的三小时影片，再现了二十世纪之交的农民生活，是过去二十五年来意大利最杰出的电影之一。与《1900》和塔维亚尼兄弟的《Padre, Padrone》（1976）一样，《木鞋之树》代表了意大利重新发现的对农民习惯和节奏的迷恋。费里尼的《阿玛科德》和罗西的《基督停在埃博利》也应该属于这一有趣的类型。
Olmi’s The Tree of the Wooden Clogs (1978), a deeply felt, mesmeric three-hour evocation of peasant life at the turn of the twentieth century, is one of the more outstanding films from Italy during the past twenty-five years. Like 1900 and the Taviani brothers’ Padre, Padrone (1976), The Tree of the Wooden Clogs is representative of a newly rediscovered Italian fascination with peasant habits and rhythms. Fellini’s Amarcord and Rosi’s Christ Stopped at Eboli should also be included in this interesting genre.
在瑞典，英格玛·伯格曼与一组演员和技术人员合作完成了一系列定期间隔的电影。他最优秀的电影就是从这个时期开始的：《透过黑暗的玻璃》、《冬日之光》和《沉默》构成了伯格曼将上帝从他的意识中驱除的三部曲（1961-63）。《女神异闻录》（1966）仍然是他最具想象力和大胆的电影。丽芙·乌尔曼和马克斯·冯·西多主演的系列电影（《狼时刻》， 1967 年；《耻辱》， 1968 年；《安娜的激情》， 1969 年）构成了 60 年代电影中最引人注目的成就之一。七十年代，伯格曼退到了更坚实的立场。然而，他的电视剧《婚姻场景》 （1973）与他最好的作品相比。1976 年，在与税务机关发生了一次卡夫卡式的遭遇后，他离开瑞典到别处去碰碰运气，之后又带着挽歌《范妮与亚历山大》（Fanny and Alexander ，1982）回来。
In Sweden, Ingmar Bergman completed a regularly spaced string of films, working with a repertory group of actors and technicians. From this period dates his finest cinema: Through a Glass Darkly, Winter Light, and The Silence form the trilogy in which Bergman exorcised God from his consciousness (1961-63). Persona (1966) remains his most imaginative and daring film. The series of films with Liv Ullmann and Max von Sydow (Hour of the Wolf, 1967; Shame, 1968; The Passion of Anna, 1969) forms one of the more striking accomplishments in the cinema of the sixties. In the seventies, Bergman withdrew to firmer ground. His television series Scenes from a Marriage (1973), however, compared with his best work. In 1976, after a Kafkaesque encounter with tax authorities, he left Sweden to try his luck elsewhere, returning for the elegiac Fanny and Alexander (1982).
六十年代，年轻的瑞典导演也找到了国际观众。乔恩·唐纳（《爱》， 1964）、博·威德伯格（埃尔维拉·马迪根， 1967）、维尔戈特·斯约曼（《我好奇黄》， 1967），以及最著名的扬·特罗尔，他的移民与重新安置三部曲—— 《移民》、《新大陆》（两者都是1970年）和赞迪的新娘（1974年）——为经典主题带来了新的视觉新鲜感和历史视角。
Younger Swedish directors found an international audience in the sixties, as well. Jörn Donner (To Love, 1964), Bo Widerberg (Elvira Madigan, 1967), Vilgot Sjöman (I Am Curious-Yellow, 1967), and most notably Jan Troell, whose trilogy of emigration and resettlement—The Emigrants, The New Land (both 1970), and Zandy’s Bride (1974)—brought a new freshness of vision and historical perspective to a classic theme.
在东欧，国立电影学校在六十年代培养了新一波人才：在波兰，罗曼·波兰斯基（《水中刀》，1962）离开学校，成为一名国际导演，拍摄了一些隐约超自然的惊悚片；在波兰，罗曼·波兰斯基（《水中刀》， 1962）离开，成为了一位国际导演，拍摄了一些隐约超自然的惊悚片；在波兰，罗曼·波兰斯基（《水中刀》，1962）离开，成为了一位国际导演，拍摄了一些隐约超自然的惊悚片；Jerzy Skolimowski（《Walkover》， 1965 年；《Barrier》， 1966 年；以及在伦敦的《Deep》） 结束， 1970）；克日什托夫·扎努西 (Krzysztof Zanussi) 对科学家和工程师进行的安静而深入的研究（《墙后》， 1971 年；《照明》， 1973 年）在世界电影中是独一无二的。
In Eastern Europe, the state film schools nurtured a new wave of talent in the sixties: in Poland, Roman Polanski (Knife in the Water, 1962), who left to become an international director of vaguely supernatural Thrillers; Jerzy Skolimowski (Walkover, 1965; Barrier, 1966; and in London, Deep End, 1970); and Krzysztof Zanussi, whose quiet, searching studies of scientists and engineers (Behind the Wall, 1971; Illumination, 1973) are unique in world cinema.
图 4-61。哈里森·福特在未来派黑色电影《银翼杀手》中为八十年代树立的悲观风格至今仍能引起共鸣。
Figure 4-61. Harrison Ford in the futuristic Film Noir, Blade Runner, which set a downbeat style for the eighties that still resonates today.
在匈牙利，米克洛什·扬索赢得了最重要的结构电影制片人之一的声誉，他专注于摄影机与拍摄对象之间的关系，而不是拍摄对象本身（《红与白》， 1967 年；《冬风》， 1969 年；《Electreia》， 1974 年）。玛尔塔·梅萨罗斯 (Marta Meszarós) 凭借一系列精确实现的文章赢得了国际盛会，这些文章主要是关于女性角色的，包括《九个月》( 9 Months ) (1976)、《妇女》( Women ) (1977) 和《遗产》(The Heritage ) (1980)。
In Hungary, Miklós Jancsó earned a reputation as one of the foremost Structural filmmakers, intent on the relationship between camera and subject rather than the subject itself (The Red and the White, 1967; Winter Wind, 1969; Electreia, 1974). Marta Meszarós gained an international festival following with a number of precisely realized essays, mainly on the roles of women, including Nine Months (1976), Women (1977), and The Heritage (1980).
也许东欧最重要的发展是捷克文艺复兴，它在六十年代中期的短短几年里意外地蓬勃发展。米洛斯·福尔曼（《金发女郎的爱情》， 1965 年；《消防员舞会》， 1967 年）、伊万·帕瑟（《亲密照明》， 1966 年）、吉里·门泽尔（《严密监视的火车》， 1966 年）和维拉·奇蒂洛娃（《雏菊》， 1969 年）发展了一种生动的人文主义现实主义，他们充满幽默感并尊重他们的臣民，但由于 1968 年苏联入侵该国以及随后回归斯大林主义，这一点被严重打断。福尔曼和帕瑟搬到了美国，在那里他们做了有趣的工作，但从未达到他们最早电影的水平，尽管福尔曼取得了一些引人注目的成功。《飞越疯人院》（1975 年）包揽了奥斯卡所有五项最高奖项。（同年，福尔曼被任命为哥伦比亚大学电影项目的联合主任。）《他的头发》（1979）是一部著名的现代音乐剧，《拉格泰姆》（1981）是对多克托罗小说的尊重。1984 年，他凭借《艾玛迪斯》再次获得多项奥斯卡奖。
Perhaps the most significant development in Eastern Europe was the Czech Renaissance, which flowered unexpectedly for a few brief years in the middle sixties. Milos Forman (Loves of a Blonde, 1965; The Fireman’s Ball, 1967), Ivan Passer (Intimate Lighting, 1966), Jirí Menzel (Closely Watched Trains, 1966), and Vera Chytilová (Daisies, 1969) evolved a vivid humanist realism, invested with humor and respect for their subjects, which was cut horribly short by the Soviet invasion of the country in 1968 and the subsequent return to Stalinism. Forman and Passer moved to the United States, where they did interesting work, but never on the level of their earliest films, although Forman had some notable popular successes. One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest (1975) won all five top Academy awards. (The same year, Forman was appointed codirector of the Columbia University film program.) His Hair (1979) was a notable modern Musical, and Ragtime (1981) a respectful mounting of the Doctorow novel. He scored multiple Oscars again in 1984 with Amadeus.
至于苏联，斯大林时代初期对艺术实行的严格国家控制扼杀了曾经世界领先的电影院之一。在开放之前的日子里，只有少数电影逃脱了考验。谢尔盖·帕拉扎诺夫 (Sergei Paradzhanov) 出生于亚美尼亚，凭借《被遗忘的祖先的阴影》 (1964) 和《Sayat Nova》(1969) 获得国际赞誉。1974 年 1 月，当他加入日益壮大的民权运动时，他因同性恋而被监禁并送往劳改营。这一判决引起了国际轰动。勃列日涅夫政权结束后，帕拉扎诺夫在 1990 年去世之前完成了几场对格鲁吉亚和亚美尼亚民间传说的额外庆祝活动。安德烈·塔可夫斯基因他的抒情诗《我的名字是伊凡》（1962）在威尼斯获奖而在西方闻名。电影节。他的寓言作品《安德烈·鲁布列夫》（ Andrei Roublev，1966）在西方也很受欢迎，塔可夫斯基最终移民到了西方，并于 1986 年去世。
As for the Soviet Union, the strict state control of the art instituted during the earliest days of the Stalinist period stifled what was once one of the world’s leading cinemas. In the days before glasnost, only a few films escaped. Sergei Paradzhanov, Armenian by birth, gained international acclaim with Shadows of Our Forgotten Ancestors (1964) and Sayat Nova (1969). When he joined the growing civil rights movement, he was imprisoned and sent to a labor camp, ostensibly for homosexuality, in January 1974. The sentence resulted in an international cause célebre. After the end of the Brezhnev regime, Paradzhanov was able to complete several additional celebrations of Georgian and Armenian folklore before his death in 1990. Andrei Tarkovsky became known in the West when his lyrical My Name Is Ivan (1962) won an award at the Venice Film Festival. His allegorical Andrei Roublev (1966) was also well received in the West, to which Tarkovsky eventually immigrated and where he died in 1986.
20 世纪 60 年代和 70 年代，电影文化走出美国、日本和欧洲的边界，进入了统称为第三世界的发展中国家。第三世界电影往往粗暴而愤怒，但有时也至关重要且具有相关性。与西方的纪实电影制片人一样，第三世界的电影人普遍将电影视为一种强大的交流媒介，并且是他们充满热情地使用的媒介。
The 1960s and 1970s saw the extension of film culture beyond the boundaries of the U.S., Japan, and Europe into the developing countries collectively known as the Third World. Often rough and angry, Third World cinema was also sometimes vital and relevant. Like the nonfiction filmmakers of the West, Third World cinéastes generally saw film as a powerful medium of communication, a medium they employed with passion.
当时最富有成果的第三世界运动是巴西新电影运动，它于 20 世纪 60 年代初开始兴起，虽然因 1964 年掌权的右翼军政府而放慢了步伐，但仍然幸存下来，部分原因是最重要的象征风格化。所使用的电影。Glauber Rocha（Barravento， 1961；Antonio das Mortes， 1969）是该群体中最引人注目的。其他重要导演包括鲁伊·格拉（《奥斯·福齐斯》，1964 年）、纳尔逊·佩雷拉·多斯桑托斯（《我的小法国人多么美味》， 1971 年）、若阿金·佩德罗·德·安德拉德（《马库纳伊玛》， 1969 年）和卡洛斯·迪格斯（《奥斯·赫代罗斯》， 1971 年）。他们在某种程度上与罗查一样致力于政治寓言。
The most productive Third World movement of the time was the Brazilian Cinema Nôvo, which got under way in the early sixties and, although slowed by the right-wing military junta that took power in 1964, nevertheless survived, partly because of the symbolic stylization most of the films employed. Glauber Rocha (Barravento, 1961; Antonio das Mortes, 1969) was the most visible of the group. Other important directors included Ruy Guerra (Os Fuzis, 1964), Nelson Pereira dos Santos (How Tasty Was My Little Frenchman, 1971), Joaquim Pedro de Andrade (Macunaima, 1969), and Carlos Diégues (Os Herdeiros, 1971), all of whom share to some degree Rocha’s commitment to political allegory.
墨西哥和巴西一样，每年制作五十多部故事片。多年来，墨西哥电影一直由路易斯·布努埃尔这个雄伟的人物主导。布努埃尔二十世纪二十年代末与萨尔瓦多·达利在巴黎拍摄了两部重要的超现实主义电影（《Un Chien Andalou》， 1928 年；《L'âge》） 金奖， 1930），在接下来的二十年里一直在电影业的边缘度过，直到四十年代末在墨西哥找到了家。在接下来的十年里，他导演了许多本质上是商业的电影。
Mexico, like Brazil, produced more than fifty features per year. For many years Mexican cinema was dominated by the imposing figure of Luis Buñuel. Buñuel, who had made two important surrealist films with Salvador Dali in Paris in the late twenties (Un Chien Andalou, 1928; L’Âge d’or, 1930), spent the next twenty years on the fringe of the film industry before finding a home in Mexico in the late forties. He directed a number of essentially commercial films during the next ten years.
图 4-62。凡妮莎·雷德格瑞夫，大卫·海明斯。安东尼奥尼的《放大》 （1966）中典型的、精心设计的镜头。影片的情节主要集中在图像的神秘性上。
Figure 4-62. Vanessa Redgrave, David Hemmings. A typical, highly designed shot from Antonioni’s Blow-Up (1966). The plot of the film focused on the mystery of images.
但直到 1961 年他回到祖国西班牙拍摄了他的第一部故事片《维迪亚娜》( Viridiana)后，他才终于获得了应有的全世界关注。尽管布努埃尔出生于 1900 年，但他的职业生涯的中心却是在 60 年代。他主要在法国拍摄电影，制作了一系列精彩的超现实主义寓言作品（《女仆日记》， 1964年；《白日美人》， 1967年；《银河系》， 1969年；《特里斯塔娜》， 1970年；《资产阶级的谨慎魅力》， 1972年；《自由幻影》 ， 1974）这确保了他在国际艺术电影万神殿中的地位。布努埃尔比较个人化的墨西哥电影有《纳扎林》 （ Nazarin，1958）、《灭绝天使》（The Extermination Angel，1962）和《沙漠的西蒙》（Simon of the Desert，1965），全都是反宗教寓言。
But it was not until he returned to his native Spain in 1961 to film his first feature there, Viridiana, that he finally achieved the worldwide attention that was his due. Although Buñuel was born in 1900, the center of his career lay in the sixties. Making films mainly in France, he produced a masterful series of surrealist allegories (Diary of a Chambermaid, 1964; Belle de Jour, 1967; The Milky Way, 1969, Tristana, 1970; The Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie, 1972; Phantom of Liberty, 1974) that ensured his position in the international pantheon of the art film. Buñuel’s more personal Mexican films are Nazarin (1958), The Exterminating Angel (1962), and Simon of the Desert (1965), antireligious allegories all.
20 世纪 70 年代初，新的智利电影在世界银幕上产生了短暂但受欢迎的影响，随后因 1973 年的军事政变而中断。阿连德时期制作了四部特别令人感兴趣的电影：《瓦尔帕莱索》、《我的爱》（1970 年）和阿尔多·弗朗西亚执导的《祈祷还不够》（1972 年）、《纳韦尔托罗的豺狼》（1969 年）和《 应许之地(1973)，米格尔·利丁导演。忠诚、热情、直接、富有表现力和抒情的智利电影如果能幸存下来，将会是值得的。特别令人感兴趣的是由三部分组成的纪录片《智利之战》，该纪录片在政变后在国外制作，主要取材于事先拍摄的镜头。
In the early 1970s, the new Chilean cinema made a brief but welcome impact on world screens before it was cut short by the military putsch of 1973. Four films of special interest were produced during the Allende years: Valparaiso, Mi amor (1970) and Praying Is Not Enough (1972), directed by Aldo Francia, and The Jackal of Nahueltoro (1969) and The Promised Land (1973), directed by Miguel Littin. Committed, passionate, direct, expressive, and lyrical, Chilean cinema would have been rewarding had it survived. Of special interest was the three-part documentary The Battle of Chile, produced outside the country after the coup, mainly from footage shot beforehand.
在古巴，古巴电影艺术与工业学院 (ICAIC) 在 20 世纪 60 年代和 1970 年代培育了活跃而有趣的电影。在古巴以外上映的几部备受推崇的电影包括《不发达的记忆》（托马斯·古铁雷斯·阿利亚，1968），这是一部新浪潮式的电影，对革命时期古巴知识分子的心理状况进行了探索；《露西娅》（Humberto Solas，1969），一部关于古巴女性的三部分研究，广受好评；《弯刀的第一次冲锋》（曼努埃尔·奥克塔维奥·戈麦斯，1969 年），对 1868 年起义的风格化描绘。
In Cuba, the Cuban Institute of Cinematic Art and Industry (ICAIC) nurtured an active and interesting cinema throughout the 1960s and 1970s. Several admired films available outside Cuba included Memories of Underdevelopment (Tomás Gutiérrez Alea, 1968), a New Wave-like exploration of the psychological condition of Cuban intellectuals at the time of the revolution; Lucia (Humberto Solas, 1969), a praised three-part study of Cuban womanhood; and First Charge of the Machete (Manuel Octavio Gomez, 1969), a stylized depiction of the uprising of 1868.
其他拉丁美洲国家对第三世界经典作品的贡献规模更为有限。值得注意的是《秃鹰之血》（玻利维亚，豪尔赫·桑吉内斯，1969 年）和《熔炉时刻》（阿根廷，费尔南多·索拉纳斯和奥克塔维奥·格蒂诺，1968 年）。
Other Latin American countries contributed to the repertory of Third World classics on a more limited scale. Notable were Blood of the Condor (Bolivia, Jorge Sanjines, 1969) and The Hour of the Furnaces (Argentina, Fernando Solanas and Octavio Getino, 1968).
加拿大英语电影一直因毗邻美国而受到影响。直到 1974 年，一部加拿大本土英语故事片（泰德·科切夫的《达迪·克拉维茨的学徒期》）才在加拿大影院获得了足够的票房收入。然而，法语电影在六十年代和七十年代初期取得了一些成功。克洛德·朱特拉 (Claude Jutra) 的《全城皆大欢喜》 ( A Tout Prendre，1963 年) 是一部里程碑式的电影，他的《我的安托万叔叔》 ( Mon Oncle Antoine，1971 年) 也是一部里程碑式的电影，后者是第一批在加拿大以外地区受到欢迎的魁北克电影之一。
English-language Canadian cinema has always suffered from the proximity of the United States. It wasn’t until 1974 that a native English-language Canadian feature (Ted Kotcheff’s The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz) was able to gross enough in Canadian theaters to pay its own way. French-language cinema, however, enjoyed some success in the sixties and early seventies. Claude Jutra’s A Tout Prendre (1963) was a landmark film, as was his Mon Oncle Antoine (1971), one of the first Québecois films to enjoy some popularity outside Canada.
一些加拿大英语电影也逃脱了漫长的边界，其中最著名的是欧文·克什纳 (Irvin Kershner) 的《金杰·科菲的运气》(The Luck of Ginger Coffey，1964)；保罗·阿尔蒙德的《心灵行动》（1970）；唐·欧文的《无人挥手告别》 (1964)；艾伦·金的《沃伦代尔》（ Warrendale，1967 年）和《一对已婚夫妇》（A Married Couple，1969 年）是两部颇具影响力的纪录片；以及唐纳德·谢比布的《Goin' Down the Road》（1970）。经常在美国工作的前卫电影制片人迈克尔·斯诺是加拿大最著名的电影制片人之一。他最重要的电影是《Wavelength》（1967 年）、《↔》（也称为《Back and Forth》， 1969 年）和《La Région Centrale》（1970 年）——这是在魁北克北部拍摄的最后一部影片。（见图3-68和3-69。）
A few English-language Canadian films also escaped the long border, most notably Irvin Kershner’s The Luck of Ginger Coffey (1964); Paul Almond’s Act of the Heart (1970); Don Owen’s Nobody Waved Goodbye (1964); Allan King’s Warrendale (1967) and A Married Couple (1969), two influential documentaries; and Donald Shebib’s Goin’ Down the Road (1970). The avant-garde filmmaker Michael Snow, who has often worked in the U.S., is one of the best known Canadian filmmakers. His most important films are Wavelength (1967), ↔ (also called Back and Forth, 1969), and La Région Centrale (1970)—this last shot in northern Quebec. (See Figures 3-68 and 3-69.)
加拿大电影业（尽管不一定是艺术）从 1978 年和 1979 年开始经历了爆炸性增长，当时税法使投资加拿大电影有利可图。通过出售电影库存中的公众订阅（就像这部电影是一部新电影一样）图灵风险投资），加拿大生产商开创了一种融资形式，该形式在 20 世纪 80 年代成为标准操作程序。在这种制度下制作的大多数电影都具有无可挑剔的国际主义色彩，但也有一些电影，例如达里尔·杜克的《沉默的伙伴》（1979）也引起了批评家的关注，而向在加拿大制作中亏损的投资者提供的税收减免至少导致了许多加拿大演员和技术人员能够在一段时间内在家工作。
The business (although not necessarily the art) of Canadian film experienced explosive growth starting in 1978 and 1979 when tax laws made it profitable to invest in Canadian productions. By selling public subscriptions in the stock of the film (much as if the movie were a new manufac turing venture), Canadian producers pioneered a form of financing which became standard operating procedure in the 1980s. Most of the films produced under this system were unexceptionable internationalist grist, but a few, like Daryl Duke’s Silent Partner (1979) attracted critical attention as well, and the tax breaks that were granted to investors who lost money on Canadian productions at least resulted in a large number of Canadian actors and technicians being able to work at home—for a while.
图 4-63。七八十年代，贝尔纳多·贝托鲁奇走出意大利，创作了《末代皇帝》这样的“世界电影”，画面精美，规模宏大。
Figure 4-63. In the seventies and eighties Bernardo Bertolucci ventured outside of Italy to create “world-films” like The Last Emperor, gorgeously photographed and epic in scope.
虽然多伦多和温哥华在此期间成为热情好客的制作中心，但它们很快就成为好莱坞的延伸。与此同时，加拿大电影制作人——制片人、导演、演员——大量移居洛杉矶，并在那里取得了巨大的成功。也许最著名的流亡者是伊万·雷特曼（《动物之家》， 1978 年，制片人；《双胞胎》， 1988 年；戴夫， 1993 年；《我的超级前女友》， 2006 年），他的《捉鬼敢死队》（1984 年）成为全世界 80 年代文化的标志。尽管雷特曼拍摄了一系列具有影响力的电影，但从未获得过奥斯卡提名，而他的儿子杰森仅凭借他的第二部电影（朱诺， 2007）获得了导演提名。
While Toronto and Vancouver became established as hospitable production centers during this period, they quickly became extensions of Hollywood. Meanwhile, Canadian filmmakers—producers, directors, actors—moved in large numbers to Los Angeles, where they found considerable success. Perhaps the most notable emigre has been Ivan Reitman (Animal House, 1978, producer; Twins, 1988; Dave, 1993; My Super Ex-Girlfriend, 2006), whose Ghostbusters (1984) became an icon of 1980s culture around the world. Despite this string of influential films Reitman has never been nominated for an Oscar, while his son Jason won a directorial nomination for only his second film (Juno, 2007).
澳大利亚电影于 20 世纪 70 年代末成熟。尽管澳大利亚电影有光荣的传统，但制作的作品很少能进入海洋穿越（即使偶尔，美国人和欧洲人也会前往澳大利亚探索其自然奇观）。然而，七十年代中期制定的一项积极的政府计划很快导致许多有趣的澳大利亚人才在音乐节上引起国际关注，然后进入商业发行。新团体中最商业化的是彼得·威尔（Peter Weir），他的世界末日幻想作品《最后一波》（The Last Wave，1977）和《悬岩野餐》（Picnic at Hanging Rock，1975）为非澳大利亚观众喜欢认为的边缘特征的奇特、刻板心理提供了时尚的隐喻。世界的。威尔后来凭借《大师与指挥官：世界的另一边》 （2003）赢得了赞誉，这是一部由澳大利亚同胞罗素·克劳主演的历史武打片。菲利普·诺伊斯的《新闻前线》（1977）是一部不同寻常的电影，一半是纪录片，一半是小说，描述了四五十年代新闻片摄影师的生活。《防兔栅栏》（ Rabbit-Proof Fence，2002）在国际上也取得了成功。弗雷德·谢普伊西 (Fred Schep-isi) 的《吉米·布莱克史密斯之歌》(The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith ) (1978)；吉莉安·阿姆斯特朗的《我辉煌的职业》（1978）改编自一部自传小说，讲述了二十世纪之交一位年轻女子在荒野内陆长大时对文明成功的幻想；布鲁斯·贝雷斯福德 (Bruce Beresford) 的《破坏者莫兰特》( Breaker Morant , 1980) 讲述了布尔战争中的一个事件，这些都导致了他的国际职业生涯。现在所有人都在美国兼职工作。威尔执导了《证人》（1985）和《死亡诗社》（1989），以及著名的《杜鲁门的世界》（1998）。这是一项有趣的工作。诺伊斯负责《Patriot Games》（1992 年）和《Sliver》（1993 年）。谢皮西拍摄了《丰盛》（1985）、《罗克珊》（1987）和《六度分离》（1993）。阿姆斯特朗因《索菲尔夫人》 （1984 年）而闻名，而贝雷斯福德则因《温柔慈悲》（1982 年）和《为黛西小姐开车》（1989 年）而闻名。
Australian cinema came of age in the late 1970s. Although there was an honorable tradition of Australian film, productions seldom made the ocean crossing (even if, occasionally, Americans and Europeans journeyed to Australia to exploit its natural wonders). An active government program instituted in the mid-seventies, however, soon resulted in a number of interesting Australian talents coming to international attention at festivals, then in commercial distribution. The most commercial of the new group was Peter Weir, whose apocalyptic fantasies, The Last Wave (1977) and Picnic at Hanging Rock (1975), provided fashionable metaphors for the peculiar, stereotyped psychology that non-Australian audiences like to think characterizes the edge of the world. Weir later won acclaim for Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World (2003), an historical swashbuckler starring fellow Aussie Russell Crowe. Phillip Noyce’s News-front (1977) was an unusual film, part documentary, part fiction, that described the lives of newsreel cameramen during the forties and fifties. Rabbit-Proof Fence (2002) was also internationally successful. Fred Schep-isi’s The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith (1978); Gillian Armstrong’s My Brilliant Career (1978), based on an autobiographical novel about a young woman’s fantasies of civilized success while growing up in the wild outback at the turn of the twentieth century; and Bruce Beresford’s Breaker Morant (1980), about an incident in the Boer War, all led to international careers. All now work part-time in the States. Weir directed Witness (1985) and Dead Poets Society (1989), as well as the remarkable The Truman Show (1998). It amounts to an interesting body of work. Noyce was responsible for Patriot Games (1992) and Sliver (1993). Schepisi shot Plenty (1985), Roxanne (1987), and Six Degrees of Separation (1993). Armstrong is best known for Mrs. Soffel (1984), and Beresford for Tender Mercies (1982) and Driving Miss Daisy (1989).
迄今为止，非洲电影至少诞生了一位具有国际地位的电影制片人，奥斯曼·塞贝内 (Ousmane Sembéne)，他的电影经常在欧洲和美国上映。其中最重要的电影有《黑女孩》 (Black Girl ) (1965)、 《曼达比》 (Mandabi) (1968) 和《哈拉》( Xala ) (1974)。塞内加尔人塞贝内是一位小说家和电影制片人。阿尔及利亚、埃及、尼日利亚和突尼斯都有相当规模的电影产业。《库西尼倒计时》（1976 年）由奥西·戴维斯执导，是第一部美国黑人与尼日利亚合拍的电影。
The African cinema has so far produced at least one filmmaker of international standing, Ousmane Sembéne, whose films were regularly seen in Europe and the U.S. Among the most important were Black Girl (1965), Mandabi (1968), and Xala (1974). Senegalese, Sembéne was a novelist as well as a filmmaker. Film industries of considerable size exist in Algeria, Egypt, Nigeria, and Tunisia. Countdown at Kusini (1976), directed by Ossie Davis, was the first Black American-Nigerian coproduction.
日本电影在六七十年代继续扩大其国际影响力。黑泽明于 1963 年完成了《高与低》 ， 1965 年完成了《红胡子》， 1970 年完成了《多德斯卡登》 ，1975 年完成了《德苏·乌扎拉》。在 60 年代和 70 年代更有趣的年轻导演中，弟子河原浩 (Hiroshi Teshigahara) 很快就成为了导演，他的《沙丘中的女人》(1964) 很快成为A寓言电影的经典之作，其《夏日士兵》（1971）是一次独特的跨文化尝试，讲述了居住在日本的美国越南逃兵这一主题。大岛渚可能是第一个与过去彻底决裂的日本电影制片人。他的电影包括《新宿窃贼日记》 (1968)、《男孩》 (1969) 和《仪式》 (1971)。然而，他的国际声誉是基于他 1977 年的性剥削影片《感官王国》（In the Realm of the Senses）。
Japanese cinema continued to expand its international influence during the sixties and seventies. Kurosawa completed High and Low in 1963, Red Beard in 1965, Dodes ’Kaden in 1970, and Dersu Uzala in 1975. Among the more interesting younger directors of the sixties and seventies was Hiroshi Teshigahara, whose Woman in the Dunes (1964) quickly became a classic of allegorical cinema and whose Summer Soldiers (1971) was a unique cross-cultural attempt at treating the subject of American deserters from Vietnam residing in Japan. Nagisa Oshima may have been the first Japanese filmmaker to have made a complete break with the past. His films included Diary of a Shinjuku Burglar (1968), Boy (1969), and The Ceremony (1971). His international fame, however, was based on his 1977 suc-cés de scandale, the sexually exploitative In the Realm of the Senses.
图 4-64。埃尔曼诺·奥尔米的《木鞋树》以一种人类学的视角拍摄，为八十年代的此类调查奠定了风格。
Figure 4-64. Ermanno Olmi’s The Tree of the Wooden Clogs, filmed with a kind of anthropological perspective, set a style for such investigations in the eighties.
东南亚电影在六七十年代蓬勃发展。菲律宾的血腥史诗定期出口到美国和欧洲。香港电影为我们带来了武术类型，这是自六七十年代末以来在世界范围内取得巨大成功的电影类型。胡金铨（《龙门客栈》， 1966；《侠女》， 1969、1975；《李汗的命运》， 1970）留下了个人印记。
Southeast Asian cinema blossomed in the sixties and seventies. Filipino blood epics were regularly exported to the U.S. and Europe. Hong Kong cinema gave us the Martial Arts genre, an enormously successful type of film worldwide since the late sixties and seventies. King Hu (Dragon Gate Inn, 1966; A Touch of Zen, 1969,1975; The Fate of Lee Khan, 1970) made a personal mark.
新浪潮对法国电影产生了实用和美学的影响。戈达尔、特吕弗、夏布罗尔和其他人已经证明，以低廉的成本制作电影是可能的，无论是针对商业观众还是少数群体观众。电影传播到以前无法承担资本支出的国家是电影经济发展的显着结果之一。另一个也许更能说明问题的是法国电影中兴起的充满活力的折衷主义20世纪70年代。在此期间，法国电影重新发现了二战以来所缺乏的社会价值观。
The New Wave had a practical as well as esthetic effect on French cinema. Godard, Truffaut, Chabrol, and the others had demonstrated that it was possible to make films inexpensively, whether directed toward a commercial audience or toward a minority audience. The spread of cinema into countries that previously could never have afforded the capital expense is one salient result of the developing economy of film. Another, perhaps even more telling, is the vigorous eclecticism that sprang up in French cinema in the 1970s. During this period, French film rediscovered a sense of social values that had been lacking since World War II.
马塞尔·奥菲尔斯 (Marcel Ophüls) 的非凡历史文献，时长 4 1/2 小时的《悲伤与怜悯》 (1971)，是这种新意识的里程碑。它以华丽和智慧记录了二战期间法国与纳粹占领者合作的真实本质，对法国的情感产生了深远的影响。其中一个成果是七十年代初期的一系列占领电影，其中最有趣的是马勒的《拉科姆》、吕西安和米歇尔·米特拉尼的《卢浮宫的吉谢特》（1974）。奥菲尔斯的《正义记忆》（1976）是对二战后纽伦堡审判的调查，也是一篇同样微妙的电影文章。
Marcel Ophüls’s extraordinary historical document, the 4 1/2-hour The Sorrow and the Pity (1971), was a landmark of this new awareness. Documenting with panache and intelligence the true nature of French collaboration with their Nazi occupiers during World War II, it had a deep effect on French sensibilities. One of the results was a whole cycle of Occupation films during the early seventies, the most interesting of which were Malle’s Lacombe, Lucien and Michel Mitrani’s Les Guichets du Louvre (1974). Ophüls’s Memory of Justice (1976), an investigation into the Nuremberg trials following World War II, was an equally subtle film essay.
让·尤斯塔什的《母亲与妓女》（1973）在美学上标志着新浪潮的结束。尤斯塔什能够在长达 3.5 小时的紧张电影中，不仅捕捉、审视和戏仿了现在古老的新浪潮的许多惯例，而且还捕捉到了法国知识分子周围、有时甚至令人窒息的特殊氛围。从美学角度来说，20 世纪 70 年代法国最重要的创新者是让·马里·斯特劳布 (Jean-Marie Straub)，他与妻子兼合作者丹尼埃·惠耶 (Danièle Huillet) 共同开发了一种唯物主义电影，在前卫艺术中留下了印记。斯特劳布虽然出生在法国，但一直用德语工作，而且主要用的是德国的钱。《安娜·玛格达莱娜·巴赫编年史》（1967）、《奥通》（1970）、《历史课》（1972）以及他对勋伯格歌剧的改编版本《摩西和亚伦》（1975）都是叙事模式和美学理论论文中的严峻实验，尽管它们虽然从未受到普通观众的赞赏，但却为新电影（Neue Kino）的电影制片人提供了灵感，新电影是一种新的德国电影，诞生于六十年代末，并通过七十年代的电影节获得了相当的国际声誉。
Jean Eustache’s The Mother and the Whore (1973) marked the end of the New Wave, esthetically. Eustache was able, during 3 1/2 hours of intense cinema, to capture, examine, and parody not only many of the conventions of the now old New Wave, but also that particular atmosphere that surrounds and sometimes suffocates French intellectuals. Esthetically, the most important French innovator of the 1970s was Jean-Marie Straub, who, with his wife and collaborator Danièle Huillet, developed a type of Materialist cinema that made its mark on the avant garde. Although French by birth, Straub has worked in the German language and mainly with German money. The Chronicle of Anna Magdalena Bach (1967), Othon (1970), History Lessons (1972), and Moses and Aaron (1975), his version of Schönberg’s opera, are austere experiments in narrative modes and essays in esthetic theory that, although they were never appreciated by general audiences, nevertheless served as an inspiration to the filmmakers of the Neue Kino, the new German cinema that came into being in the late sixties and gained quite an international reputation through film festivals in the seventies.
亚历山大·克鲁格是这个非正式团体中第一个转向电影的人。《昨天的女孩》（1966）、《大顶下的艺术家：困惑》（1968）、《家庭奴隶的兼职工作》（1974）和《大力士费迪南德》（1975）展现了冷酷机智中的政治动力。
Alexander Kluge was the first of this informal group to turn to film. Yesterday Girl (1966), Artists Under the Big Top: Perplexed (1968), Part-time Work of a Domestic Slave (1974), and Strongman Ferdinand (1975) exhibited a political drive couched in cold wit.
沃尔克·施隆多夫的电影本质上也具有广泛的政治性，但施隆多夫展示了更出色的电影设施和不那么简单化的逻辑。《Young Törless》（1966）是罗伯特·穆齐尔心理小说的一个版本；《孔巴赫穷人的暴富》（1971），布莱希特中世纪道德故事。施隆多夫和冯·特罗塔的《凯瑟琳娜·布鲁姆失去的荣誉》（The Lost Honor of Katharina Blum，1975 年，改编自海因里希·波尔的小说）这是现代德国政治的重要文献，因其直接对抗右翼沙文主义新闻界大佬阿克塞尔·施普林格而获得了显着的民众成功。1979 年，施隆多夫完成了君特·格拉斯(Günter Grass) 的经典战后小说《铁皮鼓》的电影版。施隆多夫对这部抛物线杰作的优雅而富有灵感的版本赢得了国际赞誉，其中包括有史以来第一个授予德国电影的美国奥斯卡金像奖。在一场戏剧性的获奖感言中，施隆多夫接受了这个名副其实的奥斯卡奖，不仅是为了他自己，也为了年轻一代的德国电影人，而且，正如他动人的说法，“为了弗里茨·朗、比利·怀尔德、刘别谦、穆尔瑙、帕布斯特——你知道的”商场！你欢迎他们！”
Volker Schlöndorff’s cinema was also broadly political in nature, but Schlöndorff exhibits both a greater cinematic facility and less simplistic logic. Young Törless (1966) was a version of the Robert Musil psychological novel; The Sudden Wealth of the Poor People of Kombach (1971), a Brechtian medieval morality tale. Schlöndorff and von Trotta’s The Lost Honor of Katharina Blum (1975, from the novel by Heinrich Boll) was a major document of modern German politics and a distinct popular success because it confronted the right-wing, jingoist press lord Axel Springer directly. In 1979 Schlondorff completed his film version of The Tin Drum, Günter Grass’s classic postwar novel. Schlöndorff’s elegant and inspired version of that parabolic masterpiece met with due international acclaim, including the first U.S. Academy Award ever granted a German film. In a dramatic acceptance speech, Schlöndorff accepted the aptly named Oscar not only for himself, and for the young generation of German filmmakers but also, as he put it movingly, “for Fritz Lang, Billy Wilder, Lubitsch, Murnau, Pabst—you know them all! You welcomed them!”
图 4-65。布努埃尔的《资产阶级的谨慎魅力》 （1972 年）是一系列超现实主义的停电素描，是一部滑稽而善意的讽刺作品。在这里，一场晚宴以谨慎的尴尬结束，因为客人们被机关枪扫射。
Figure 4-65. A series of surrealistic blackout sketches, Buñuel’s The Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie (1972) is droll, good-natured satire. Here, a dinner party ends in discreet embarrassment as the guests are machine-gunned.
20 世纪 70 年代，赖纳·维尔纳·法斯宾德 (Rainer Werner Fassbinder) 是 Das Neue Kino 最著名的冠军。他将戏剧、电视和电影事业结合起来，在 1982 年 37 岁去世之前完成了 40 多部电影。他早期更具政治色彩的电影——《为什么 Herr R. Run Amok？》例如，《四季商人》（1969）、《四季商人》（1972）可能比《佩特拉·冯·康德的苦泪》（1972）、《恐惧吞噬灵魂》（1973）和《福克斯》 （1974）更有趣。后来的电影虽然更受欢迎，但更多地显示了道格拉斯·瑟克的阵营影响，并且通常更加复杂。在拍摄了许多电视电影之后，法斯宾德于 1978 年拍摄了他的第一部英语电影：《绝望》，改编自汤姆·斯托帕德 (Tom Stop-pard) 弗拉基米尔·纳博科夫 (Vladimir Nabokov) 小说的剧本。尽管有那些令人印象深刻的文学背景，但这并没有使他成为一名国际导演。1979年，《玛丽亚·布劳恩的婚礼》（再次德文版）获得了相当大的成功，并吸引了更多的普通观众。他的十五小时电视连续剧《柏林亚历山大广场》（1980）标志着他短暂职业生涯的顶峰。
In the 1970s, Rainer Werner Fassbinder was the best known champion of Das Neue Kino. Combining careers in the theater, television, and cinema, he completed more than forty films before his death in 1982 at age thirty-seven. His earlier, more political films—Why Did Herr R. Run Amok? (1969), The Merchant of Four Seasons (1972), for example—may be of greater interest than The Bitter Tears of Petra von Kant (1972), Fear Eats the Soul (1973), and Fox (1974). The later films, although more popular, show more of the camp influence of Douglas Sirk and are generally more involuted. After numerous television films, Fassbinder made his first English-language film in 1978: Despair, from a screenplay by Tom Stop-pard of the novel by Vladimir Nabokov. Despite those impressive literary antecedents, it did not establish him as an international director. In 1979, The Marriage of Maria Braun (in German once again) enjoyed considerable success and appealed to more general audiences. Berlin Alexander-platz (1980), his fifteen-hour television series, marked the apex of his brief career.
沃纳·赫尔佐格是这群人中最难分类的。《小矮人从小开始》（Even Dwarfs Started Small，1970）和《海市蜉蝣》 （ Fata Morgana，1971）都是难以言表的实验，而《寂静与黑暗之地》（Land of Silence and Darkness，1971）和《人人为己，上帝反对所有人》（Every Man for Himself and God against All，卡斯帕·豪瑟，1974）则更加清晰，前者是一项研究聋哑人的世界，后者是赫尔佐格版本的狼孩/高贵的野蛮人传说。赫尔佐格专注于极端情况下的人类，几乎就像他是一位实验人类学家一样。《阿吉雷，上帝之怒》（Aguirre, the Wrath of God，1972）讲述了一位痴迷于新世界的西班牙探险家沿着一条越来越陌生的河流进行的旅行。许多评论家认为它与它的后继者《现代启示录》没有什么不同，但成本要高得多，因为它是对压力下心理的研究。《玻璃之心》（Heart of Glass，1977）是一篇关于中世纪玻璃工匠之谜的神秘而抽象的文章，而斯特罗斯泽克（ Stroszek，1977）则更容易理解地描绘了一个头脑简单的欧洲人与美国文化的对抗。《小迪特需要飞翔》（Little Dieter Needs to Fly，1997）讲述了一名飞行员和战俘的故事，结合了许多这些主题。赫尔佐格在 2000 年代继续了他多产的职业生涯，经常用英语拍摄。他的纪实散文《灰熊人》 （Grizzly Man ，2005 年）讲述了两名动物权利活动家的死亡，而《在世界尽头的遭遇》（Encounters at the End of the World，2007 年）讲述了南极洲，尤其受到好评。
Werner Herzog was the least classifiable of the group. Even Dwarfs Started Small (1970) and Fata Morgana (1971) were ineffable experiments, while Land of Silence and Darkness (1971) and Every Man for Himself and God against All (Kaspar Hauser, 1974) are much more lucid, the former a study of the world of the deaf-mute, the latter Herzog’s version of the wolf child/noble savage legend. Herzog concentrated on human beings in extreme situations, almost as if he were an experimental anthropologist. Aguirre, the Wrath of God (1972) studies an obsessive Spanish explorer in the New World on a trip up an increasingly alien river. Many critics compared it favorably to its not-dissimilar but far more expensive successor Apocalypse Now, as a study of the psyche under pressure. Heart of Glass (1977) was a hermetic, abstract essay on the mysteries of medieval glassworkers, while Stroszek (1977) was a much more accessible portrait of a simpleminded European confronting American culture. Little Dieter Needs to Fly (1997), the story of a pilot and prisoner of war, combined many of these themes. Herzog has continued his prolific career into the 2000s, often shooting in English. His nonfiction essays Grizzly Man (2005), about the death of two animal rights activists, and Encounters at the End of the World (2007), about Antarctica, were especially well received.
20 世纪 70 年代德国新导演群体中最被低估的可能是维姆·文德斯 (Wim Wenders)。文德斯直接而不是令人厌烦（就像克鲁格、赫尔佐格，尤其是法斯宾德有时看起来的那样），文德斯制作了许多低调但激烈的电影，其中人的关注而不是风格占据了中心地位。其中包括《守门员点球时的焦虑》（1971），与《错误的动作》（1975）一样，剧本都是由剧作家彼得·汉德克编写的，《爱丽丝梦游城市》（1974）和《公路之王》（1975）。《美国朋友》（1977）是一部国际合拍片，巧妙地概括了他的疏离和美欧文化交流的主题，在美国找到了观众。在完成这部非凡的电影后不久，文德斯就被弗朗西斯·福特·科波拉“发现”了，签下他执导《哈米特》（1983 年上映），并以“维姆”命名了旧金山的一家餐厅。浪漫并没有持续多久。当电影最终上映时，文德斯的作品所剩无几。但文德斯确实根据山姆·夏普德的剧本拍摄了他的美国电影《德克萨斯州巴黎》（1984 年）。文德斯后来凭借一首充满渴望的挽歌《欲望之翼》（Wings of Desire，1987 年）和一首广受欢迎的古巴音乐庆典《布埃纳维斯塔社交俱乐部》（Buena Vista Social Club，1998 年）而蜚声国际。自 2000 年以来，文德斯主要用英语创作，最著名的是为《蓝调》 (2003) 贡献了一集，并拍摄了山姆·夏普德的另一部剧本：《别来敲门》 (2005)。
In the 1970s the most underrated of the group of new German directors was probably Wim Wenders. Direct rather than cloying (as Kluge, Herzog, and especially Fassbinder sometimes seemed to be), Wenders made a number of low-key yet intense films in which human concerns rather than style held center stage. Among these were The Goalie’s Anxiety at the Penalty Kick (1971), which, like Wrong Movement (1975), had a script by playwright Peter Handke, Alice in the Cities (1974), and Kings of the Road (1975). The American Friend (1977), an international coproduction that deftly summarized his themes of alienation and American-European cultural intercourse, found an audience in the U.S. Shortly after completing this remarkable film, Wenders was “discovered” by Francis Ford Coppola, who signed him to direct Hammett (released 1983)—and also named a San Francisco restaurant after “Wim.” The romance didn’t last. Little of Wenders’s work remained when the film was finally released. But Wenders did get to make his American film, Paris, Texas (1984), from a script by Sam Shepard. Wenders later had international hits with Wings of Desire (1987), a wistful elegy, and Buena Vista Social Club (1998), a highly popular celebration of Cuban music. Since 2000 Wenders has worked mainly in English, most notably contributing an episode to The Blues (2003) and shooting another Sam Shepard script: Don’t Come Knocking (2005).
图 4-66。“新新浪潮”：让·尤斯塔什的《母亲与妓女》（1973）：两位职业生涯始于新浪潮早期的演员，贝尔纳黛特·拉丰和让-皮埃尔·利奥，出演了一部严谨、要求高、诙谐的心理剧。（纽约客电影公司。）
Figure 4-66. “Neo-New Wave”: Jean Eustache’s The Mother and the Whore (1973): two actors whose careers began in the early days of the New Wave, Bernadette Lafont and Jean-Pierre Léaud, in a rigorous, demanding, witty psychodrama. (NewYorker Films.)
瑞士电影的复兴是七十年代最有吸引力的发展之一。阿兰·坦纳的电影（《Charles, Mort ou vif》， 1969 年；《La Salamandre》， 1971 年；《Retour d'Afrique》， 1973 年；《The Middle of the World》， 1974 年）展示了传统戏剧叙事和复杂场景调度的独特结合。《约拿，2000 年将是 25 岁》（1976 年）是一部讽刺、人道且非常明智的政治寓言，考虑到它对这些事件的文化和政治影响的敏锐评论，是 20 世纪 70 年代最重要的社会文献之一1968 年。
The renaissance of Swiss cinema was one of the more attractive developments of the seventies. The films of Alain Tanner (Charles, Mort ou vif, 1969; La Salamandre, 1971; Retour d’Afrique, 1973; The Middle of the World, 1974) display a unique mixture of traditional dramatic narrative and sophisticated mise-en-scène. Jonah, Who Will Be 25 in the Year 2000 (1976), a wry, humane, and very wise political allegory, was one of the more important social documents of the 1970s, considering its perceptive comments on the cultural and political fallout of the events of 1968.
美国电影在六十年代末和七十年代初也出现了人才爆炸，但与法国和德国的新电影不同，它是高度商业化的。类型的概念仍然很强烈。黑帮片和音乐剧在七十年代很难找到，但它们被一系列新的类型所取代，包括追逐片、公路片、怀旧片、好莱坞片（讲述昔日的黄金岁月）、武打片电影（通常是进口电影——《综艺》将这种类型称为“Chop Socky”），受人尊敬的色情电影，以及——七十年代中期最赚钱的电影——灾难电影。值得注意的是，所有这些发明的流派的范围都比较狭窄。没有哪部影片能像西部片或黑色电影那样提供如此广泛的自我表达机会。三十年后，这些流派中的大多数仍然存在。多亏了 VHS 和 DVD（无论好坏），色情片已经发展成为一个独立的行业，其收入可与故事片相媲美。
American cinema also saw an explosion of talent in the late sixties and early seventies, but unlike French and German new cinema it was highly commercial. The concept of genre remained strong. Gangsters and Musicals were hard to find in the seventies, but they were replaced by a series of new genres, including the Chase film, the Road film, the Nostalgia film, the Hollywood film (about the golden days of yesteryear), the Martial Arts film (usually imported—Variety called this genre “Chop Socky”), the respectable Porn film, and—most profitable of all in the mid-seventies—the Disaster film. Significantly, all of these invented genres were narrower in scope; none offered as wide an opportunity for self-expression as, say, the Western or the Film Noir. Most of these genres are still with us thirty years on. Thanks to VHS and DVD—for better or worse—Porn has developed into a separate industry whose revenues rival those of feature film.
虽然新类型引起了一些兴趣，但 20 世纪 70 年代美国最重要的创新是黑人电影，这是一个广泛的类别，其中包括大量廉价材料（用Variety 的话说，就是“黑人剥削”），但也包括许多黑人电影。持久的价值。到 20 世纪 90 年代末，黑人电影几乎从好莱坞舞台上消失，但在 20 世纪 90 年代以新的活力再次崛起。
While the new genres were of some interest, the most important innovation in the U.S. in the 1970s was the Black film, a wide category that included a great deal of cheap material (“Blaxploitation” in Variety’s parlance) but also a number of films of lasting value. By the end of the decade, Black film had almost disappeared from the Hollywood scene, but it was to rise again with renewed energy in the 1990s.
梅尔文·范·皮布尔斯 (Melvin Van Peebles) 决心成为一名电影制片人，于是前往法国实现他的目标。在那里拍完一部电影（《三日通行证的故事》， 1967）后，他回到美国，并在国外证明了自己的实力，获得了好莱坞的合同。结果是一部相当薄弱的喜剧《西瓜侠》（1969）。然而，他的第三部电影，独立制作的《甜甜背》的《Baadasssss Song》（1971），从美学角度来看，仍然是迄今为止制作的最纯粹的黑人电影——一部痛苦的尖叫声，也是黑人在美国生存的一个实例教训。征服好莱坞后，范·皮布尔斯将注意力转向七十年代的舞台，在黑人音乐剧的发展中发挥了重要作用（《Ain't Should Die a Natural Death》、《Don't Play Us Cheap》），该剧至今仍是黑人音乐剧的主流。百老汇剧目中强大而有利可图的组成部分。范·皮布尔斯显然对舞台和电影世界感到厌倦，他接下来搬到了华尔街，一个八十年代的地方。他着有《大胆的金钱：玩期权市场的新方法》（1986 年）。八十年代末，他重返电影界，与儿子马里奥一起工作。
Melvin Van Peebles, deciding that he wanted to be a filmmaker, went to France to accomplish his aim. After making one film there (Story of a Three-Day Pass, 1967) he returned to the U.S. and was able, having proved himself abroad, to obtain a Hollywood contract. The result was a fairly weak comedy, Watermelon Man (1969). His third film, however, the independently produced Sweet Sweetback’s Baadasssss Song (1971) is still the purest Black film, in terms of esthetics, that has yet been made—a shriek of pain that is also an object lesson in Black survival in America. Having conquered Hollywood, Van Peebles turned his attention to the stage in the seventies, playing a major role in the development of the Black musical theater (Ain’t Supposed to Die a Natural Death, Don’t Play Us Cheap), which remained a strong and profitable component of the Broadway repertoire. Apparently bored with the worlds of stage and film, Van Peebles next moved to Wall Street, the place to be in the eighties. He authored Bold Money: A New Way to Play the Options Market (1986). In the late eighties, he returned to film, working with his son Mario.
老戈登·帕克斯 (Gordon Parks Sr) 决定打破电影界的种族障碍时，他曾是《生活》杂志广受尊敬的摄影师和作家。他的第一部电影改编自他的自传《学习树》（1968 年），这是一篇关于他在堪萨斯州童年的视觉上令人惊叹的文章，但对于观众来说过于静态习惯于有规律的定时刺激。帕克斯的下一部电影《Shaft》（1970 年）满足了这一商业要求，该片是 70 年代初在商业上非常受欢迎的黑色动作类型的开创性例子。经过几次类似的尝试后，帕克斯在《莱德贝利》( Leadbelly，1976) 中回归了更个人化的主题，这是一部关于这位蓝调歌手的传记，也是新黑人电影短暂历史中的一部重要电影。
Gordon Parks Sr had been a widely respected photographer for Life magazine and an author when he decided to break the race barrier in film. His first film, based on his autobiography, The Learning Tree (1968), was a visually stunning essay on his Kansas childhood, but too static for audienees accustomed to regularly timed stimulation. Parks satisfied that commercial requirement with his next film, Shaft (1970), which was the founding example of the Black Action genre that was commercially so popular in the early seventies. After a few more similar ventures, Parks returned to a more personal subject with Leadbelly (1976), a biography of the Blues singer and a major film in the short history of the new Black cinema.
图 4-67。戈达尔的《Tout va bien》（1972）中杰里·刘易斯式的开放场景成为工厂组织结构的具体表现。海报宣称：“关押boss就对了，无限打击。” 《一切都好》是戈达尔与他的“吉加-维尔托夫小组”历时五年对电影形式进行实验的实际成果。（纽约客电影公司。画面放大。）
Figure 4-67. The Jerry Lewis-style open set for Godard’s Tout va bien (1972) becomes a concrete representation of the structure of a factory organization. The poster declares: “It’s right to lock up the bosses, UNLIMITED STRIKE.” Tout va bien was the practical result of Godard’s five-year period of experimentation with film form with his “Dziga-Vertov Group.” (New Yorker Films. Frame enlargement.)
比尔·冈恩 (Bill Gunn) 负责制作了 70 年代最具原创性和令人兴奋的电影之一《甘贾·赫斯》 ( Ganja Hess ) (1973)，该片最初是一部黑人吸血鬼剥削工具，但后来发展的意义远不止于此。虽然当年在戛纳获奖，但这部电影却被发行商搁置，几乎无人上映。冈恩是小说家（《莱茵石佃农》）、剧作家（《黑片秀》， 1975 年）、编剧（《天使莱文》， 1970 年）和电视制片人（《约翰纳斯》， 1972 年；《艾伯塔猎人故事》， 1982 年），但他于 1989 年过早去世。
Bill Gunn was responsible for one of the most original and exciting films of the seventies—Ganja Hess (1973)—which started out as a Black vampire exploitation vehicle but became much more than that. Although it won awards at Cannes that year, the film was shelved by its distributor and has hardly been seen. Novelist (Rhinestone Sharecropping), playwright (Black Picture Show, 1975), screenwriter (The Angel Levine, 1970), and television producer (Johannas, 1972; The Alberta Hunter Story, 1982), Gunn died too soon in 1989.
六十年代末，新一代年轻的美国电影制作人似乎能够像欧洲同行一样，迈向更加个人化的电影。以独立董事为例像阿瑟·佩恩（《邦妮和克莱德》， 1967 年；《爱丽丝餐厅》， 1969 年；《小小大男人》， 1970 年；《夜行》， 1975 年）以及弗兰克和埃莉诺·佩里（《大卫和丽莎》， 1962 年；《疯狂主妇日记》， 1972 年）等年轻的美国人他们中的许多人都在电影学校接受过培训，他们希望电影不再像好莱坞鼎盛时期那样受商业考虑的支配。
In the late sixties, it looked as if a new generation of young American filmmakers would be able, like their European counterparts, to move onward to a more personal cinema. Building on the examples of independent directors like Arthur Penn (Bonnie and Clyde, 1967; Alice’s Restaurant, 1969; Little Big Man, 1970; Night Moves, 1975) and Frank and Eleanor Perry (David and Lisa, 1962; Diary of a Mad Housewife, 1972), the younger Americans, many of them trained in film schools, looked toward a cinema that would be less dominated by commercial considerations than Hollywood had been in its great days.
新一代的关键电影是《毕业生》。1967 年《爱之夏》上映后，它立即被视为六十年代的象征——那时他们完全反抗父母的文化。由迈克·尼科尔斯执导，巴克·亨利和考尔德·威林汉姆编剧（根据查尔斯·韦伯的小说改编）的《毕业生》让达斯汀·霍夫曼一举成名。《西蒙与加芬克尔》原声带中的著名副歌在空气中萦绕了三十多年：
The key film for the new generation was The Graduate. Upon its release during the Summer of Love in 1967 it was immediately perceived as the emblem of the sixties generation—by then in full revolt against their parents’ culture. Directed by Mike Nichols from a screenplay by Buck Henry and Calder Willingham (based on a novel by Charles Webb) The Graduate rocketed Dustin Hoffman to stardom. The famous refrain from the Simon & Garfunkel soundtrack hung in the air for more than thirty years:
乔·迪马吉奥你去哪儿了？
一个国家将孤独的目光投向你……
呜，呜，呜。*
Where have you gone, Joe DiMaggio?
A nation turns its lonely eyes to you….
Woo, woo, woo.*
这些歌词的讽刺意味——乔当然是他们父母那一代的英雄——当时的年轻观众并没有意识到。有些人后来会明白这一点，因为爱之夏渐渐变成了烟雾缭绕的记忆，扎染T恤被放逐到阁楼，音乐消亡了——而他们成了自己的父母。
The irony of those lyrics—Joe was, of course, the hero of their parents’ generation—was lost on the young audiences of the time. Some would figure it out later, as the Summer of Love drifted into smoky memory, the tie-dyed tees were exiled to the attic, the music died—and they became their parents.
迈克·尼科尔斯（Mike Nichols）比继《毕业生》之后接替好莱坞的六十年代一代年长几岁。他是五十年代“垮掉的一代”时代的产物，而不是“嬉皮士”时代的产物，作为纳粹主义的童年难民，他受到了进一步的孤立。四十多年来，他一直保持着局外人的地位。这给了他作为电影制片人的独特视角，并创作了几部影片，这些影片对于未来试图了解二十世纪末后现代文化的历史系学生来说是需要观看的。
Mike Nichols was several years older than the generation of the sixties that would take command of Hollywood in the years succeeding The Graduate. He was a product of the Beatnik years of the fifties, not the Hippie years, and as a childhood refugee from Nazism was further isolated. He has maintained that outsider status for more than forty years. It has given him a unique perspective as a filmmaker and resulted in several films that will be required viewing for history students of the future trying to understand the postmodern culture of the late twentieth century.
1961 年，尼科尔斯和他的搭档伊莱恩·梅 (Elaine May) 首次声名鹊起，当时百老汇的创作者根据他们的单口喜剧表演改编了《与尼科尔斯和梅的夜晚》(An Evening with Nichols and May) 。这是他的第一个文化里程碑，宣告了单口喜剧艺术的新成熟和共鸣，单口喜剧艺术已成为美国文化的支柱之一。几年后，他在纽约导演戏剧，然后获得了他的第一个电影任务《谁害怕弗吉尼亚·伍尔夫？（1966 年）出自具有里程碑意义的爱德华·阿尔比戏剧，由好莱坞统治者主演今天的情侣是伊丽莎白·泰勒和理查德·伯顿。继《毕业生》之后，他又推出了《第二十二条军规》（1970）。约瑟夫·海勒的黑色喜剧是五十年代和六十年代初成年的战后一代的主要小说。由阿特·加芬克尔和杰克·尼科尔森主演的《肉体知识》 （1971）扩展了《毕业生》中开始的性革命的讨论。
Nichols and his partner, Elaine May, first rose to prominence in 1961 as the creators of the Broadway hit An Evening with Nichols and May, a review based on their standup comedy routines. It was the first of his cultural landmarks, announcing a new sophistication and resonance for the art of standup comedy that has become one of the pillars of American culture. In a few years he was directing theater in New York, then landed his first film assignment with Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (1966) from the landmark Edward Albee play, starring the reigning Hollywood royal couple of the day, Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton. He followed The Graduate with Catch-22 (1970). The Joseph Heller black comedy had been the key novel for the postwar generation that had come of age in the fifties and early sixties. Carnal Knowledge (1971), starring Art Garfunkel and Jack Nicholson, extended the discussion of the sexual revolution that had begun in The Graduate.
图 4-68。安吉拉·温克勒在施隆多夫和冯·特罗塔的《凯瑟琳娜·布鲁姆失去的荣誉》（1975）中：新德国电影的政治面孔。
Figure 4-68. Angela Winkler in Schlöndorff’s and von Trotta’s The Lost Honor of Katharina Blum (1975): the political face of New German Cinema.
在接下来的二十年里，尼科尔斯导演了一些有趣的电影（《财富》， 1975 年；《丝克伍德》， 1983 年；《工作女孩》， 1988 年），但他已经不受评论家的青睐——主要是因为他没有可识别的个人风格；他不是一个“导演”。20 世纪 90 年代末，他再次开始与伊莱恩·梅 (Elaine May) 合作。1998 年，他们凭借乔·克莱恩 (Joe Klein) 小说改编的《原色》 (Primary Colors) 取得了巨大成功，该小说讲述了 1992 年克林顿竞选活动，并在莫妮卡·莱温斯基 (Monica Lewinsky) 媒体马戏表演期间首次亮相。约翰·特拉沃尔塔 (John Travolta) 塑造的比尔·克林顿 (Bill Clinton) 形象令人印象深刻，很可能在一段时间内仍将是 20 世纪 90 年代的标志性人物。尼科尔斯后来在根据托尼·库什纳的杰出戏剧《天使在美国》（2003 年）改编的精彩电影和一部有先见之明的政治历史片《查理·威尔逊的战争》（2007 年）中获得了成功。
Over the next twenty years Nichols directed some interesting films (The Fortune, 1975; Silkwood, 1983; Working Girl, 1988) but he had fallen out of favor with the critics—essentially because he had no recognizable personal style; he was not an “auteur.” In the late 1990s he began working again with Elaine May. They scored big in 1998 with Primary Colors, based on the Joe Klein novel about the 1992 Clinton campaign, and debuting just in time for the Monica Lewinsky media circus. John Travolta’s resonant portrait of Bill Clinton is likely to remain the definitive character of the 1990s for some time. Nichols later scored with a brilliant film adaptation of Tony Kushner’s remarkable play Angels in America (2003) and a prescient political historical piece Charlie Wilson’s War (2007).
来自戏剧界的尼科尔斯并不是 20 世纪 60 年代末影评人所期待的那样。每个人都知道发生了什么十年前的法国——当时《电影手册》的评论家们把打字机换成了相机——并期望历史重演。当早熟的电影评论家彼得·博格达诺维奇从罗杰·科曼那里骗取他的第一部电影《目标》（ Targets，1968）的制作资金时，当作家和《时尚先生》杂志的潮流引领者罗伯特·本顿和大卫·纽曼将他们的《雌雄大盗》的剧本卖给好莱坞时，每个人都认为美国“新浪潮”开始了。
Coming from the world of theater, Nichols was not what film critics of the late 1960s were expecting. Everyone knew what had happened in France ten years earlier—when the critics of Cahiers du Cinéma had exchanged their typewriters for cameras—and expected history to repeat itself. When precocious film critic Peter Bogdanovich inveigled production funds out of Roger Corman for his first film, Targets (1968), and when writers and Esquire magazine trend-setters Robert Benton and David Newman sold their script for Bonnie and Clyde to Hollywood, everyone thought the American “New Wave” had begun.
博格丹诺维奇在 20 世纪 70 年代初期取得了一些成功，呼应了他的黄金时代的英雄（《最后一场电影秀》， 1971 年；What's Up，Doc？， 1972 年；Paper Moon， 1973 年），然后失去了他的票房收入。本顿和纽曼分别作为导演和编剧继续了漫长而杰出的职业生涯。但很少有其他评论家设法加入这一运动（保罗·施拉德和安德鲁·伯格曼发表了他们的论文；杰伊·科克斯为《时代》杂志撰稿）。美国的文艺复兴诞生于电影学校，而不是评论杂志。
Bogdanovich enjoyed some success in the early 1970s echoing his heroes from the Golden Age (The Last Picture Show, 1971; What’s Up, Doc?, 1972; Paper Moon, 1973), then lost his bankability. Separately Benton and Newman went on to long and distinguished careers as director and screenwriter, respectively. But few other critics managed to join the movement (Paul Schrader and Andrew Bergman had published their dissertations; Jay Cocks had written for Time). The American renaissance was born in film schools, not critical journals.
独立公司 BBS 制作的电影是最早宣布新风格的电影之一：《逍遥骑士》（1969 年，由演员丹尼斯·霍珀执导）、《五部简单作品》（1970 年，鲍勃·拉菲尔森）、《安全之地》（1971 年，亨利·贾格洛姆）、他说，开车吧（1971，杰克·尼科尔森）。然而， 《逍遥骑士》在商业上的成功只导致了短暂的青春类型电影的诞生，即使是该群体中最有成就的拉斐尔森，在接下来的七年里也只完成了两部电影：《马文花园之王》(1972)和《马文花园之王》 (1972)。保持饥饿（1976）。蒙特·赫尔曼（Monte Hellman）是 BBS 集团的另一位导演，他在 60 年代中期拍摄了两部出色的西部片（《射击》、《旋风驰骋》），并制作了 70 年代最好的电影之一——当然也是最出色的公路片——两车道柏油路（1970），但在接下来的六年里只完成了一个项目。那些试图在工作室系统内学习工作的同时保持个人愿景的电影制片人在制作电影方面取得了更大的成功。
The films produced by the independent company BBS were among the first to announce a new style: Easy Rider (1969, directed by actor Dennis Hopper), Five Easy Pieces (1970, Bob Rafelson), A Safe Place (1971, Henry Jaglom), Drive, He Said (1971, Jack Nicholson). Yet the commercial success of Easy Rider led only to the short-lived Youth genre, and even Rafelson, the most accomplished of the group, was only able to complete two films in the next seven years: The King of Marvin Gardens (1972) and Stay Hungry (1976). Monte Hellman, another director associated with the BBS group, had been responsible for two remarkable Westerns in the mid-sixties (The Shooting, Ride in the Whirlwind) and made one of the best films of the seventies—and certainly the superior Road film—in Two-Lane Blacktop (1970), but was able to put together only one project in the six years that followed. Filmmakers who tried to maintain a personal vision while learning to work within the studio system had better success at getting their films made.
从纽约大学电影学院毕业后，马丁·斯科塞斯开始制作两部不同寻常的独立作品（《谁在敲我的门？》， 1968 年和《穷街陋巷》， 1973 年），但随后又制作了两部电影，虽然风格看似独立，但却完全符合好莱坞模式：《爱丽丝不再住在这里》(1974) 和《出租车司机》(1976)。《纽约，纽约》（New York, New York，1977）是一次雄心勃勃的尝试，旨在重塑从未找到观众的 20 世纪 40 年代音乐风格，而《最后的华尔兹》（The Last Waltz，1978）是乐队告别音乐会的精美拍摄唱片，取得了一些评论和认可。商业上的成功。斯科塞斯在八十年代凭借一系列日益雄心勃勃和有趣的电影取得了长足的进步。随着同代中较著名的电影制片人屈服于习惯，他凭借《愤怒的公牛》（1980）开辟了新天地，该片改编自拳击手杰克·拉莫塔的自传，以黑白形式拍摄，表达了发自内心的原始呐喊。随后是《喜剧之王》（1983）、《下班后》（1985）、《金钱本色》（1986）和《基督最后的诱惑》（1988）。很难想象还有比这更多样化的电影：关于名人的黑色喜剧文章；学生剧本的小本制作；经典黑色电影（ 《骗子》）的大明星续集；以及根据尼科斯·卡赞扎基斯备受争议的小说改编的现代圣经史诗。
Coming out of NYU film school, Martin Scorsese began with two unusual independent productions (Who’s That Knocking at My Door?, 1968 and Mean Streets, 1973) but then produced two films that, while seemingly independent in style, nevertheless fit Hollywood patterns neatly: Alice Doesn’t Live Here Anymore (1974) and Taxi Driver (1976). New York, New York (1977) was an ambitious attempt to rework 1940s Musical style that never found its audience, while The Last Waltz (1978), an elegantly filmed record of The Band’s farewell concert, achieved some critical and commercial success. Scorsese hit his stride in the eighties with a string of increasingly ambitious and interesting films. As the more famous filmmakers of his generation succumbed to habits, he broke new ground with Raging Bull (1980), based on the autobiography of boxer Jake LaMotta, a raw, visceral cry from the heart filmed in black and white. The King of Comedy (1983), After Hours (1985), The Color of Money (1986), and The Last Temptation of Christ (1988) followed. It is hard to imagine a more varied group of films: a dark comic essay on celebrity; a shoestring production of a student script; a big-star sequel to a classic Film Noir (The Hustler); and a modern biblical epic based on the controversial novel by Nikos Kazantzakis.
图 4-69。阿兰·坦纳 (Alain Tanner) 的《乔纳，2000 年将是 25 岁》仍然是 70 年代最重要的电影之一：对我们当时的生活方式以及我们未来的生活方式进行了热情、真诚的调查。
Figure 4-69. Alain Tanner’s Jonah, Who Will Be 25 in the Year 2000 remains one of the most significant films of the seventies: a warm, heartfelt investigation of the way we lived then—and the way we still might.
斯科塞斯在 20 世纪 90 年代和 2000 年代的作品同样多样化且具有探索性。与罗伯特·德尼罗的另一部合作作品《好家伙》（Goodfellas，1990）重新演绎了黑帮类型，混合了幽默、平凡的焦虑和恐怖。接下来，两位合作者转向好莱坞风格的黑色电影经典《开普菲尔》 （ Cape Fear，1991）的翻拍。《纯真年代》 (1993) 改编自伊迪丝·华顿关于 1870 年代纽约社会的小说，为历史准确性提供了画布，而《赌场》 （1995）为德尼罗的黑帮角色提供了另一个平台。斯科塞斯的《昆敦》（ Kundun ，1997）为这一系列风格各异的电影画上了圆满的句号，这部影片对达赖喇嘛的早年生活进行了令人着迷的沉思。实际上，他遵循了同样多样化的计划。《纽约黑帮》（2002）是一部维斯康蒂风格的暴力散文，由标志性人物丹尼尔·戴·刘易斯主演。《飞行者》 (2004) 模仿了 20 世纪 30 年代的经典好莱坞传记片，莱昂纳多·迪卡普里奥饰演霍华德·休斯。《无间行者》（2006）是杰克·尼科尔森主演的一部后现代黑帮电影。最终，经过四十年的伟大工作，斯科塞斯赢得了他的第一座奥斯卡奖。它是由他的朋友和同事乔治·卢卡斯、史蒂文·斯皮尔伯格和弗朗西斯·科波拉赠送给他的——他们多年来一直在收集奥斯卡奖。他们拍的电影更好吗？假设他们一直在制作更能引起共鸣的电影。
Scorsese’s output in the 1990s and 2000s was equally diverse and exploratory. Yet another collaboration with Robert De Niro, Goodfellas (1990) reinvented the Gangster genre mixing equal parts of humor, mundane anxiety, and terror. The two collaborators next turned to a Hollywood-style remake of the Film-Noir classic Cape Fear (1991). The Age of Innocence (1993), based on the Edith Wharton novel about New York society in the 1870s, provided a canvas for historical accuracy, while Casino (1995) offered another platform for De Niro’s gangster persona. Scorsese capped this varied suite of movies with Kundun (1997), a mesmeric meditation on the early life of the Dalai Lama. In the oughts he has followed an equally varied program. Gangs of New York (2002) was a Visconti-ish essay in violence starring the iconic Daniel Day-Lewis. The Aviator (2004) mimicked the classic Hollywood Biopics of the 1930s with Leonardo Di Caprio as Howard Hughes. The Departed (2006) featured Jack Nicholson in a postmodern Gangster film. Finally, after forty years of great work, Scorsese won his first Oscar. It was presented to him by his friends and colleagues George Lucas, Steven Spielberg, and Francis Coppola—all of whom had been collecting Oscars for many years. Had they been making better films? Let’s say they had been making more resonant films.
这四十年的电影合在一起构成了一系列大师级的导演表演。在此期间，斯科塞斯还积极致力于电影保存和历史：《与马丁·斯科塞斯一起穿越美国电影的个人旅程》 （1995）是他为英国电影学院的电影世纪系列贡献的四个小时的作品，提供了独特的视角，强调了他的贡献独立电影制片人。
Taken together the films of this forty-year period constitute a series of virtuoso directorial performances. During this time Scorsese was also active in film preservation and history: A Personal Journey with Martin Scorsese through American Movies (1995), his four-hour contribution to the British Film Institute’s A Century of Cinema series, provided a unique perspective, emphasizing the contributions of independent filmmakers.
七十年代新一代好莱坞导演的典范是弗朗西斯·福特·科波拉，他在 20 世纪 60 年代从电影学校毕业后直接为罗杰·科曼工作，在编剧方面取得了一些成功，随后制作并导演了多部个人电影，包括《雨人》（1969）和《对话》（1974）。在此期间，他拍摄了 70 年代初期最赚钱的里程碑之一《教父》（1972 年），该片及其续集（1975 年、1991 年）被许多评论家视为现代时期最重要的美国电影。这种商业上和评论上的成功相结合是极其罕见的。
The model for the new generation of Hollywood directors in the seventies had been Francis Ford Coppola, who went to work for Roger Corman straight out of film school in the 1960s, achieved some success as a screenwriter, then produced and directed several personal films, including The Rain People (1969) and The Conversation (1974). In between, he was responsible for one of the most profitable landmarks of the early seventies, The Godfather (1972), which along with its sequels (1975, 1991) is regarded by many critics as the most significant American film of the modern period. Such a combination of commercial and critical success is extremely rare.
接下来，科波拉花费了近四年时间和超过 3000 万美元的资金拍摄了《现代启示录》 （1979 年），这是一部构思精美、拍摄精美的影片，试图从以越南战争为背景的约瑟夫·康拉德的《黑暗之心》中挖掘出一些意义。评论家和观众似乎都认为这一尝试并未完全成功。尽管它生动地隐喻了美国在越南经历的不适——也许是因为其出色的图像和声音构建—— 《现代启示录》似乎并没有告诉我们太多关于越南的事情。1968 年，当科波拉和约翰·米利厄斯第一次想到这个想法时，这样的电影将会产生革命性的影响。十多年后，战后一代需要的不仅仅是战争的噩梦；他们需要理解。它可能对三个小时的电影要求太多，以提供这样的分析，但《启示录》在整个令人痛苦的制作时间表中，似乎承诺了很多，但最终没有兑现。
Coppola next spent close to four years and more than $30 million on Apocalypse Now (1979), a stunningly conceived and elegantly filmed attempt to wring some meaning out of Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness set in the context of the Vietnam war. Critics and audiences seemed to agree that the attempt was not entirely successful. Despite its vividly felt metaphors for the malaise of the American experience in Vietnam—perhaps because of its brilliantly constructed images and sounds—Apocalypse Now didn’t seem to tell us very much about Vietnam. In 1968, when the idea first occurred to Coppola and John Milius, such a film would have had revolutionary impact. More than ten years later, the postwar generation needed more than the nightmare of war; they needed understanding. It may be asking too much of three hours of film to provide such an analysis, but Apocalypse, throughout its agonizing production schedule, seemed to promise a great deal that it eventually didn’t deliver.
图 4-70。黑色C内玛。比尔·冈恩 (Bill Gunn) 和杜安·琼斯 (Duane Jones) 在冈恩出色的《甘贾与赫斯》(Ganja & Hess) (1973) 中出演，一半是吸血鬼电影，一半是对神话的人类学分析。（现代艺术博物馆/金融服务局。）
Figure 4-70. BLACK CINEMA. Bill Gunn and Duane Jones in Gunn’s remarkable Ganja & Hess (1973), part vampire movie, part anthropological analysis of the myth. (MOMA/FSA.)
科波拉毫不畏惧，迅速振作起来，并于 1980 年春天买下了好莱坞的前塞缪尔·戈德温工作室。十年前，他曾尝试在旧金山建立一家替代工作室，但取得了中等成功。他对好莱坞权力结构的挑战——《美国西洋镜》——主要在幕后取得了成功，因为科波拉支持了几位年轻电影制片人崭露头角的职业生涯。
Undaunted, Coppola picked himself up quickly and in the spring of 1980 bought the former Samuel Goldwyn Studios in Hollywood. Ten years earlier he had tried with middling success to found an alternative studio in San Francisco. His challenge to the Hollywood power structure— “American Zoetrope”—succeeded mainly behind the scenes as Coppola supported the budding careers of several younger filmmakers.
在整个八十年代，他尝试了多种风格，但很少取得票房成功。《一心一意》（ One from the Heart，1982）在电脑特效发展到足以商业化之前的许多年里就对它们着迷。1983 年， SE Hinton 青年小说中的《局外人》和《隆布尔鱼》引进了大量演员，他们将在接下来的几年里统治好莱坞。《棉花俱乐部》（The Cotton Club，1984）雄心勃勃地再现了美国音乐史上的一个特殊时期，但它却未能实现。但凭借拖延已久的《佩吉·苏结婚了》（Peggy Sue Got Married，1986 年）和《塔克：男人和他的梦想》（Tucker: The Man and His Dream，1988 年），科波拉实现了两个非凡的愿景。前者是对五十年代末和六十年代初的完美挽歌，是那一代人的象征。后者是继《教父》之后第一部 20 世纪 40 年代的电影，也是对美国电影的赞歌创业精神将随着季节的变化而变得越来越重要。1990年，科波拉完成了《教父》三部曲。第三部分的成功程度远不如前几部分。20 世纪 90 年代，科波拉因执导布拉姆·斯托克 ( Bram Stoker)的《德古拉》(Dracula ) (1992) 和改编自约翰·格里沙姆 (John Grisham) 法庭小说的《造雨人》(The Rainmaker) (1997) 取得了一些成功，但他选择将大部分时间花在制作和酿酒上，而不是导演。十年后，他才重返导演岗位，拍摄了《没有青春的青春》（2007），这是一部关于衰老的迷人文章，其场景布景的杰作足以与他早期的作品相媲美。
Throughout the eighties he experimented with a wide variety of styles, seldom with box office success. One from the Heart (1982) was obsessed with computerized special effects many years before they were advanced enough to become commercial. In 1983 The Outsiders and Rumblefish from the S. E. Hinton youth novels introduced a remarkable number of actors who would dominate Hollywood for the next few years. The Cotton Club (1984), an ambitious re-creation of a special period in American musical history, fell short. But with Peggy Sue Got Married (1986) and Tucker: The Man and His Dream (1988), a long-delayed project, Coppola realized two remarkable visions. The former was a perfect elegy to the late fifties and early sixties, an emblem for that generation. The latter was the first 1940s movie to be made since The Godfather, and a hymn to American entrepreneurship that will grow in importance as it seasons. In 1990, Coppola completed the Godfather trilogy. Part III met with much less success than its predecessors. In the 1990s Coppola had some success as director of Bram Stoker’s Dracula (1992) and The Rainmaker (1997), from the John Grisham courtroom novel, but chose to spend most of his time producing—and making wine—rather than directing. It would be ten years before he returned to directing, with Youth Without Youth (2007) a mesmerizing essay on aging and a tour de force of mise-en-scene to match any of his earlier efforts.
图 4-71。迈克·尼科尔斯的《毕业生》。达斯汀·霍夫曼和安妮·班克罗夫特：一次学习经历和里程碑。
Figure 4-71. Mike Nichols’s The Graduate. Dustin Hoffman and Anne Bancroft: a learning experience and a landmark.
他长期脱离导演工作并不罕见。尽管 20 世纪 70 年代这一代人的成长正值大西洋两岸的作者论评论家宣称导演为电影制作之王的时期，但我们所有的主要明星导演——斯皮尔伯格、科波拉、斯科塞斯和卢卡斯——都在过去四十年里，制作（和写作）花费的时间至少与导演花费的时间一样多。事实上，卢卡斯——可以说是那个时期最有影响力的电影制片人——在两次导演任务之间度过了二十二年。作者理论就到此为止了！
His long break from directing was not unusual. Although the generation of the 1970s came of age at a time when the director had been declared king of the filmmaking hill by auteurist critics on both sides of the Atlantic, all of our major star directors—Spielberg, Coppola, Scorsese, and Lucas—have spent at least as much time producing (and writing) as directing during the last forty years. Indeed, Lucas—arguably the most influential filmmaker of the period—went twenty-two years between directorial assignments. So much for the auteur theory!
具有讽刺意味的是，科波拉最早的门生之一乔治·卢卡斯最先实现了他导师的企业梦想。他以《THX 1138》首次亮相，这是一部由 Zoetrope 制作的科幻电影，但在票房收入微薄。为了获得票房收入，卢卡斯于 1973 年转向拍摄《美国涂鸦》，这是七十年代最受欢迎的电影之一。随后，他在 1977 年推出了《星球大战》，这是当时票房最高的电影，通过其利润丰厚的授权权（玩偶、游戏、玩具、T 恤），该片成为了卢卡斯自己的帝国的基础：卢卡斯影业有限公司。然后放弃董事职位，专注于生产和管理他的公司。凭借《星球大战》的利润，他在旧金山北部的马林县建立了电影制作设施，并从此开始运营。
Ironically, one of Coppola’s earliest proteges, George Lucas, was able to realize his mentor’s corporate dream first. After his debut with THX 1138, a Science Fiction film produced by Zoetrope that earned very little at the box office, Lucas turned in 1973 to American Graffiti, one of the most popular films of the seventies. He followed it in 1977 with Star Wars, the highest-grossing film up to that time, which, through its lucrative licensing rights (dolls, games, toys, T-shirts), became the foundation of Lucas’s own empire: Lucasfilm Ltd. Lucas then abandoned the director’s chair to concentrate on producing and managing his company. With the profits from Star Wars he built film production facilities in Marin County north of San Francisco from which he has operated ever since.
图 4-72。艾玛·汤普森和约翰·特拉沃尔塔在原色中。他们感受到我们的痛苦。
Figure 4-72. Emma Thompson and John Travolta in Primary Colors. They feel our pain.
在整个八十年代，卢卡斯在星球大战金矿（两部续集和三部前传）中进行了探索，并与史蒂文·斯皮尔伯格一起建立了利润丰厚且有趣的印第安纳琼斯系列。卢卡斯还越来越多地涉足特效业务，该业务在整个八十年代持续增长，这主要归功于他自己制作的两部系列电影的成功。他的公司 Industrial Light & Magic 开创了数字效果并建立了剧院音响的 THX 标准。
Throughout the eighties and into the oughts, Lucas prospected in the Star Wars goldmine (two sequels and three prequels) and, together with Steven Spielberg, established the lucrative and entertaining Indiana Jones franchise. Lucas also became increasing involved in the special-effects business, which continued to grow throughout the eighties, largely due to the success of films like the two series he himself was producing. His company Industrial Light & Magic pioneered digital effects and established the THX standard for theatrical sound.
《星球大战》系列为我们提供了内容丰富、知识渊博的好莱坞历史目录。它的大多数流行元素在好莱坞黄金时代的众多流派经典中都有直接的渊源。星球大战不仅仅是一部科幻电影，它也是一部西部片有时是一部战争片、一部历史浪漫片等等。考虑到卢卡斯从他杰出的前辈那里借鉴或致敬的许多细节、风格和技巧，这些电影比美国历史上任何系列电影都赚得更多，这似乎是再合适不过的了。卢卡斯一直将《星球大战》传奇设想为九部电影系列，就像他年轻时记忆中的周六早间连续剧一样。他花了十六年的时间才重返该剧，当时他决定将其削减为六集。《星球大战前传：幽灵的威胁》于 1999 年 5 月 19 日在美国首映，被证明是一场规模首次的文化盛事。粉丝们在几天前就排起了长队等待午夜放映，而且——面对大规模缺勤的前景——许多人硅谷公司宣布这一天为文化节日。毕竟，他们的大多数技术员工都是伴随着《星球大战》神话长大的。也许这有助于他们做出职业选择。
The Star Wars series gives us an extensive and knowledgeable catalogue of Hollywood history. Most of its popular elements have direct antecedents in classics of numerous genres that characterized the Golden Age of Hollywood. Star Wars isn’t just a Science Fiction film, it’s also a Western at times, a War movie, a Historical Romance, and so forth. Considering the many details, styles, and tricks of the trade Lucas borrowed from his illustrious predecessors, or paid homage to, it seems only fitting that these films have earned more than any series of films in American history. Lucas had always envisioned the Star Wars saga as a series of nine films, not unlike the Saturday morning serials he remembered from his youth. It took him sixteen years to return to the series, and by that time he had decided to cut it to six episodes. Star Wars: Episode I—The Phantom Menace, proved a cultural event of the first magnitude when it premiered in the U.S. on May 19, 1999. Fans lined up days before for midnight screenings, and—confronted with the prospect of mass absenteeism—many Silicon Valley companies declared the day a cultural holiday. After all, most of their techie employees had grown up with the Star Wars myth; perhaps it helped them to make their career choices.
史蒂文·斯皮尔伯格与卢卡斯并驾齐驱。《大白鲨》 （1975）曾一度在《综艺》历史最高“票房”排行榜上位居榜首，随后被《星球大战》取代。斯皮尔伯格自己的科幻作品《第三类接触》于 1977 年底在《星球大战》上映七个月后上映，也名列榜首。电影《1941》（1979）是一部以当年为背景的喜剧尝试，也是一部成本更高的电影，但票房失败，让斯皮尔伯格暂时陷入了现实。
Neck and neck with Lucas has been Steven Spielberg. Jaws (1975) held first place on Variety’s list of all-time highest “grosses” for a while before it was displaced by Star Wars. Spielberg’s own Science Fiction effort, Close Encounters of the Third Kind, released at the end of 1977 seven months after Star Wars, also ranked near the top of the list. The film 1941 (1979), an attempt at comedy set in that year and an even more expensive film, failed at the box office, bringing Spielberg down to earth for a moment.
他凭借《夺宝奇兵》 (1981)（印第安纳·琼斯的第一部影片）立即恢复健康，并凭借《外星人：外星人》(1982)再次飙升。从那以后他就没有离开过高轨道。八十年代充满了一系列大大小小的成功，从《紫色》（1985）和《太阳帝国》（1987）到《永远》（1989）和《夺宝奇兵》续集（1984、1989、2008）。与科波拉和卢卡斯一样，他也是一名活跃的制片人，负责制作《回到未来》系列、《小魔怪》系列以及具有里程碑意义的《谁陷害了兔子罗杰》（1988 年）等。在过去的四十年里，没有人比经常合作的乔治·卢卡斯和史蒂文·斯皮尔伯格对美国流行文化的影响更大。1993年，《侏罗纪公园》打破了全球票房纪录，而《辛德勒名单》的好评反响也证明了斯皮尔伯格可以与世界上最优秀的“严肃”电影制片人竞争。似乎是为了强化这种新的尊重，斯皮尔伯格在 1997 年推出了另一部双剧：续集《失落的世界：侏罗纪公园》和根据著名的奴隶叛乱改编的深思熟虑、雄辩的历史剧《阿米斯塔》 。第二年，他第一次找到了一个可以将实质内容和奇观结合起来的主题：拯救大兵瑞恩，一部非凡的作品。二战史诗。他继续创作各种电影：例如，科幻小说《人工智能》（2001年）和《少数派报告》（2002年）、历史剧《慕尼黑》（2005年）、更私密的剧情片《抓住我》*（2002年）和《终点站》（2004年）以及（有人希望）《夺宝奇兵与水晶头骨王国》（2008年）的最后一集复活了哈里森·福特。
He recovered immediately with Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981), the first of the Indiana Jones films, and soared again with E.T.: The Extraterrestrial (1982). He hasn’t left high orbit since. The eighties were filled with a string of major and minor successes, from The Color Purple (1985) and Empire of the Sun (1987) to Always (1989) and the Indiana Jones sequels (1984,1989, 2008). Like Coppola and Lucas he has been an active producer as well, responsible for the Back to the Future series, the Gremlins series, and the landmark Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988), among others. No one has had a greater influence on American popular culture during the past forty years than frequent collaborators George Lucas and Steven Spielberg. In 1993 Jurassic Park broke the world-wide box-office record, while the remarkable critical reception of Schindler’s List proved that Spielberg could compete with the best of the world’s “serious” filmmakers. As if to reinforce that new-found respect, Spielberg followed up in 1997 with another double-play: the sequel The Lost World: Jurassic Park and the thoughtful, eloquent historical drama Amistad, based on the famous slave rebellion. The next year for the first time he found a subject where he could combine substance and spectacle: Saving Private Ryan, a remarkable World War II epic. In the oughts he has continued to deliver a variety of films: for example, the Science Fiction essays A.I. (2001) and Minority Report (2002), the historical drama Munich (2005), the more intimate dramas Catch Me If You Can* (2002) and The Terminal (2004) and (one hopes) the last episode of Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008) reviving an over-the-hill Harrison Ford.
罗伯特·奥尔特曼比这四位导演/经理人年长半代，他在与电影公司的不稳定联盟中生存下来，以某种方式设法以自己的方式制作自己的电影。他是当代最具原创性的电影制作人之一。他的电影充满冒险精神：《M*A*S*H》（1970）为一代人定下了基调（并在此过程中确保了奥特曼的艺术自由）。《麦凯布与米勒夫人》（1971）无疑是这一时期的主要西部片，正如《漫长的告别》（1972）和《像我们一样的盗贼》（1974）分别代表了侦探片和黑色电影的原始版本。
Older by a half a generation than these four director/impresarios, Robert Altman survived in uneasy alliance with the studios, somehow managing to make his own films his way. He was one of the most original of contemporary filmmakers. His cinema is adventurous: M*A*S*H (1970) set the tone for a generation (and secured Altman’s artistic freedom in the process). McCabe and Mrs. Miller (1971) was certainly the primary Western of the period, just as The Long Goodbye (1972) and Thieves Like Us (1974) represented original versions of their genres, the Detective film and Film Noir, respectively.
奥特曼 20 世纪 70 年代最伟大的成就是《纳什维尔》（1975），这是一部非凡的原创电影，触及了二百周年意识中的神话根源。布法罗比尔和印第安人（1976）也提出了一些关于美国生活方式的有趣问题。也许奥特曼对“新好莱坞”的主要贡献是他的工作方法。当明星导演们多年来苦心经营他们未来的杰作时，奥特曼在七十年代的鼎盛时期以每九个月一部的速度制作电影。他们很少赚很多钱，但平均而言，他们还是能赚到钱。有时它们很有趣（《一场婚礼》， 1978），有时它们很迷人（《完美情侣》， 1979），有时它们又极具艺术气息（《五重奏》， 1978），但它们几乎总是充满了对媒介的热爱和人性化。智慧——而且数量如此之多！
Altman’s greatest achievement of the 1970s was Nashville (1975), an extraordinarily original film that touched mythic roots in the Bicentennial consciousness. Buffalo Bill and the Indians (1976) also raised some interesting questions about the American way of life. Perhaps Altman’s main contribution to the “New Hollywood” was his method of working. While star directors painstakingly labored over their would-be masterpieces for years on end, Altman churned out movies at the rate of one every nine months during his heyday in the seventies. They seldom made much money, but on average they paid for themselves. Sometimes they were interesting (A Wedding, 1978), sometimes they were charming (A Perfect Couple, 1979), and occasionally they were abysmally arty (Quintet, 1978), but they were almost always infused with a love of the medium and a humane intelligence—and there were so many of them!
奥特曼在八十年代大步前进，卖掉了他的狮门工作室基地，将注意力转向剧院，并导演了几部根据戏剧改编的电影，然后带着 1992 年的《玩家》大张旗鼓地回归，这是一部充满内幕笑话的当代好莱坞讽刺杰作。和正确的金钱。1993 年上映的《Short Cuts》引起了不同的反响，但他凭借讽刺电影《Ready to Wear 》（1994 年）又恢复了状态。具有法国符号学特征的时尚界，以及令人愉悦的喜剧《饼干的财富》 （1999）。他在《戈斯福德公园》（Gosford Park，2001 年）和《草原家庭伴侣》（A Prairie Home Companion ，2006 年）中都取得了不错的成绩，前者探索了古朴的英国社会习惯，后者庆祝了加里森·凯勒（Garrison Keillor）独特的广播节目。他于 2006 年去世。
Altman broke stride in the eighties, selling his Lion’s Gate studio base, turning his attention to the theater and directing a few films based on plays before returning with considerable fanfare with 1992’s The Player, a tour de force satire of contemporary Hollywood riddled with inside jokes and right on the money. Short Cuts, released in 1993, met with mixed reactions, but he was back in form with Ready to Wear (1994), a satire on the fashion industry with a very French semiotic fabric, and Cookie’s Fortune (1999), an audience-pleasing comedy. In the oughts he scored with Gosford Park (2001), which explored quaint English social habits, and A Prairie Home Companion (2006), a celebration of Garrison Keillor’s singular radio show. He died in 2006.
约翰·卡索维茨以其里程碑式的《暗影》 （1959）预示了当代导演的独立，十年后凭借《面孔》 （1968）回归独立制作。随后，他拍摄了《丈夫》（1970）、《米妮和莫斯科维茨》（1971）和《受影响的女人》（1974），这是他最受欢迎的电影，然后是一些只有认真的卡萨维茨爱好者才能看到的表演艺术检验（其中包括《谋杀》）。一个中国赌徒， 1976 年，一部有点有趣的电影）。尽管风格困难，依赖即兴创作和演员之间的密切关系，卡索维茨仍然能够在不依赖制片厂资金的情况下资助并完成他的电影。作为一位颇有造诣的专业演员，同时又能够以独立导演的身份维持富有成效的平行生活，约翰·卡索维茨在美国现代电影史上占有独特的地位。他于 1989 年去世。
John Cassavetes, who had foreshadowed the independence of contemporary directors with his landmark Shadows (1959), returned to independent production ten years later with Faces (1968). He followed with Husbands (1970), Minnie and Moskowitz (1971), and A Woman under the Influence (1974), his most popular film, then several examinations of the art of acting seen only by conscientious Cassavetes devotees (among them The Killing of a Chinese Bookie, 1976, a film of some interest). Despite a difficult style, dependent on improvisation and intense relationships between actors, Cassavetes was able to finance and complete his films without recourse to studio money. As an accomplished professional actor who was able to maintain a productive parallel life as an independent director, John Cassavetes held a unique place in modern American film history. He died in 1989.
保罗·马祖斯基 (Paul Mazursky) 是 20 世纪 70 年代最重要的电影制片人之一，他在制片厂体系中或多或少地成功地生活着。马祖斯基在一系列有趣的电影中专注于人类喜剧。鲍勃 ·卡罗尔 ·特德 ·爱丽丝(1969)、《爱丽丝梦游仙境》 (1970)、《恋爱中的布鲁姆》(1973)、《哈利和托托》 (1974) 以及《下一站，格林威治村》(1976) 在描绘的同时都表现出了一种安静的幽默。当代生活方式。《未婚女人》（1978）是马祖斯基最受欢迎的电影，抓住了女权主义浪潮的顶峰。《威利和菲尔》（1980）是对他的担忧的总结，也是对其精神来源——特吕弗的经典著作《朱尔斯和吉姆》进行评论的有趣尝试。八十年代，马祖斯基继续创作《暴风雨》（1982年，对莎士比亚的大胆改编）、《哈德逊河上的莫斯科》（1984年，罗宾·威廉姆斯扮演俄罗斯移民）和《敌人，一个爱情故事》（1989年），一部对莎士比亚产生共鸣的记忆。大屠杀给纽约留下了阴影。马祖斯基是五六十年代的演员和单口喜剧演员。他的第一部电影是斯坦利·库布里克的《恐惧与欲望》 (1953)；他还在理查德·布鲁克斯 (Richard Brooks) 的开创性影片《黑板丛林》( The Blackboard Jungle , 1955) 中出演了一个角色。20 世纪 90 年代，他的表演时间多于导演，尽管他 1998 年 HBO 的传记片《温切尔》广受好评。
Paul Mazursky was one of the key filmmakers to come of age in the 1970s who managed to live more or less successfully within the studio system. Mazursky concentrated on the human comedy in a long string of interesting films. Bob Carol Ted Alice (1969), Alex in Wonderland (1970), Blume in Love (1973), Harry and Tonto (1974), and Next Stop, Greenwich Village (1976) all displayed a quiet humor at the same time as they limned contemporary lifestyles. An Unmarried Woman (1978) was Mazursky’s most popular film, catching the feminist wave at its crest. Willie and Phil (1980) was a summary of his concerns and an interesting attempt to comment on its spiritual source, Truffaut’s classic Jules and Jim. In the eighties, Mazursky continued on track with Tempest (1982, an audacious reworking of Shakespeare), Moscow on the Hudson (1984, Robin Williams as a Russian immigrant), and Enemies, a Love Story (1989), a resonant memory of the shadow the Holocaust cast on New York. Mazursky was an actor and standup comic in the fifties and sixties. His first film was Stanley Kubrick’s Fear and Desire (1953); he also had a role in Richard Brooks’s seminal The Blackboard Jungle (1955). In the 1990s, he did more acting than directing—although his 1998 HBO biopic Winchell was well-received.
迈克尔·里奇 (Michael Ritchie) 是 20 世纪 70 年代最被低估的导演之一——《下坡赛车手》(Downhill Racer ) (1969)、《候选人》( The Candidate ) (1972)、《微笑》 (Smile ) (1975)、 《坏消息》( Bad News) 《熊》（1976）和《半强悍》（1977）——将纪实技巧与虚构结构相结合，实现了不同寻常的融合。《Prime Cut》（1972）仍然是现代美国的一个诙谐的隐喻，仍然具有现实意义，应该得到更广泛的理解。他于 2001 年去世。
One of the more underrated directors of the 1970s, Michael Ritchie—in Downhill Racer (1969), The Candidate (1972), Smile (1975), Bad News Bears (1976), and Semi-Tough (1977)—combined documentary techniques with fictional structures to achieve an unusual blend. Prime Cut (1972) remains a witty metaphor for modern America that is still relevant and that should be more widely appreciated. He died in 2001.
图 4-73。马丁·斯科塞斯的《纯真年代》中的丹尼尔·戴-刘易斯和米歇尔·菲佛对伊迪丝·沃顿的小说进行了优雅的历史处理，展现了对细节的惊人关注，并证明了斯科塞斯具有广泛的风格范围。
Figure 4-73. Daniel Day-Lewis and Michelle Pfeiffer in Martin Scorsese’s The Age of Innocence, an elegant historical treatment of the Edith Wharton novel, which exhibited marvelous attention to detail and demonstrated that Scorsese had a broad stylistic range.
没有人比伍迪·艾伦更能成功地控制电影的内容和形式，他在七十年代初完成了一系列喜剧成功之后（《香蕉》， 1971 年；《沉睡者》， 1973 年；《爱与死亡》， 1975 年），发现了新的1977 年与安妮·霍尔 (Annie Hall) 引起共鸣并受到新的批评关注。随后，他发表了一篇关于知识分子焦虑的不明智的“严肃”模拟欧洲文章《室内设计》 （ Interiors ，1978）——其主要作用是让人很难再认真对待伍迪的导师英格玛·伯格曼——但在《曼哈顿》（Manhattan，1979）中又恢复了状态。）。艾伦随后在八十年代巡演，创作了一系列非常一致的作品，其中的亮点包括《星尘回忆》（1980）、《泽利格》（1983）、《百老汇丹尼·罗斯》（1984）、《开罗紫玫瑰》（1985）、《汉娜和她的姐妹》（1986） ）、 《广播日》（ Radio Days，1987）和《爱丽丝》（Alice，1990），所有这些作品都受到了艾伦典型的纽约知识分子敏感性的影响。1992 年，他遇到了困难，因为他与米娅·法罗的关系成为电视小报的素材，事实证明现实比小说离奇得多。但是——再次与黛安·基顿（她曾为安妮·霍尔带来了独特的存在）——他凭借《曼哈顿谋杀案》（1993年）回归了状态。《百老汇的子弹》（1994年）和《全能阿芙罗狄蒂》（1995年）都是轻量级喜剧，但获得了大量奥斯卡提名。艾伦的第一部音乐喜剧《人人都说我爱你》（1996 年）几乎同样受欢迎，但旧有的焦虑在《解构哈利》（1997 年）和《名人》（1998 年）中再次浮现，这两部影片的评价都褒贬不一。到目前为止，他的作品并不算引人注目。尽管如此，伍迪·艾伦已经在四十年的时间里成功地按照自己的方式制作了自己的电影：在一个不重视这种品质的行业中，他是一位非常独立的艺术家。
No one has been more successful at controlling the content and form of his films than Woody Allen, who, after completing a string of comic successes in the early seventies (Bananas, 1971; Sleeper, 1973; Love and Death, 1975), discovered new resonance and new critical attention in 1977 with Annie Hall. He followed this with an ill-advised “serious” mock-European essay in intellectual angst, Interiors (1978)—whose main effect was to make it difficult to take Woody’s mentor Ingmar Bergman seriously again—but snapped back into form with Manhattan (1979). Allen then cruised through the eighties, producing a remarkably consistent body of work whose highlights included Stardust Memories (1980), Zelig (1983), Broadway Danny Rose (1984), The Purple Rose of Cairo (1985), Hannah and Her Sisters (1986), Radio Days (1987), and Alice (1990), all of which were informed by Allen’s quintessentially New York intellectual sensibility. In 1992 he hit a rough patch when his relationship with Mia Farrow became fodder for the television tabloids, and reality proved much stranger than fiction. But—together again with Diane Keaton (who had brought a unique presence to Annie Hall)—he returned to form with Manhattan Murder Mystery (1993J. Bullets Over Broadway (1994) and Mighty Aphrodite (1995) were lightweight comedies but garnered an impressive number of Oscar nominations between them. Allen’s first musical comedy Everyone Says I Love You (1996) was nearly as popular, but the old angst surfaced again in Deconstructing Harry (1997) and Celebrity (1998), which both met with decidedly mixed reviews. His work in the oughts, so far, is unremarkable. Nevertheless, Woody Allen has managed over four decades to make his kind of movies his way: a remarkably independent artist in an industry that does not prize that quality.
图 4-74。在《佩吉·苏结婚了》和《塔克》中，弗朗西斯·福特·科波拉分别巧妙地捕捉了六十年代和四十年代的面貌和感觉，同时他精心编造了雄辩的寓言来捕捉那些至今仍留在我们身边的时期的浪漫和冒险神话。 。在这里，佩吉·苏（凯瑟琳·特纳饰）被任命为她第二十五次高中同学聚会的女王……
Figure 4-74. In Peggy Sue Got Married and Tucker, Francis Ford Coppola masterfully captured the look and feel of the sixties and the forties, respectively, at the same time that he crafted eloquent fables to capture the romantic and adventurous myths of those periods that remain with us today. Here, Peggy Sue (Kathleen Turner) is named Queen of her twenty-fifth high school reunion…
虽然艾伦、奥特曼、博格丹诺维奇、卡索维茨、科波拉、卢卡斯、马祖斯基、尼科尔斯、斯科塞斯、斯皮尔伯格和里奇——七十年代美国电影的万神殿——似乎超越了美国导演的一般水平，但这一时期还有其他一些人他们的工作也持续了。Alan J. Pakula、Sydney Pollack、John Korty、Philip Kaufman、Hal Ashby 和 Mel Brooks 都属于这一类。
While Allen, Altman, Bogdanovich, Cassavetes, Coppola, Lucas, Mazursky, Nichols, Scorsese, Spielberg, and Ritchie—the pantheon of American film in the seventies—seemed to rise above the general run of American directors, there are others from this period whose work also has lasted. Alan J. Pakula, Sydney Pollack, John Korty, Philip Kaufman, Hal Ashby, and Mel Brooks all fall into this category.
这部纪录片在七十年代也表现出色。除了上面已经提到的电影制片人之外，还必须提及哈斯克尔·韦克斯勒、索尔·兰道、彼得·戴维斯和埃米尔·德·安东尼奥。韦克斯勒是一位出色的电影摄影师，执导了 20 世纪 60 年代最重要的电影之一《Medium Cool》 （1969）巧妙地将 1968 年芝加哥民主党代表大会的令人心碎的事件与一篇关于媒体与政治之间关系的精辟文章结合起来。
The documentary fared well in the seventies, too. Besides the filmmakers already mentioned above, Haskell Wexler, Saul Landau, Peter Davis, and Emile De Antonio must be cited. Wexler, an accomplished cinematogra-pher, directed one of the most significant films of the 1960s, Medium Cool (1969), which skillfully combined the heartbreak of the 1968 Democratic convention in Chicago with an incisive essay on the relationship between the media and politics.
图 4-75。……而普雷斯顿·塔克（杰夫·布里吉斯饰）则看着第一辆塔克汽车从芝加哥装配线上下线。（比较图 4-45。）
Figure 4-75. … while Preston Tucker (Jeff Bridges) watches as the first Tucker automobiles roll off the Chicago assembly line. (Compare Figure 4-45.)
兰道负责制作了许多著名的非虚构电影（《阿连德总统访谈》、《巴西酷刑报告》，均 1971 年），经常与韦克斯勒合作。德安东尼奥专门从事汇编电影，用其他人拍摄的材料构建政治尖锐的文章：《秩序问题》（1963年），关于陆军-麦卡锡听证会，《米尔豪斯》（1971年），关于理查德·尼克松，以及《画家绘画》（1972年），他唯一的一部非政治电影。1976 年，德安东尼奥和韦克斯勒联合拍摄了《地下》，一部关于美国反战天气组织政治逃亡者的电影。
Landau was responsible for a number of salient nonfiction films (Interview with President Allende, Report on Torture in Brazil, both 1971), often working with Wexler. De Antonio specialized in the compilation film, building politically pointed essays out of material shot by other people: Point of Order (1963), on the Army-McCarthy hearings, Millhouse (1971), about Richard Nixon, and Painters Painting (1972), his only non-political film. De Antonio and Wexler combined to film Underground in 1976, a film about U.S. political fugitives of the anti-war Weather organization.
彼得·戴维斯 (Peter Davis) 的纪录片《心灵与思想》 (1975) 是 1960 年以来最引人注目的美国非虚构电影之一。它对观众产生情感和智力上的影响。
Peter Davis’s documentary essay about the painful relationship between the U.S. and Vietnam, Hearts and Minds (1975), remains one of the most remarkable American nonfiction films since 1960. It not only presented much important information visually, but also because it was passionate about its subject it had an emotional as well as intellectual effect on its audiences.
纪录片形式也被证明是七十年代许多女性导演的舒适土壤：乔伊斯·乔普拉、玛莎·柯立芝、朱莉娅·赖克特、阿玛莉·罗斯柴尔德、克劳迪娅·威尔、内尔·考克斯、辛达·费尔斯通、芭芭拉·科普尔等。这些导演大多发现自传体格式有助于调查女权主义问题。1978 年，克劳迪娅·威尔 (Claudia Weill) 凭借《女朋友》(Girl Friends)推出了一部令人印象深刻的长片处女作，这是一部独立制作的影片，展现了七十年代末独立非虚构电影的直接敏感度和朴素风格。八十年代，她作为具有里程碑意义的电视连续剧《三十多岁》的导演，赢得了广泛的观众。乔普拉、柯立芝和赖克特遵循了类似的道路，将偶尔出现的特色与或多或少稳定的电视工作结合起来。
The documentary format also proved to be a comfortable ground for a number of women directors in the seventies: Joyce Chopra, Martha Coolidge, Julia Reichert, Amalie Rothschild, Claudia Weill, Nell Cox, Cinda Firestone, Barbara Kopple, and others. Most of these directors found the autobiographical format useful to investigate feminist issues. In 1978 Claudia Weill made an impressive feature debut with Girl Friends, an independent production that displayed the sort of direct sensitivity and unvarnished style that marked the independent nonfiction film in the late seventies. In the eighties she reached a wide audience as a director of the landmark television series thirty something. Chopra, Coolidge, and Reichert followed similar paths, combining the occasional feature with more or less steady work in television.
芭芭拉·科普尔 (Barbara Kopple) 拍摄的 1976 年美国哈兰县为我们描绘了一幅生动而动人的肖像，描绘了在三十年代伟大的劳工斗争四十年后，仍在采矿中心为更好的工作条件而奋斗的男女，他们的县因此赢得了“血腥哈兰”的绰号。 ” 科普尔并没有利用真实的人来表达政治观点，她让他们自由地发现自己对真相的看法，在这个过程中，普通人（尽管具有非凡的耐力、奉献精神和幽默感）成为了电影明星短暂的一段时间。这部电影赢得了科普尔两项奥斯卡奖中的第一个，成为七十年代末和八十年代戏剧性纪录片风格的典范。最近，科普尔因《汉普顿》（2002）和《闭嘴唱歌》（2006）而受到特别关注。
Barbara Kopple’s 1976 Harlan County, U.S.A. gave us a vivid and moving portrait of the women and men who were still struggling for better working conditions in that mining center forty years after the great labor battles of the thirties earned their county the nickname “Bloody Harlan.” Kopple didn’t use the real people to make political points, she gave them the freedom to discover their own view of the truth to us and, in the process, ordinary people (albeit with extraordinary stamina, dedication, and humor) became movie stars for a brief time. The film—which won the first of Kopple’s two Academy Awards—served as a model for the dramatic documentary style of the late seventies and eighties. More recently Kopple gained special attention for The Hamptons (2002) and Shut Up and Sing (2006).
后现代续集：
民主、技术、电影的终结
The Postmodern Sequel:
Democracy, Technology, End of Cinema
过去三十年最令人好奇的是，没有出现任何新一代的年轻土耳其人来挑战 20 世纪 70 年代的电影。尽管这段时间商业（和世界）发生了巨大的变化，但电影的情况却大同小异：当时是《星球大战》；后来是《星球大战》；后来是《星球大战》 。现在是星球大战；稍后还会有更多星球大战。从某种意义上说，自 1981 年本书第二版出版以来，几乎没有什么新内容可供报道。
What is most curious about the period of the last thirty years is that no new generation of young turks has arisen to challenge the cinema of the 1970s. Despite the vast changes in the business (and the world) during this time, with movies it’s been more of the same: Star Wars then; Star Wars now; more Star Wars later. In one sense, there has been little new to report since the second edition of this book appeared in 1981.
续集狂仍然是一个口号，至少在美国电影业是如此，每个制片人的梦想都是一部“特许经营”电影，其情节、故事情节和人物都适合拍成连续剧。任何制片人都不太可能打破艾伯特·“小熊”·布洛科利的记录：詹姆斯·邦德从 1962 年的《诺博士》开始，至今已持续四十多年，并有六次邦德化身。（只有夏洛克·福尔摩斯的演员人数更多。）但《48 小时》、《比佛利山刑警》、《致命武器》和《虎胆龙威》等动作系列片，以及《星际迷航》和《异形》等科幻系列片，都旨在与邦德展开竞争。*
Sequelmania remains the watchword, at least of the American film industry, and every producer’s dream is a “franchise” film, one whose situation, storyline, and characters lend themselves to a series. It is unlikely that any producer will beat Albert “Cubby” Broccoli’s record: James Bond began in 1962 with Dr. No, and has continued for more than forty years and six Bond incarnations. (Only Sherlock Holmes has been played by more actors.) But action series like 48 Hours, Beverly Hills Cop, Lethal Weapon, and Die Hard, and Science Fiction franchises like Star Trek and Aliens aimed to give Bond a run for his money.*
图 4-76。科波拉在由蒂姆·罗斯和亚历山德拉·玛丽亚·拉拉主演的神秘而哀伤的《青春无青春》片场。（照片由 Cos Aelenei 拍摄。© 2006 American Zoetrope Inc.）
Figure 4-76. Coppola on the set of the mysterious and elegiac Youth Without Youth and stars Tim Roth and Alexandra Maria Lara. (Photos by Cos Aelenei. © 2006 American Zoetrope Inc.)
当好莱坞不制作续集时，它会翻拍电视节目（《逃亡者》、《比佛利山庄》， 1993 年； 《摩登原始人》， 1994 年；《布雷迪家族电影》， 1995 年；《碟中谍》、比尔科中士， 1996 年； 《迷失》 《太空》， 1998 年；《我最喜欢的火星救援》、《狂野西部》、《摩登小队》， 1999 年；《迈阿密风云》， 2006 年；《聪明人》， 2008 年），有时令人惊讶的是欧洲电影（《三个男人和一个婴儿》， 1987 年；《索莫斯比》， 1992 年；《香气》 ）一个女人， 1992 年；柳条公园， 2004 年）。好莱坞对欧洲热门影片表现出的不同寻常的兴趣，是世界电影文化正在迅速融合的最佳证据。没有什么比无穷无尽的电影电视节目浪潮更能证明我们的流行文化的贫乏了（除非是一系列改编成百老汇音乐剧的电影）。
When Hollywood isn’t making sequels, it’s doing remakes, often of television shows (The Fugitive, The Beverly Hillbillies, 1993; The Flintstones, 1994; The Brady Bunch Movie, 1995; Mission: Impossible, Sgt. Bilko, 1996; Lost in Space, 1998; My Favorite Martian, Wild Wild West, The Mod Squad, 1999; Miami Vice, 2006; Get Smart, 2008), sometimes—surprisingly—of European films (Three Men and a Baby, 1987; Sommersby, 1992; Scent of a Woman, 1992; Wicker Park, 2004). There is no better evidence that world film cultures are rapidly merging than this unusual interest Hollywood has shown in European hits. There is no more striking evidence of the impoverishment of our popular culture than the endless wave of TV-shows-made-for-movies (unless it’s the string of movies converted to Broadway Musicals).
欧洲导演现在似乎可以毫不费力地从自己的文化转移到好莱坞，有时又会回来。保罗·范霍文 (Paul Verhoeven) 在荷兰的家中拍摄了历史剧和生活片段。在好莱坞，他成为时尚动作科幻小说的支持者（《机械战警》， 1987 年；《全面回忆》， 1990 年），然后尝试大胆的性爱（《基本本能》， 1992 年；《歌舞女郎》， 1995 年）。在法国，巴贝特·施罗德是《电影手册》的评论家，也是埃里克·侯麦的搭档。在美国，他凭借复杂的剧情片《财富逆转》（1990）赢得了好莱坞的认可。英国导演（艾伦·帕克、史蒂芬·弗雷尔斯、迈克尔·艾普特、雷德利·斯科特和托尼·斯科特）越来越多地在好莱坞找到工作，并在八十年代和九十年代加入了一些通勤的澳大利亚人的行列。按理说，好莱坞对外人完全开放，通常很难辨别一个项目的出处。
European directors now seem to move effortlessly from their own cultures to Hollywood and occasionally back again. Paul Verhoeven did historical dramas and slice-of-life vignettes at home in the Netherlands; in Hollywood, he became a proponent of stylish action-oriented Science Fiction (Robocop, 1987; Total Recall, 1990), then tried his hand at bold sex (Basic Instinct, 1992; Showgirls, 1995). In France, Barbet Schroeder was a critic for Cahiers du Cinema and Eric Rohmer’s partner; in the U.S., he earned his Hollywood stripes with the complex drama Reversal of Fortune (1990). British directors (Alan Parker, Stephen Frears, Michael Apted, Ridley Scott, and Tony Scott) increasingly found work in Hollywood and were joined in the eighties and nineties by a number of commuting Australians. By the oughts Hollywood was totally open to outsiders and it was often hard to tell the provenance of a project.
这些国际摄制组制作的电影越来越分成两条独立的产品线：尽管好莱坞必须关注婴儿潮一代的膨胀，即四五十岁的大部分人正在步入老年，但它仍然将最大的努力集中在十三岁——到二十四岁的市场。八十年代初的两部影片巧妙地预示了这些市场：斯皮尔伯格的《外星人》（1982）是以儿童为主角的动作冒险奇幻大片的原型，劳伦斯·卡斯丹的《大寒》（1983）是当代中年人的典范，中产阶级人物戏剧，在音像店的货架上摆满了货。
The movies that these international crews produced increasingly split into two separate product lines: although Hollywood must pay attention to the Boomer bulge, the large generation in its forties and fifties now moving into old age, it continues to focus its greatest effort on the thirteen- to twenty-four-year-old market. Two films of the early eighties neatly foreshadowed these markets: Spielberg’s E.T. (1982), the prototype of the Action-Adventure blockbuster fantasy whose leading characters are children, and Lawrence Kasdan’s The Big Chill (1983), the model for the contemporary middle-aged, middle-class character dramas that stock the shelves of the video stores.
到目前为止，20 世纪 80 年代和 90 年代的主导类型是动作/冒险电影，由于它很少依赖角色和角色发展，因此非常适合拍摄续集，并且将好莱坞现在快速发展的复杂性发挥到了极限。 -数字化特效产业。当代动作片以科幻和奇幻的薄薄外表为特征，这给特效专家提供了从事其行业的借口，它们通过利用对内心兴奋和暴力快感的深刻需求而取得成功。被不间断电视养大的一代电视迷发现，宽屏、环绕立体声、宽带动作（还有体育场座位！）是远离小屏幕几个小时而转向稍大屏幕的最佳理由本地多路复用器中的一个。典型的动作片中充满的活动是电视灌输的消极不适的自相矛盾的解药。当然，它只是一种虚拟的替代现实，就像狂热的视频游戏一样，它是当今青少年和青春期前的娱乐收入的主要竞争者。
By far the leading genre of the 1980s and 1990s was the Action/Adventure film, which, because it relied so little on character and character development, lent itself so well to sequels, and which exploited to the limit the rapidly developing sophistication of Hollywood’s now-digitized special effects industry. Characterized by a thin veneer of science fiction and fantasy, which gives the effects specialists the excuse to ply their trade, contemporary Action movies succeed by exploiting a deeply felt need for visceral excitement and the thrill of violence. A generation of couch potatoes raised by nonstop television has discovered that widescreen, Surround-Sound, wide-bandwidth action (and stadium seating, too!) are the best reasons to disconnect from the small screen for a few hours in favor of the moderately larger one in the local multiplex. The jam-packed activity of the typical Action movie serves as a paradoxical antidote to the passive malaise that television inculcates. Of course, it is only a virtual alternative reality, like the feverish video games that are its main competition for the entertainment dollars of today’s teens and preteens.
作为 20 世纪 80 年代和 90 年代最成功的动作明星，阿诺德·施瓦辛格确立了自己作为这一时期电影人物典范的地位，超越了 1970 年代更加多样化和立体的演员，如罗伯特·雷德福、杰克·尼科尔森和罗伯特·德尼罗。
As the most successful Action star of the 1980s and 1990s Arnold Schwarzenegger established himself as the model movie persona of the period, eclipsing the more varied and dimensional actors of the 1970s such as Robert Redford, Jack Nicholson, and Robert De Niro.
施瓦辛格的起步很慢，出现在 1976 年关于举重运动员的纪录片《Pumping Iron》中，后来又主演了奇幻武侠片《野蛮人柯南》( Conan the Barbarian ) (1982) 和《毁灭者柯南》(Conan the Destroyer ) (1984)，最后凭借《终结者》( The Terminator ) (1984) 真正声名鹊起，该片也奠定了施瓦辛格的职业生涯导演詹姆斯·卡梅隆。正是在这里，他笨拙的奥地利口音得到了很好的运用，说出了简单但令人难忘的台词，比如“我会回来的。” 大量的特效工作、多余的对话和可能的神话情节相结合，为这一类型奠定了基调。续集《T2》（1992 年，也是卡梅隆）加大了赌注，成为第一部广泛使用计算机变形效果的电影。
Schwarzenegger began slowly, appearing in the 1976 documentary on weightlifters, Pumping Iron, later starring in the fantasy swashbucklers Conan the Barbarian (1982) and Conan the Destroyer (1984) before reaching real prominence with The Terminator (1984), which also established the career of director James Cameron. It was here that his unwieldy Austrian accent was put to good use with simple yet memorable lines like, “I’ll be back.” The extensive special-effects work, the spare dialogue, and the would-be mythical plot combined to set the tone for the genre. The sequel, T2 (1992, also Cameron), upped the ante as the first feature to make extensive use of computerized morphing effects.
作为一名前健美运动员（一项更关心运动形象而不是其活动的运动），施瓦辛格被证明是屏幕上虚拟动作世界中我们的合适替代者，尽管有些讽刺。1986 年，他与约翰·F·肯尼迪的侄女玛丽亚·施赖弗 (Maria Shriver) 结婚，成为美国贵族。他在银幕上杀害了 300 多人，他的电影在全球的票房收入远超 10 亿美元，之后他于 2003 年转向政治，扮演“州长”的角色。
As a former bodybuilder—a sport more concerned with the image of athleticism than its activity—Schwarzenegger proved to be a fitting, if ironic, surrogate for us in the virtual world of action on the screen. He was admitted to the country’s nobility by virtue of his 1986 marriage to Maria Shriver, niece of John F. Kennedy. He killed more than 300 people on screen as his films grossed well over $1 billion worldwide before he turned to politics in 2003 essaying the role of the “Governator.”
为了在好莱坞万神殿中获得如此崇高的地位，施瓦辛格必须击败一个强大的竞争对手——西尔维斯特·史泰龙，一位负责重塑动作片类型的演员兼作家。*作为一名演员，史泰龙一事无成，直到他为《洛奇》（1976）编写了自己的剧本，这部影片在评论界和商业上都取得了成功，其五部续集让他继续努力。同样成功的《第一滴血》系列（从 1982 年的《第一滴血》）的动作内容从相当现实的拳击到广泛的复仇幻想。史泰龙避开了科幻元素及其特效，转而采用纯粹的美国硬汉风格，为施瓦辛格和詹姆斯·卡梅隆的下一步发展敞开了大门。然而，1993 年，施瓦辛格因《最后的动作英雄》的《悬崖悬念》和科幻喜剧《爆破人》重回票房巅峰两颗恒星之间的力量平衡得到了恢复。在接下来的几年里，施瓦辛格再次开始抽离（《真实的谎言》，1994；《橡皮擦》，1996）随着史泰龙的衰落（《特警判官》， 1995；《日光》， 1996）。20世纪末，两人都认为适合短文角色，施瓦辛格在《蝙蝠侠罗宾》 （1997年）中饰演反派，史泰龙在动画《蚁兹》 （1998年）中担任配音。
To reach this elevated position in the Hollywood pantheon, Schwarzenegger had to best a formidable competitor—Sylvester Stallone, the actor-writer who was responsible for reinventing the Action genre.* As an actor, Stallone was getting nowhere until he wrote his own script for Rocky (1976), a critical and commercial success whose five sequels kept him working into the oughts. The equally successful Rambo series (beginning with 1982’s First Blood) took the action from fairly realistic boxing to extensive revenge fantasy. Eschewing the Science Fiction element and its special effects in favor of pure American tough guy, Stallone left the door open for Schwarzenegger and James Cameron to take the development to the next step. In 1993, however, Schwarzenegger fell to earth as Last Action Hero flopped, while Stallone returned to box-office form with Cliffhanger and the sci-fi comedy Demolition Man. The balance of power between the two stars was restored. Over the next few years Schwarzenegger began to pull away again (True Lies, 1994; Eraser, 1996) as Stallone faded (Judge Dredd, 1995; Daylight, 1996). At the end of the decade both saw fit to essay character roles, Schwarzenegger as the villain of Batman Robin (1997), Stallone as a voice in the animated Antz (1998).
图 4-77。1993年，史蒂文·斯皮尔伯格取得了惊人的成功，推出了一部严重依赖先进特效的怪兽大片（《侏罗纪公园》），以及一部主要依赖智能对话的冗长的奥斯卡奖获奖挽歌，该挽歌涉及一个困难的主题。在这里，经典怪物的威胁，在一部令人惊讶的脱节电影中，似乎着眼于续集——或者也许是它自己的主题公园……
Figure 4-77. In 1993, Steven Spielberg accomplished a remarkable coup, releasing both a monster blockbuster (Jurassic Park) heavily dependent on advanced special effects and a lengthy Academy Award-winning elegy dealing with a difficult subject and dependent mainly on intelligent dialogue. Here, the classical monster threatens, in a surprisingly disjointed film that seemed to have its eye on the sequel—or perhaps its own theme park…
施瓦辛格和史泰龙在这一时期确实有挑战者。凭借《顽固派》和《世界末日》（1998 年）的三部影片，布鲁斯·威利斯看起来是一个有力的竞争者，梅尔·吉布森和丹尼·格洛弗的团队（1987 年至 1998 年期间的四部《致命武器》）也是如此。但这三位演员都没有足够认真地对待这一类型。
Schwarzenegger and Stallone did have challengers during this period. On the strength of three Die Hards and Armageddon (1998) Bruce Willis looked like a contender, and so did the team of Mel Gibson and Danny Glover (four Lethal Weapons between 1987 and 1998). But all three of these actors didn’t take the genre seriously enough.
最终，所有这些人都被一位年轻得多的明星威尔·史密斯（Will Smith）所掩盖。在他出色的职业生涯中，史密斯将青少年说唱歌手的明星身份转变为一部成功的电视连续剧（《新鲜王子妙事多》， 1990-96），同时在停播期间尝试出演严肃的电影角色（《六度分离》） ， 1993）。该剧结束后，他在《独立日》 （1996 年）中开始了动作冒险片的创作，然后继续《黑衣人》 (1997)、《国家公敌》 (1998) 和《狂野西部》 (1999)贯穿了 20 世纪 90 年代末的夏季电影节奏。凭借传记片《阿里》 (2001)，史密斯开始扮演更多不同的角色，并在《当幸福来敲门》 (2006) 和《我是传奇》(2007) 中取得了巨大成功。
All of them were eventually eclipsed by a much younger star: Will Smith. In a tour-de-force career, Smith turned stardom as a teenage rap singer into a successful television series (The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, 1990-96) while trying his hand at serious film roles during hiatus (Six Degrees of Separation, 1993). When the series was over he hit the Action-Adventure ground running in Independence Day (1996), then kept up the summer movie tempo throughout the late 1990s with Men in Black (1997), Enemy of the State (1998), and Wild Wild West (1999). With the biopic Ali (2001) Smith started to take on more varied roles scoring critical success with The Pursuit of Happyness (2006) and I Am Legend (2007).
图 4-78。……而连姆·尼森饰演的辛德勒——一个贪婪的人，却有着一颗温暖的心，因此是一个不可抗拒的角色——告别了“辛德勒犹太人”。让斯皮尔伯格在第三帝国中寻找积极的角色吧。
Figure 4-78. … while Liam Neeson as Schindler—a greedy man with a warm heart, and therefore an irresistible character—says goodbye to the “Schindlerjuden.” Leave it to Spielberg to find a positive character in the midst of the Third Reich.
如果动作电影通常看起来像梦幻般的主题公园游乐设施，那么这并非巧合。我们中的一些人看电影的原因与乘坐游乐设施的原因大致相同，而且主题公园越来越多地归电影公司所有，电影为公园做广告。这一趋势在另一场对当代特效技术的庆祝中达到顶峰，史蒂文·斯皮尔伯格的《侏罗纪公园》（1993），这部电影的主题是未来主题公园，当然，它引发了一系列主题公园游乐设施和全景——如以及现在不可避免的盈利续集。
If Action movies often seem like fantastic theme-park rides, it is no coincidence. Some of us attend the movies for much the same reasons we take the rides and, increasingly, the theme parks are owned by movie companies, and the films advertise the parks. The trend culminated in yet another celebration of contemporary special-effects technology, Steven Spielberg’s Jurassic Park (1993), a film whose subject is a futuristic theme park and which, of course, sparked its own spate of theme-park rides and panoramas—as well as the now inevitable profitable sequel.
美国漫画书的准神话继续引起好莱坞电影制片人的兴趣，蒂姆·伯顿的《蝙蝠侠》（1989 年）及其续集以及沃伦·比蒂的《迪克·特雷西》 （1990 年）也加入了《超人》及其续集的行列。后者由斯蒂芬·桑德海姆 (Stephen Sondheim) 配乐，被证明是对三十年代神话的深思熟虑的探索。前者凝固了一位当时年轻的导演的声誉，他以迪士尼动画师的身份进入电影行业。
The quasi-myths of American comic books continued to interest Hollywood filmmakers, as Superman and his sequels were joined by Tim Burton’s Batman (1989) and its sequels and Warren Beatty’s Dick Tracy (1990). The latter, with music by Stephen Sondheim, proved to be a thoughtful exploration of the myths of the thirties. The former solidified the reputation of a then young director who had started in the film business as a Disney animator.
伯顿凭借《皮威大冒险》（ Pee-Wee's Big Adventure，1985）和《甲壳虫汁》（ Beetlejuice，1988）首次获得关注，这两部影片都是为了让真人动作符合卡通片的简单性和限制而进行的夸张的练习。随着这十年的流逝，真人秀和动画在象征上和技术上都融合了。既然我们有一位真正的好莱坞演员来扮演美国总统的角色，那么图像与现实之间的混乱迅速增加也许也就不足为奇了。20 世纪 80 年代让我们为 90 年代开始的变形数字时代做好了准备，从那时起，任何图像——无论表面上多么真实——都是可信的。
Burton had first gained attention with Pee-Wee’s Big Adventure (1985) and Beetlejuice (1988), two campy exercises in making live action conform to the simplicity and constraints of cartoons. As the decade wore on, live action and animation converged, symbolically as well as technically. Now that we had a real live Hollywood actor playing the role of President of the United States, perhaps it was no surprise that the confusion between image and reality increased rapidly. The 1980s prepared us for the digital age of morphs that dawned in the 1990s, since when no image—no matter how apparently authentic—is to be trusted.
随着 CGI 的迅速发展，DC 漫画的英雄被更令人震惊的漫威英雄所取代：X 战警领衔（2000 年，布莱恩·辛格），紧随其后的是蜘蛛侠（2002 年，山姆·雷米）、绿巨人（2003 年，李安）和神奇四侠（2005 年，蒂姆·斯托里）——以及许多续集。在斯坦·李的乌合之众的攻击之后，曾经占据统治地位的 DC 救星们试图在十年中期卷土重来—— 《蝙蝠侠：侠影之谜》（2005 年，克里斯托弗·诺兰）；《超人归来》（2006 年，布莱恩·辛格）——但显然现在的粉丝观众都生活在“漫威宇宙”中。基于漫画的电影现在非常普遍（而且利润丰厚），以至于形成了自己的类型。请记住，这些字符是五十多年前发明的。值得注意的是，他们在两代人的时间里都找到了这样的共鸣。当罗伯特·本顿和大卫·纽曼第一次产生围绕“流行文化”英雄制作一部百老汇音乐剧的激进想法时（《这是一只鸟……这是一架飞机……这是超人》， 1966 年），它失败了。但值得赞扬的是，他们是第一个看到漫画世界潜力的人。
As CGI developed rapidly in the oughts the DC Comics heroes were superseded by the more outrageous Marvel heroes: the X-Men led the way (2000, Bryan Singer) followed quickly by Spider-Man (2002, Sam Raimi), Hulk (2003, Ang Lee) and The Fantastic Four (2005, Tim Story)—and many sequels. After this onslaught by Stan Lee’s motley crew the once-dominant DC saviors attempted a mid-decade comeback—Batman Begins (2005, Christopher Nolan); Superman Returns (2006, Bryan Singer)—but clearly now fanboy audiences dwell in the “Marvel Universe.” Comics-based movies are now so common (and lucrative) as to form their own genre. Remember that these characters were invented more than fifty years ago. It’s remarkable that they found such resonance two generations on. When Robert Benton and David Newman first had the radical idea to build a Broadway musical around a “pop-culture” hero (It’s a Bird… It’s a Plane… It’s Superman, 1966) it flopped. But give them credit for being first to see the potential of the comics world.
这种日益增长的联系以罗伯特·泽米吉斯富有创意且诙谐的《谁陷害了兔子罗杰》 （1988）为标志，该片的主题是真实表演和卡通现实两个世界之间的冲突。泽米基斯的其他电影包括《回到未来》三部曲（1985、1989、1990）和迈克尔·道格拉斯的电影《浪漫石头》（1984），所有这些都展现了令人耳目一新的后现代主义情感。《阿甘正传》（1994 年）和《荒岛余生》（2000 年）是两部独特的人物研究作品，引起了大众的想象力。随后，泽米基斯对动作捕捉动画着迷：极地快车(2004)、贝奥武夫(2007)。
This growing connection was marked by Robert Zemeckis’s inventive and witty Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988), whose subject was the clash between the two worlds, real acting and cartoon reality. Zemeckis’s other films include the Back to the Future trilogy (1985, 1989, 1990) and the Michael Douglas vehicle Romancing the Stone (1984), all of which display a refreshing postmodernist sensibility. Forrest Gump (1994) and Cast Away (2000) were two unique character studies that caught the popular imagination. Zemeckis then became fascinated with motion-capture animation: The Polar Express (2004), Beowulf (2007).
虽然史蒂文·斯皮尔伯格和乔治·卢卡斯因创立当代电影神话而获得当之无愧的赞誉，但泽米基斯和伊万·雷特曼等导演也发挥了作用。雷特曼的《捉鬼敢死队》（1984）以一种独特而令人耳目一新的方式将幽默运用到恐怖之中。
While Steven Spielberg and George Lucas get credit deservedly for founding the contemporary mythology of the movies, directors like Zemeckis and Ivan Reitman have also played a part. Reitman’s Ghost-busters (1984) applied humor to horror in a unique and refreshing way.
图 4-79。《玩家》是罗伯特·奥特曼期待已久的回归之作，它对当今的好莱坞进行了富有感染力的讽刺，充满了内部笑话，但同时又不依赖它们。工作室执行官蒂姆·罗宾斯（Tim Robbins）明白了这一点。（© 1992 Fine Line Features。保留所有权利。摄影：Joyce Rudolph。由 New Line Productions, Inc 提供。）
Figure 4-79. The Player, Robert Altman’s long-awaited return to form, proved an infectious satire on today’s Hollywood, rich with inside jokes but at the same time not dependent on them. Here studio exec Tim Robbins gets the message. (© 1992 Fine Line Features. All rights reserved. Photo by Joyce Rudolph. Courtesy New Line Productions, Inc.)
他与施瓦辛格合作的电影（《双胞胎》， 1988 年；《幼儿园刑警》， 1990 年）加深了这位明星形象的深度，而他的政治寓言戴夫（1993 年）则刺痛了 20 世纪 90 年代脆弱的政治意识。《我的超级前女友》（2006）机智地探索了超级英雄类型的惯例。
His films with Schwarzenegger (Twins, 1988; Kindergarten Cop, 1990) contributed to the depth of that star’s persona, and his political fable Dave (1993) skewered the fragile political consciousness of the 1990s. My Super Ex-Girlfriend (2006) wittily explored the conventions of the super-hero genre.
哈罗德·雷米斯 (Harold Ramis) 曾主演并联合编剧《捉鬼敢死队》，后来又编剧并导演了 20 世纪 90 年代的标志性影片《土拨鼠之日》 (1993) 和《分析这个》 (1999)。
Harold Ramis, who starred in and cowrote Ghostbusters, later went on to write and direct the 1990s landmarks Groundhog Day (1993) and Analyze This (1999).
雷特曼和雷米斯凭借《国家讽刺》的《动物之家》 （1978 年，约翰·兰迪斯执导）首次崭露头角，这部电影不仅预示了婴儿潮一代对青春的迷恋，而且成为当代喜剧的典范，这取决于它对约翰·贝鲁西的角色。雷特曼还与丹·艾克罗伊德和比尔·默里合作，他们和贝鲁什一样，都是电视节目《周六夜现场》的演员。
Reitman and Ramis first made their mark with National Lampoon’s Animal House (1978, directed by John Landis), a film which not only presaged the Boomers’ fascination with their youth but also served as a model for contemporary comedy, depending as it did on the character of John Belushi. Reitman also worked with Dan Aykroyd and Bill Murray, who, like Belushi, came out of the television program Saturday Night Live.
事实上，自 1980 年以来，大多数喜剧明星都是在这部影响深远的剧中开始了自己的职业生涯，从艾迪·墨菲 (Eddie Murphy) 和比利·克里斯托 (Billy Crystal) 到达纳·卡维 (Dana Carvey)、迈克·梅尔斯 (Mike Myers)、*威尔·法瑞尔、亚当·桑德勒和克里斯·洛克。
Indeed, most of the comic stars since 1980 began their careers on that seminal show, from Eddie Murphy and Billy Crystal to Dana Carvey, Mike Myers,* Will Ferrell, Adam Sandler, and Chris Rock.
该剧在美国青年文化中产生了惊人的影响力，以至于在播出后的二十多年里，《周六夜现场》的短剧成为长片故事片的素材（《蓝调兄弟》， 1980 年；《韦恩世界》， 1992年； 《路头乐队》 ，1992 年）。 1993）。
The show has been so surprisingly influential in American youth culture that for more than twenty years after it began, Saturday Night Live skits served as source material for full-length feature films (The Blues Brothers, 1980; Wayne’s World, 1992; The Coneheads, 1993).
在整个 20 世纪 80 年代和 90 年代，年轻的电影观众纷纷涌向多厅影院观看虚拟动作片、后现代喜剧和零星的神话，而影院中偶尔会有一个较小的影院被移交给那些仍然离开家的长辈。20 世纪 60 年代的革命性兴奋可能已成为人们的记忆（在某种程度上，1990 年的热门艺术电影《天堂电影院》在一定程度上得到了庆祝），但总体质量水平仍然很高。我们已经注意到七十年代一代人的持续创作——科波拉、斯科塞斯、奥特曼、马祖斯基。八十年代没有一位电影制片人——也许除了斯派克·李——受到过类似的媒体关注。这并不奇怪；时代不同了。自八十年代以来，每一位无色的技术人员都会在头衔上方加上自己的名字，但导演的真正时代已经过去了。
While younger filmgoers were flocking to multiplexes throughout the 1980s and 1990s for their regular doses of virtual action, postmodern comedy, and sporadic myth, an occasional smaller theater in the ’plex was turned over to those of their elders who still left the house. The revolutionary excitement of the 1960s may have been a memory (celebrated to some degree in the latter-day art-house hit Cinema Paradiso, 1990), but the general level of quality remained high. We have already noted the continuing work of the generation of the seventies—Coppola, Scorsese, Alt-man, Mazursky. No filmmaker of the eighties—except perhaps Spike Lee—has received comparable media attention. This is not surprising; times were different. Since the eighties every colorless technician gets his name above the title, but the true age of the auteur has passed.
尽管他们的艺术形象可能较低，但八十年代一代仍然建立了自己的声誉。我们已经注意到雷特曼和泽米吉斯对卢卡斯和斯皮尔伯格构建的青年神话的贡献。詹姆斯·卡梅隆和约翰·麦克蒂尔南（《铁血战士》， 1987 年；《虎胆龙威》， 1988 年；《托马斯皇冠事件》翻拍版，1999 年）等动作导演也因其富有想象力的特效处理而出名。
Although their artistic profiles may be lower, the eighties generation nevertheless established a reputation of its own. We’ve already noted the contributions of Reitman and Zemeckis to the youth mythology that Lucas and Spielberg constructed. Action directors like James Cameron and John McTiernan (Predator, 1987; Die Hard, 1988; The Thomas Crown Affair remake, 1999) also made their mark, thanks to their imaginative handling of special effects.
吉姆·汉森在塑造当代神话方面与乔治·卢卡斯和史蒂文·斯皮尔伯格一样具有影响力，尽管他的大部分作品都是在电视上完成的。当他转向电影《布偶大电影》（1979）、《布偶大冒险》（1981）和《布偶占领曼哈顿》（1984）时，他在 1990 年英年早逝之前，将他的木偶角色保留在更充实的载体中，供后代使用。
Jim Henson was just as influential in molding contemporary myths as George Lucas and Steven Spielberg, although most of his work was done in television. When he turned to film with The Muppet Movie (1979), The Great Muppet Caper (1981), and The Muppets Take Manhattan (1984), he preserved his puppet characters in more substantial vehicles for future generations before his untimely death in 1990.
图 4-80。伍迪·艾伦对家乡曼哈顿的黑白浪漫幻想（1979）强调了纽约的神话元素：桥梁、河流和拖曳区……。
Figure 4-80. Woody Allen’s black-and-white romantic fantasy of his hometown, Manhattan (1979), emphasized the mythic elements of New York: bridges and rivers and tow-away zones….
图 4-81。…… 《Zelig》（1983）是对电子遮罩技术的巧妙运用，对于一个以对话而不是特效而闻名的电影制作人来说，这是一个不同寻常的背离。（那是伍迪/泽利格在元首身后挥手。）……（画面放大）
Figure 4-81. … Zelig (1983) was a masterful exploitation of electronic matte techniques, an unusual departure for a filmmaker known for his dialogue, not his special effects. (That’s Woody/Zelig waving behind der Führer.)… (Frame enlargement)
图4-82…… 继艾伦与现实名人发生令人痛苦的冲突之后，《曼哈顿谋杀案》（ 1994）再次重演了纽约主题。（图框放大）
Figure 4-82…. Manhattan Murder Mystery ( 1994) reprised the New York themes once again, after Allen’s own harrowing brush with reality-based celebrity. (Frame enlargement)
詹姆斯·L·布鲁克斯（James L. Brooks）是另一位变击手。他参与了过去 30 年来最重要的两部电视剧： 20 世纪 70 年代的《玛丽泰勒摩尔秀》和1990 年代的《辛普森一家》 。但他也在戏剧电影中留下了自己的印记。1983 年，他凭借《母女情深》上演了奥斯卡帽子戏法，成为制片人、编剧和导演。《广播新闻》（Broadcast News，1987）重新审视了电视新闻室，《尽善尽美》（ As Good as It Gets，1997）为杰克·尼科尔森和海伦·亨特提供了广阔的画布来描绘离奇的浪漫。
James L. Brooks is another switch-hitter. He had a hand in two of the most important television series of the last thirty years: The Mary Tyler Moore Show in the 1970s and The Simpsons in the 1990s. But he has also made his mark in theatrical film. He started at the top, with a hat-trick of Oscars for Terms of Endearment in 1983, as producer, writer, and director. Broadcast News (1987) revisited the television news room and As Good as It Gets (1997) gave Jack Nicholson and Helen Hunt a broad canvas to paint a quirky romance.
像布鲁克斯这样更喜欢与成年观众交谈的电影制片人将怀旧情绪和当代社会喜剧结合起来，事实证明这种喜剧是持久的。巴里·莱文森是一名模特。在为梅尔·布鲁克斯 (Mel Brooks) 担任编剧后，他于 1982 年执导了一部著名的导演处女作《餐厅》(Diner)，故事背景设定在 20 世纪 50 年代的家乡巴尔的摩。在接下来的十年里，他两次回到家乡，拍摄了几年后的《铁皮人》( Tin Men ，1987)，以及追溯其家族历史的哀伤的《阿瓦隆》( Avalon ，1990)。穿插在这些回顾中的是商业上成功的《早安，越南》（1987）和《雨人》（1988），分别是罗宾·威廉姆斯和达斯汀·霍夫曼主演的人物剧和杰作。莱文森于九十年代回到家乡巴尔的摩，制作了备受推崇的电视剧《凶杀案》。在九十年代的大银幕上，他可以宣称自己有《揭露》（Disclosure，1994）和《摇狗》（Wag the Dog，1997），这两部关于九十年代政治意识的电影应该经得起时间的考验。
Those filmmakers, like Brooks, who preferred to speak to adult audiences developed a mix of nostalgia and contemporary social comedy which proved durable. Barry Levinson is a model. After working as a screenwriter for Mel Brooks, he made a notable directorial debut in 1982 with Diner, set in his native Baltimore in the 1950s. He returned to his hometown twice during the next ten years for Tin Men (1987), set a few years later, and the elegiac Avalon (1990), which traced his family’s history. Interspersed with these looks back were the commercially successful Good Morning, Vietnam (1987) and Rain Man (1988), character dramas and tours de force for their stars, respectively Robin Williams and Dustin Hoffman. Levinson returned to his native Baltimore in the nineties to produce the admired television series Homicide. On the big screen in the nineties he can lay claim to Disclosure (1994) and Wag the Dog (1997), two films about the political consciousness of the nineties that should stand the test of time.
马歇尔家族也很受年长观众的欢迎。佩妮·马歇尔（《大人物》， 1988 年；《他们自己的联盟》， 1992 年； 《传教士的妻子》， 1996 年）和她的哥哥加里·马歇尔（《火烈鸟小子》， 1984 年； 《风月俏佳人》， 1990 年；《逃家新娘》， 1999 年）带来了理性的感觉他们的各种项目都充满喜剧色彩。佩妮的前夫罗布·莱纳 (Rob Reiner) 在多产的作品中表现出了更广泛的兴趣，从他的处女作《This Is Spinal Tap》 (1984) 到《当哈利遇到莎莉……》(1989，诺拉·艾芙隆编剧)、《苦难》( Misery ) (1990)、《A》好人寥寥无几(1992) 和遗愿清单(2007)。马歇尔斯和雷纳在开始剧情片生涯之前都曾在电视情景喜剧中获得成功，并在 20 世纪 90 年代重返演艺事业。
The Marshall family also excelled with older audiences. Penny Marshall (Big, 1988; A League of Their Own, 1992; The Preacher’s Wife, 1996) and her elder brother Garry Marshall (The Flamingo Kid, 1984; Pretty Woman, 1990; The Runaway Bride, 1999) brought a reasoned sense of comedy to their varied projects. Penny’s ex-husband Rob Reiner displayed a wider range of interests in a prolific body of work, from his debut This Is Spinal Tap (1984) to When Harry Met Sally … (1989, written by Nora Ephron), Misery (1990), A Few Good Men (1992), and The Bucket List (2007). Both Marshalls and Reiner enjoyed successful runs in television sitcoms before embarking on feature careers, and returned to acting careers in the 1990s.
前儿童演员朗·霍华德（《安迪·格里菲斯秀》）也建立了持久的导演生涯（《Splash》， 1984 年；《Cocoon》， 1985 年；《阿波罗 13 号》， 1995 年；《达芬奇密码》， 2006 年）。
Former child actor Ron Howard (The Andy Griffith Show) has also established a durable directorial career (Splash, 1984; Cocoon, 1985; Apollo 13, 1995; The Da Vinci Code, 2006).
散文家、小说家和编剧诺拉·艾芙隆 (Nora Ephron)，亨利·艾芙隆 (Henry Ephron) 和菲比·艾芙隆 (Phoebe Ephron) 编剧团队的女儿，终于在她在《西雅图不眠夜》（1993）中度过了她五十多岁的时光，片中两个主角相隔一个大陆，直到最后一卷才“相遇”——这是一部编剧的电影，如果有的话。她在《电子邮箱》 （1998 年）中与两位演员（汤姆·汉克斯和梅格·瑞恩）再次产生了共鸣，该片翻拍自恩斯特·刘别谦 1940 年的《街角的商店》，完美地捕捉了蓬勃发展的互联网文化。这两部电影将持续下去。
Essayist, novelist, and screenwriter Nora Ephron, daughter of the screenwriting team of Henry and Phoebe Ephron, finally hit her stride in her fifties with Sleepless in Seattle (1993), in which the two main characters are separated by a continent and don’t “meet cute” until the final reel—a screenwriter’s movie, if ever there was one. She redoubled the resonances with the same two actors (Tom Hanks and Meg Ryan) in You’ve Got Mail (1998), a remake of Ernst Lubitsch’s 1940 The Shop Around the Corner that managed to capture the burgeoning internet culture perfectly. These two films will last.
图 4-83。罗伯特·泽米吉斯的《谁陷害了兔子罗杰》（1988）也向漫画世界致敬，这次创造了自己的漫画世界——现在对某些人来说比历史上的前辈更加真实的卡通世界。它比八十年代的漫画大片更有创意，也更有趣。在这里，罗杰充分发挥了他的真人搭档埃迪·瓦利安特（鲍勃·霍斯金斯饰）的优点。
Figure 4-83. Robert Zemeckis’s Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988) also paid homage to the comic world, this time by inventing its own—a Toonland now more real to some than its historical predecessors. More inventive than the comic-book blockbusters of the eighties, it was also more entertaining. Here, Roger gets the best of his live-action co-star Eddie Valliant (Bob Hoskins).
艾夫隆、马歇尔夫妇和雷纳为成人角色所做的，约翰休斯为青少年所做的。在八十年代中期的一组异常集中的电影中（《十六支蜡烛》， 1984 年；《奇怪的科学》， 1985 年；《早餐俱乐部》， 1985 年； 《粉红佳人》， 1986 年；费里斯·布勒的休息日， 1986 年；巴克叔叔， 1989 年），一切都已准备就绪在同一个芝加哥郊区，编剧兼制片人兼导演休斯在人们意识到 X 一代的存在之前就研究了它的根源。他以理解力和风格做到了这一点，表现出对青少年关心的问题和中产阶级家庭生活的敏感度，这种敏感度既罕见又精确。他的作品《小鬼当家》（1990 年，由克里斯·哥伦布执导）利用了早期电影的原材料，添加了无端的卡通暴力，但没有表现出休斯标志性的同理心。成了他的票房最高的作品。然后他转向制作和写作，通常使用化名。与今天青少年电影中的青春期前便盆幽默形成鲜明对比，他在八十年代的作品脱颖而出。
What Ephron, the Marshalls, and Reiner did for adult characters, John Hughes did for teenagers. In an unusually focused group of films in the mid-eighties (Sixteen Candles, 1984; Weird Science, 1985; The Breakfast Club, 1985; Pretty in Pink, 1986; Ferris Bueller’s Day Off, 1986; Uncle Buck, 1989), all set in the same Chicago suburb, writer-producer-director Hughes examined the roots of Generation X before anyone realized it existed. He did so with understanding and style, displaying a sensitivity to adolescent concerns and middle-class family life that is as rare as it is precise. His production Home Alone (1990, directed by Chris Columbus) exploited the raw materials of the earlier films, added gratuitous cartoon violence, but evinced none of Hughes’s trademark empathy. It became his biggest box-office hit. He then turned to producing and writing, often under a pseudonym. In contrast to the pre-teen potty humor that passes today for teenage movies his work in the eighties stands tall.
《小鬼当家》的目的显然是要对八十年代末流行的偏执幻想类型进行喜剧性的逆转。评论家詹姆斯·帕洛特（James Pallot）呼应了当时的俚语，将这种模式称为“来自地狱的……”。自《迷迭香宝贝》 （1968）以来一直是一股暗流，随着《致命诱惑》（1987，来自地狱的情人）的票房成功，这一类型成为 20 世纪 80 年代和 90 年代的主要形式之一。次年，《Child's Play》系列首次亮相（来自地狱的玩具）。约翰·施莱辛格（John Schlesinger）对来自地狱的房客进行了权衡（太平洋高地， 1990）。乔纳森·戴米 (Jonathan Demme) 的《沉默的羔羊》（1991 年，地狱囚徒）取得巨大成功后，这一类型在 20 世纪 90 年代迅速发展。接下来的几年里出现了一系列关于丈夫、室友、同学、保姆和秘书的偏执幻想（分别是《与敌人同眠》， 1991年；《单身白人女性》， 1992年；《毒藤女》， 1992年；《摇篮之手》， 1992 年；《临时报》， 1993 年）。自 20 世纪 50 年代的科幻电影问世以来，已经过去了 30 多年，当时电影观众也曾出现过类似的偏执狂现象。
Home Alone was apparently intended to be a comic reverse on the hot genre of the late eighties, paranoid fantasies. Echoing the slang of the period, critic James Pallot has called this pattern “the … from Hell.” Always an undercurrent since Rosemary’s Baby (1968), this genre became one of the key forms of the 1980s and 1990s with the box-office success of Fatal Attraction (1987, the lover from hell). The Child’s Play series debuted the next year (the toy from hell). John Schlesinger weighed in with the tenant from hell (Pacific Heights, 1990). The genre picked up speed in the 1990s after the huge success of Jonathan Demme’s Silence of the Lambs (1991, the prisoner from hell). The next few years saw a string of paranoid fantasies about husbands, roommates, school friends, nannies, and secretaries (respectively, Sleeping with the Enemy, 1991; Single White Female, 1992; Poison Ivy, 1992; The Hand That Rocks the Cradle, 1992; and The Temp, 1993). It had been more than thirty years since the Science Fiction films of the 1950s, when a comparable spate of paranoia gripped film audiences.
抵消这种恐惧的是我们已经注意到的怀旧压力。它在 20 世纪 80 年代末一系列令人惊讶的棒球电影中找到了最可爱、最不寻常的出路之一。棒球长期以来一直是好莱坞的厌恶之物。*毕竟，美国的国民消遣活动因其长时间的明显无所事事以及球员和球迷在比赛过程中的内心独白而臭名昭著，而这并不是当代制作人所寻求的不间断的行动。但巴里·莱文森 (Barry Levinson) 改编自伯纳德·马拉默德 (Bernard Malamud) 的经典小说《The Natural) (1984) 的电影捕捉到了许多神话象征意义以及历史和传统感，这些都让这款游戏深受粉丝喜爱。到 1988 年，棒球电影迎来了复兴的时机——尽管这项运动本身正进入衰退期。
Counterbalancing this fear was the strain of nostalgia we have already noted. It found one of its most endearing and unusual outlets in the surprising string of Baseball movies of the late 1980s. Baseball had for a long time been anathema to Hollywood.* After all, America’s national pastime is notorious for its long periods of apparent inaction and the interior monologues that players and fans alike engage in during the course of a game—hardly the nonstop action that contemporary producers seek. But Barry Levinson’s film of the classic Bernard Malamud novel The Natural (1984) captured much of the mythic symbolism and sense of history and tradition that endear the game to its fans. By 1988 the time was right for a Baseball movie renaissance—even as the sport itself was entering a period of decline.
约翰·塞尔斯（John Sayles）首先对黑袜队丑闻进行了历史研究，《八人出局》（Eight Men Out，1988）。紧随其后的是前小联盟球员 Ron Shelton 的正宗Bull Durham和 David S. Ward 的主要联盟。该系列赛以大击球手菲尔·奥尔登·罗宾逊 (Phil Alden Robinson) 的挽歌《Field of Dreams》 (1989) 获得评论界和商业上的成功而达到顶峰。1992 年，潘妮·马歇尔 (Penny Marshall) 为 A League of Their Own 投了加时赛。
John Sayles was first at bat with his historical study of the Black Sox scandal, Eight Men Out (1988). This was followed quickly by former minor-leaguer Ron Shelton’s authentic Bull Durham and David S. Ward’s Major League. The series culminated in the critical and commercial success of cleanup hitter Phil Alden Robinson’s elegiac Field of Dreams (1989). Penny Marshall pitched extra innings in 1992 with A League of Their Own.
图 4-84。詹姆斯·卡梅隆 (James Cameron) 斥资 2 亿美元拍摄《泰坦尼克号》 (1997) ，一手重振了灾难片类型。数千名演员中的大多数都是数字动画。六年前，卡梅隆通过《T2》设定了数字奇幻的密码。通过重述技术失败的缩影，他为数字现实建立了一个并行模型。泰坦尼克号是我们加速跨柏拉图式穿越到虚拟新世界的象征。
Figure 4-84. James Cameron single-handedly revived the Disaster genre with his $200 million gamble on Titanic (1997). Most of the cast of thousands were digital animations. Six years earlier Cameron had set the code for digital fantasy with T2. With this retelling of the epitome of technological failure he set a parallel model for digital reality. Titanic is an emblem of our quickening trans-Platonic crossing to the new world of virtuality.
在 20 世纪 80 年代和 90 年代的动作和特效、偏执和怀旧、艺术保守主义和圆滑的专业光彩中，两个相关的趋势形成鲜明对比：好莱坞轨道之外的独立电影制作的持续可能性，以及黑人电影的复兴。
Amid the action and special effects, the paranoia and nostalgia, the artistic conservatism and slick professional sheen of the 1980s and 1990s, two related trends stood in contrast: the continuing possibilities for independent filmmaking outside the Hollywood orbit, and the renaissance of the Black Film.
有趣的是，戛纳电影节是 20 世纪 80 年代美国独立电影制作人的重要展示场所。苏珊·塞德曼 (Susan Seidelman) 的《碎片》于 1982 年在戛纳上映；吉姆·贾木许 (Jim Jarmusch) 的《天堂怪奇》 (Stranger Than Paradise)于 1984 年荣获金摄影机奖。两人都利用由此产生的知名度来发展自己的事业，塞德曼 (Seidelman) 在好莱坞圈内工作，贾木许 (Jarmusch) 则继续在好莱坞之外工作。伊森·科恩和乔尔·科恩的《血色简单》是对黑色电影的致敬，也于 1984 年在戛纳电影节放映。他们在好莱坞的边缘继续改造经典类型，拍摄了一系列伟大的独特电影：《抚养亚利桑那》 (1987)、《米勒的十字路口》 (1990)、《巴顿·芬克》 (1991)、《冰血暴》 (1996)、《大勒博夫斯基》 (1998)、《兄弟，你在哪里？》（2000）和老无所依（2007）。
Interestingly, the Cannes Film Festival served as a crucial showcase for American independent filmmakers in the 1980s. Susan Seidelman’s Smithereens was shown at Cannes in 1982; Jim Jarmusch’s Stranger Than Paradise won the Camera d’Or in 1984. Both used the resulting publicity to build careers, Seidelman working within the Hollywood orbit, Jarmusch continuing outside it. Ethan and Joel Coen’s Blood Simple, an homage to the Film Noir, also screened at Cannes in 1984. They have continued, on the margins of Hollywood, to rework the classic genres in a great series of idiosyncratic films: Raising Arizona (1987), Miller’s Crossing (1990), Barton Fink (1991), Fargo (1996), The Big Lebowski (1998), O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000), and No Country for Old Men (2007).
图 4-85。伊万·雷特曼 (Ivan Reitman) 1984 年的《捉鬼敢死队》是斯皮尔伯格-卢卡斯轨道之外为数不多的几部创造了流行神话的电影之一。更重要的是，丹·艾克罗伊德和哈罗德·雷米斯的剧本成功地化解了驱魔人的恐怖倾向。左：Staypuft 怪物在中央公园西路（梅西百货一年一度的感恩节游行路线）上行。右图：No-Ghost 标志在全世界范围内广为人知并被广泛模仿。
Figure 4-85. Ivan Reitman’s 1984 Ghostbusters was one of the few films outside the Spielberg-Lucas orbit to create a popular mythos. More important, the script by Dan Aykroyd and Harold Ramis successfully defused the Exorcist-inspired trend to sadistic horror. Left: the Staypuft monster sashays up Central Park West (the route of Macy’s annual Thanksgiving Day parade). Right: the No-Ghost logo was recognizable the world over and imitated widely.
1989 年，史蒂文·索德伯格的性、谎言和录像带在戛纳电影节上引起了广泛关注。他将个人项目（《艾琳·布罗科维奇》、《交通》，均 2000 年）与大众电影（《海洋 11》、《12》和《13》， 2001-2007 年）结合起来，建立了一个体面的职业生涯。 ）。
Steven Soderbergh’s sex, lies and videotape drew critical attention at Cannes in 1989. He was able to build a decent career combining personal projects (Erin Brockovich, Traffic, both 2000) with popular fare (Ocean’s 11, 12, and 13, 2001-2007).
在 20 世纪 90 年代和 2000 年代，圣丹斯电影节为许多新的美国独立电影制片人提供了类似的职业建设功能。理查德·林克莱特 (Richard Linklater) 的《懒汉》(Slacker ) (1990) 成为 1991 年电影节的热门话题。凯文·史密斯 (Kevin Smith) 主演的《店员》(Clerks)是 1994 年的热门剧，该剧很快就促成了与米拉麦克斯 (Miramax) 的交易。1995 年，爱德华·伯恩斯 (Edward Burns) 的《麦克马伦兄弟》(The Brothers McMullen)获得了极高的知名度，次年托德·索隆兹 (Todd Solondz) 的《欢迎来到玩偶屋》(Welcome to the Doll-house ) (1995) 也获得了极高的知名度。这个位于犹他州的电影节也帮助宣传了纪录片。赢得圣丹斯电影节后不久，芭芭拉·科普尔的《美国梦》 (1990) 为她赢得了第二个奥斯卡奖。
In the 1990s and 2000s the Sundance festival has served a similar career-building function for numerous new American independent filmmakers. Richard Linklater’s Slacker (1990) was the talk of the 1991 festival. Kevin Smith’s Clerks was the hit of the 1994 show, which quickly led to a deal with Miramax. Edward Burns’s The Brothers McMullen garnered invaluable publicity in 1995 as did Todd Solondz’s Welcome to the Doll-house (1995) the next year. The Utah-based festival has also helped promote documentaries. Shortly after winning Sundance, Barbara Kopple’s American Dream (1990) garnered her a second Academy Award.
电影节曝光所引起的媒体关注可以对电影制片人的职业生涯产生重大影响，而且往往会产生不寻常的副作用。前儿童演员本·阿弗莱克 (Ben Affleck) 为新晋热门凯文·史密斯 (Kevin Smith) 出演了《Mallrats》（1995 年），但失败了；《追逐艾米》（Chasing Amy，1997 年）大获成功。阿弗莱克和他的朋友马特·达蒙为自己创作了一部好莱坞电影《心灵捕手》（ Good Will Hunting，1997）。他们的编剧奥斯卡奖提高了他们作为演员的票房收入。这就是当代好莱坞的做法。
The media attention that festival exposure can generate can make all the difference to a filmmaker’s career, and often has unusual side-effects. Former child actor Ben Affleck worked for the newly hot Kevin Smith in Mallrats (1995), a failure, and Chasing Amy (1997), a hit. Affleck and his friend Matt Damon wrote themselves a Hollywood vehicle, Good Will Hunting (1997). Their Academy Awards for screenwriting boosted their bankability as actors. Such are the ways of contemporary Hollywood.
图 4-86。在他英年早逝之前的十年里，吉姆·汉森能够将他最初为电视而发明的世界转化为一系列音乐电影的电影，这些电影都既深思熟虑又迷人。在八十年代，他让带孩子们去看电影成为一种乐趣。在这里，克米特和猪小姐摆出姿势拍摄宣传照，周围都是才华横溢、色彩缤纷的配角。成为绿色可能并不容易，但成为粉色却很有趣。
Figure 4-86. In the ten years before his untimely death, Jim Henson was able to translate his world, originally invented for television, to the movies in a series of Musical films which are all as thoughtful as they are charming. He made taking the kids to the movies a pleasure in the eighties. Here, Kermit and Miss Piggy pose for a publicity still, surrounded by their talented and colorful supporting cast. It may not be easy being green, but it’s a kick to be pink.
在过去的三十年里，独立电影制片人的典范一直是约翰·塞尔斯。作为 20 世纪 70 年代的作家和编剧，他于 1979 年首次担任导演，拍摄了《锡考克斯七人归来》，大多数评论家认为这是“真正的”大寒。《来自另一个星球的兄弟》（1984）、《马特万》（1987）和《希望之城》（1991），以及《八人出局》、《孤星》（1996）、《阳光之州》（2002）从截然不同的角度探讨美国社会，但有共同点灵巧而深入的品格感
Throughout the last thirty years the model for independent filmmakers has been John Sayles. An author and screenwriter in the 1970s, he debuted as a director with The Return of the Secaucus Seven in 1979, which most critics regard as the “real” Big Chill. The Brother from Another Planet (1984), Matewan (1987), and City of Hope (1991), together with Eight Men Out, Lone Star (1996), Sunshine State (2002) approach American society from markedly different points of view but share a deft and deeply worked sense of character.
奥利弗·斯通 (Oliver Stone) 是好莱坞自 1980 年以来最独立的艺术家之一。在《野战排》（ Platoon，1986）、《生于七月四日》（Born on the Fourth of July，1989）、 《大门》（ The Doors，1991）和《刺杀肯尼迪》（ JFK，1992）中，他回顾了 20 世纪 60 年代影响深远的十年中的大多数关键问题：越南战争及其后果、反文化和暗杀。在《华尔街》（1987）中，他在股市崩盘前夕吹响了 20 世纪 80 年代的号角。他与尼克松一起完成了 20 世纪 60 年代的工作（1995 年）。只有肯尼迪的偏执阴谋论才破坏了这部强有力的作品。《世界贸易中心》（2006）处理了一个重大历史事件，但未能阐明该事件。
Inside Hollywood one of the more independent artists of since 1980 has been Oliver Stone. In Platoon (1986), Born on the Fourth of July (1989), The Doors (1991), and JFK (1992) he reviewed most of the critical issues of the seminal decade of the 1960s: the Vietnam war and its aftermath, the counterculture, and assassinations. In Wall Street (1987) he blew the whistle on the 1980s just before the stock market crash. He completed his work on the 1960s with Nixon (1995). Only the paranoid conspiracy theories of JFK mar this forceful body of work. World Trade Center (2006) tackled a major historical event but failed to illuminate the event.
新一波非裔美国电影制作人也受益于戛纳电影节带来的关注。斯派克·李 (Spike Lee) 的《She's Gotta Have It》曾在 1986 年的电影节上放映。此后，李继续将他的电影带到戛纳，当他们没有赢得主要奖项时，他通常会感到愤怒。罗伯特汤森的《好莱坞洗牌》于 1987 年在戛纳放映。在 1990 年的电影节上，您可以看到马里奥·范·皮布尔斯和他的父亲梅尔文在大华酒店为《新杰克城》 (1991) 的发行商讨好。约翰·辛格尔顿 (John Singleton) 的《Boyz N the Hood》是 1991 年音乐节上的主要话题。
The new wave of African-American filmmakers also benefited from the attention a Cannes appearance brings. Spike Lee’s She’s Gotta Have It was shown at the 1986 festival. Lee continued to bring his films to Cannes thereafter, traditionally irate when they didn’t win major prizes. Robert Townsend’s Hollywood Shuffle was screened at Cannes in 1987. At the 1990 festival, you could find Mario Van Peebles with his father, Melvin, at the Majestic Hotel courting distributors for New Jack City (1991). John Singleton’s Boyz N the Hood was a major topic of conversation at the 1991 Festival.
图 4-87。诺拉·艾芙隆 (Nora Ephron) 凭借《西雅图不眠夜》(Sleepless in Seattle)取得了巨大的进步，这部非凡的杰作被证明是一部令人耳目一新的热门作品，以汤姆·汉克斯 (Tom Hanks) 和梅格·瑞恩 (Meg Ryan) 的形象重新审视了四十年代的浪漫主题。
Figure 4-87. Nora Ephron hit her stride with Sleepless in Seattle, a remarkable tour de force that proved to be a refreshing hit, revisiting the romantic themes of the forties in the persons of Tom Hanks and Meg Ryan.
马里奥·范·皮布尔斯 (Mario Van Peebles) 扎根于这个行业。他与他的父亲密切合作，可以说他的父亲在 20 世纪 60 年代创立了这一运动。罗伯特·汤森 (Robert Townsend) 在保罗·马祖斯基 (Paul Mazursky) 的《威利·菲尔》 ( Willie Phil ) (1980)中首次亮相，并在单口喜剧中工作，之后制作了关于黑人演员面临的困难的独立讽刺作品《好莱坞洗牌》 (Hollywood Shuffle) (1987)。在经常从事电视工作的同时，Townsend 于 1991 年执导了他的第一部好莱坞电影《五次心跳》。Keenen Ivory Wayans 与 Townsend 一起制作了《Hollywood Shuffle》，然后自己恶搞了 70 年代的“Blaxploitation”电影《I'm Gonna Git》你真糟糕，明年。1990 年，他与福克斯电视台签约，制作由他构思的《In Living Color》 。它扭转了《周六夜现场》的种族比例，首次展现了非洲裔美国人对时事和问题的多种不同态度。它还为他的大多数才华横溢的兄弟姐妹提供了一个起点：达蒙、金、肖恩和马龙。韦恩斯夫妇家族无疑保持着目前成功演艺界家族的记录，数量超过了杰克逊家族。
Mario Van Peebles had roots in the industry; he has worked closely with his father, who could be said to have founded the movement in the 1960s. Robert Townsend made his acting debut in Paul Mazursky’s Willie Phil (1980) and worked in stand-up comedy before producing his independent satire on the difficulties facing Black actors, Hollywood Shuffle (1987). While working often in television, Townsend directed his first Hollywood film, The Five Heartbeats, in 1991. Keenen Ivory Wayans worked on Hollywood Shuffle with Townsend, then made his own spoof of the “Blaxploitation” films of the seventies, I’m Gonna Git You Sucka, the next year. In 1990 he was signed by Fox television to produce In Living Color, which he had conceived. Reversing the racial ratio of Saturday Night Live it offered—for the first time—multiple and varied African-American attitudes to current events and issues. It also provided a launching pad for most of his talented siblings: Damon, Kim, Shawn, and Marlon. The Wayans family certainly holds the current record for a successful show business family, outnumbering the Jacksons.
图 4-88。汉森为八十年代的小学生做了什么，约翰·休斯为高中生做了什么：提供了一套关于美国中产阶级青少年的文章，帮助他的年轻观众更多地了解他们令人困惑的世界。巴克叔叔（约翰·坎迪饰）是孩子们理想的成年人。
Figure 4-88. What Henson did for the gradeschoolers in the eighties, John Hughes did for the highschoolers: providing a set of essays on middle-class American adolescence that helped his youngish audiences understand a little more about their confusing world. Uncle Buck (John Candy) is the kids’ ideal adult.
1991 年，两位非常年轻的独立电影制片人的处女作拓宽了非洲裔美国人的范围，他们捕捉了美国两端社区的人物、担忧和声音：约翰·辛格尔顿 (John Singleton) 的《胡德是洛杉矶中南部》(Hood was the South Central Los Angeles)；马蒂·里奇 (Matty Rich)直接从布鲁克林出来。
In 1991 the African-American spectrum broadened with the debuts of two very young independent filmmakers who captured the characters, concerns, and sounds of their neighborhoods on opposite sides of the country: John Singleton’s ’Hood was South-Central Los Angeles; Matty Rich came Straight Out of Brooklyn.
九十年代初，非洲裔美国新导演人才的涌现预示着黑人电影的新浪潮。在随后的几年里，这些人中的大多数人都很难让项目落地，大多数人都靠电视谋生，很少有人兑现了看似光明的承诺。随你所欲。尽管黑人演员在过去十年中取得了成功，但仍有很长的路要走。
In the early nineties this profusion of new African-American directorial talent heralded a new wave of Black cinema. In the intervening years most of these men have had a hard time getting projects off the ground, most have made a living in television, and few have fulfilled what looked like bright promise. Make of that what you will. Despite the success of Black actors during the last decade, there is still a long way to go.
显然，20 世纪 80 年代和 90 年代黑人电影复兴的主导人物是布鲁克林演员兼编剧兼导演斯派克·李。他在纽约大学电影学院的学生论文《乔的床研究理发店：我们剪头》（Joe's Bed-Stuy Barbershop：We Cut Heads，1980）在纽约电影节新导演系列展映。他的第一部长片《她必须拥有它》 (She's Gotta Have It, 1986) 赢得了好评戛纳电影节以其视觉效果给评论家留下了深刻的印象，取得了令人惊讶的票房收入，并将李扮演的角色——街头骗子马尔斯·布莱克蒙(Mars Blackmon)确立为流行文化的一部分。（他与迈克尔·乔丹一起出现在耐克广告中，以及其他地方。） 《做正确的事》（Do the Right Thing，1989）是一部充满争议性的当代种族关系肖像画，在评论家称赞其暗示性意象的同时，也成为了争议的话题。
Clearly, the dominant personality in the Black film renaissance of the 1980s and 1990s was Brooklynite actor-writer-director Spike Lee. His NYU film school student thesis, Joe’s Bed-Stuy Barbershop: We Cut Heads (1980) was screened in the New York Film Festival New Directors series. His first feature, She’s Gotta Have It (1986), won acclaim at Cannes, impressed critics with its visual flare, did surprising box-office business, and established the character Lee played, streetwise hustler Mars Blackmon, as part of the popular culture. (He appeared in Nike commercials with Michael Jordan, and elsewhere.) Do the Right Thing (1989), a polemically charged portrait of contemporary race relations, became a subject of controversy at the same time that critics praised its allusive imagery.
图 4-89。史蒂文·索德伯格的性、谎言和录像带重新点燃了八十年代末人们对独立电影的兴趣。安迪·麦克道威尔（Andie MacDowell）是那个拿着摄像机的女人。
Figure 4-89. Steven Soderbergh’s sex, lies and videotape helped to rekindle interest in the independent film in the late eighties. Andie MacDowell is the woman with the video camera.
多年来，许多电影制片人（其中大部分是白人）尝试拍摄《马尔科姆·X·李自传》，但都失败了。最终成功了。马尔科姆·艾克斯 (Malcolm X)于 1992 年上映，由丹泽尔·华盛顿 (Denzel Washington) 主演。这是美国文化中的一部重要电影，它成功地捕捉到了马尔科姆·艾克斯 (Malcolm X) 角色中丰富的张力，同时又讲述了一个引人入胜的戏剧性传奇故事。华盛顿和小艾尔·弗里曼饰演的伊利亚·穆罕默德的精准而令人惊叹的表演为影片提供了强有力的核心。李削弱了他通常旺盛的导演个性，以明显的平衡来塑造这些历史人物。他捕捉到了马尔科姆身上的许多复杂性和讽刺性，正是这些因素使马尔科姆成为 20 世纪 60 年代的中心英雄。
For years, numerous filmmakers, mostly white, had attempted—and failed—to film The Autobiography of Malcolm X. Lee succeeded. Malcolm X, with Denzel Washington in the title role, was released in 1992. A key film in American culture, it manages to capture the rich tensions in the character of Malcolm X at the same time that it entertains with an involving and dramatic saga. Breathtakingly accurate and evocative performances by Washington and Al Freeman Jr as Elijah Muhammad provide the strong core of the film. Lee attenuates his normally exuberant directorial personality to frame these historic characters with perspicuous balance. He catches many of the complexities and ironies that combined to make Malcolm a central hero of the 1960s.
实现了这个长久以来的梦想后，李在接下来的几年里通过纪录片扩大了他的视野（《上车》， 1996；4 Little Girls， 1997 年，关于 1963 年伯明翰爆炸案）；关于纽约都市的更一般的电影（《Clockers》， 1995 年，来自理查德·普莱斯小说；《萨姆的夏天》， 1999 年，一首七十年代末的挽歌）；还有——是的——一部篮球电影：《He Got Game》， 1998 年，丹泽尔·华盛顿主演）。他以非小说形式回归，创作了一篇关于卡特里娜灾难的雄辩文章《当堤坝决堤时》（2006）。同年，他与丹泽尔·华盛顿和朱迪·福斯特主演了一部奇怪的惊悚片《局内人》 。凭借如此广泛的制作，斯派克·李被列为新世纪美国主要电影制片人之一，也是自 20 世纪 70 年代以来唯一一位获得这一排名的万神殿成员。
Having accomplished this long-sought dream, Lee broadened his purview during the next few years with documentaries (Get on the Bus, 1996; 4 Little Girls, 1997, about the Birmingham bombing in 1963); more general films about urban New York (Clockers, 1995, from the Richard Price novel; Summer of Sam, 1999, an elegy for the late seventies); and—yes—a basketball movie: He Got Game, 1998, with Denzel Washington). He returned to the nonfiction form with When the Levees Broke (2006), an eloquent essay on the Katrina disaster. In the same year he was responsible for Inside Man, a strange thriller with Denzel Washington and Jodie Foster. With this wide range of productions under his belt, Spike Lee ranks as one of the major American filmmakers in the new century—and the only member of the pantheon to achieve that rank since the 1970s.
图 4-90。奥利弗·斯通（Oliver Stone）在八十年代几乎是独一无二的受政治利益驱动的好莱坞电影制片人，他的《华尔街》一击即中，这部电影敏锐地捕捉到了八十年代的道德氛围，同时生动地描绘了一群活泼的人。 ——而且是真实的——人物。迈克尔·道格拉斯饰演蜥蜴人戈登·盖柯。
Figure 4-90. Oliver Stone, almost unique in the eighties as a Hollywood filmmaker driven by political interests, hit the mark with Wall Street, a film that sharply captured the ethical climate of the go-go eighties at the same time that it tellingly portrayed a bunch of lively—and true—characters. Michael Douglas is the lizardly Gordon Gekko.
正如我们已经指出的，如果好莱坞在 20 世纪 80 年代形成了更加国际化的视野，那么世界其他电影也越来越多地进入美国电影的审美轨道。在整个战后时期，与以前一样，通常与好莱坞风格相对立的民族艺术身份一直是欧洲和第三世界电影的核心原则。尽管争论者和政治家继续口头上支持这一概念，但日益全球化的世界文化的现实极大地限制了民族电影的独立性。如果说美国电影在八十年代找到了新的生命得益于新资本和技术特效生命支持系统的注入，那么这种神奇的药物就是对于海外营销力度较小的民族电影文化，要么不可用，要么禁止使用。
If, as we’ve already noted, Hollywood developed a more international outlook in the 1980s, the rest of world cinema increasingly came within the esthetic orbit of American movies. Throughout the postwar period, as before, a national artistic identity, usually defined in opposition to the Hollywood style, had been a central tenet of European and Third-World cinemas. Although polemicists and politicians continued to give lip service to this concept, the realities of an increasingly globalized world culture greatly constrained the independence of national cinemas. If American film found new life in the eighties thanks to infusions of new capital and technological special-effects life-support systems, such wonder drugs were either not available or contra-indicated for less aggressively marketed national film cultures overseas.
图 4-91。在约翰·辛格尔顿 (John Singleton) 讲述洛杉矶中南部生活的道德剧《Boyz N the Hood》 (1991) 中，小库珀·古丁 (Cuba Gooding Jr) 饰演特雷·斯泰尔斯 (Tre Styles)，受到尼娅·朗 (布兰迪饰) 的安慰。
Figure 4-91. Cuba Gooding Jr as Tre Styles comforted by Nia Long (Brandi) in John Singleton’s morality play about life in South Central Los Angeles, Boyz N the Hood (1991).
与美国一样，怀旧情绪在欧洲占主导地位，资深电影制片人继续沿着二十五年和三十年前为他们奠定的陈旧轨道前进，而年轻的电影制片人则尽职尽责地追随其后。朱塞佩·托纳多雷的《天堂电影院》（Cinema Paradiso，1990）旨在为五六十年代欧洲电影的黄金时代挽歌。然而，正如《电影指南》指出的那样，“不，他们不像以前那样拍电影了，这部荣获奥斯卡奖的意大利与法国合拍片花了三个小时的大部分时间来证明这一点。”
As in the U.S., nostalgia predominated in Europe as veteran filmmakers continued along the well-worn tracks laid down for them twenty-five and thirty years earlier, and younger filmmakers followed dutifully behind. Giuseppe Tornatore’s Cinema Paradiso (1990) was meant to be an elegy for the Golden Age of the fifties and sixties European film. However, as The Film Guide pointed out, “no, they don’t make movies like they used to, and this Oscar-winning Italian-French coproduction spends the better part of three hours proving it.”
由于英国电影制片人至少部分地拥有共同语言，因此长期以来他们一直是好莱坞文化霸主的主要受害者。然而，在 20 世纪 80 年代的短暂时刻，洛杉矶和伦敦之间似乎达成了一项协议。制片人大卫·普特南 (David Puttnam) 是整个 20 世纪 80 年代英国竞选活动的中心人物。他凭借操纵性的《午夜快车》（1978）和朴实无华的《烈火战车》（1981）。此后不久，他与 Goldcrest Films 合作，该公司从 1982 年上映的《甘地》到《杀戮战场》（1984 年）和《看得见风景的房间》（1986 年）取得了巨大成功，这表明可以制作在好莱坞发行系统中可行的商业电影英国电影制片人定期举办。1986 年，普特南成为可口可乐旗下哥伦比亚影业公司的制片主管。1987 年底，普特南被赶下台，Goldcrest 由于资本不足和管理不善而面临破产。泰晤士河畔好莱坞的梦想戛然而止。但随着英国导演越来越多地在美国找到工作，以及英国演员继续赢得不成比例的奥斯卡荣誉，这种旋律依然存在。
Because they shared, at least in part, a common language, British filmmakers had long been the prime victims of the Hollywood cultural juggernaut. For a brief moment in the 1980s, however, it looked like an entente had been struck between Los Angeles and London. Producer David Puttnam was at the center of the British campaign throughout the 1980s. He had won Oscars for the manipulative Midnight Express (1978) and the unpretentious Chariots of Fire (1981). Shortly thereafter, he teamed with Goldcrest Films, whose remarkable success from the release of Gandhi in 1982 through The Killing Fields (1984) and A Room with a View (1986) suggested that commercial films, viable in the Hollywood distribution system, could be produced on a regular basis by British filmmakers. In 1986 Puttnam became head of production at Coca-Cola’s Columbia Pictures. By the end of 1987, Puttnam was ousted, and Goldcrest was facing bankruptcy due to under-capitalization and mismanagement. The dream of Hollywood-on-the-Thames was abruptly ended. But the melody lingered on as British directors increasingly found work in America and as British actors continued to win a disproportionate share of Oscar honors.
图 4-92。在斯派克·李深刻的《马尔科姆·X》中，安吉拉·贝塞特饰演贝蒂·沙巴兹，丹泽尔·华盛顿饰演马尔科姆。
Figure 4-92. Angela Bassett as Betty Shabazz and Denzel Washington as Malcolm in Spike Lee’s profound Malcolm X.
对于那些致力于国家电影的英国电影制作人来说，1982 年第二个独立电视网络第四频道的成立令人振奋。然而，几年之内，增加的产量就被吸收了。尽管如此，像史蒂芬·弗雷尔斯（《我美丽的洗衣店》， 1985 年；《英雄》， 1992 年；《交易》， 2003 年；《女王》， 2006 年）、迈克·李（《生活是甜蜜的》， 1991 年；《赤裸》， 1993 年；《秘密与谎言》， 1996 年；维拉·德雷克， 2004）、比尔·福赛思（地方英雄， 1983）、布鲁斯·罗宾逊（《Withnail 1》，1987 年）和朱利安·坦普尔（《地球女孩很容易》， 1989 年）设法保持了沟通渠道的畅通，至少在一段时间内是这样。理查德·阿滕伯勒（Richard Attenborough）最成功地完成了在各个阵营中立足的杂技任务，他的著名作品，从甘地到卓别林（1992），非常适合好莱坞模式，同时延续了英国优质电影的传统。
For those British filmmakers committed to a national cinema, the founding in 1982 of Channel Four, the second independent television network, proved heartening. Within a few years, however, the increased production had been absorbed. Nevertheless, filmmakers like Stephen Frears (My Beautiful Laundrette, 1985; Hero, 1992; The Deal, 2003; The Queen, 2006), Mike Leigh (Life Is Sweet, 1991; Naked, 1993; Secrets and Lies, 1996; Vera Drake, 2004), Bill Forsyth (Local Hero, 1983), Bruce Robinson (Withnail 1, 1987), and Julien Temple (Earth Girls Are Easy, 1989) managed to keep the lines of communication open, at least for awhile. Most successful at the acrobatic task of keeping a foot in each camp was Richard Attenborough, whose prestige productions, from Gandhi to Chaplin (1992), fit well into the Hollywood pattern at the same time that they continued the tradition of British quality cinema.
20 世纪 90 年代后期，多才多艺的女演员兼编剧艾玛·汤普森 (Emma Thompson) 和她的前任丈夫、大胆的演员兼导演肯尼思·布拉纳 (Kenneth Branagh) 引领了英国电影的进攻。在获得皇家莎士比亚剧团的先决条件后，出生于爱尔兰的布拉纳以《亨利五世》 (1989) 的版本首次出演电影兼导演，有意邀请人们与劳伦斯·奥利维尔进行比较。这部电影与同样新颖且卓有成效的《无事生非》（1993）一起，为莎士比亚电影传统带来了新的生命。（他 1996 年的《哈姆雷特》因制作价值过高而受到影响。）《死而复生》（1991 年）等当代戏剧和《狂野西部》（1999 年）等大片奠定了他的创作范围。
Later in the 1990s the British cinematic onslaught was led by versatile actress-writer Emma Thompson and her erstwhile husband, the audacious actor-director Kenneth Branagh. After the prerequisite stint with the Royal Shakespeare Company, Irish-born Branagh intentionally invited comparison with Laurence Olivier by making his film acting/directing debut with a version of Henry V (1989). This film, together with an equally fresh and accomplished Much Ado About Nothing (1993), brought new life to the Shakespearean film tradition. (His 1996 Hamlet suffered from too many production values.) Contemporary dramas like Dead Again (1991) and blockbusters like Wild Wild West (1999) established his range.
汤普森主演了布拉纳的大部分作品，并迅速跻身顶级电影女演员行列，并常年获得奥斯卡提名。迄今为止，她最成功的作品是由詹姆斯·伊沃里执导的文学电影《霍华德庄园》（1992 年，改编自 EM 福斯特的小说），并因此获得奥斯卡最佳女主角奖，以及《长日将尽》（1993 年，改编自EM 福斯特的小说）。石黑一雄的小说），她因此获得提名。（她还在 1998 年的《原色》中给我们带来了精彩的希拉里·克林顿。）事实上，她以《哈利·波特》电影为生，同时在《天使在美国》（2003 年，迈克·尼科尔斯）和《比小说更陌生》（2003 年）中奉献了两场精彩的表演。 2006，马克·福斯特）。
Thompson starred in most of Branagh’s productions and quickly rose to the top tier of film actresses, garnering perennial Oscar nominations. Her most successful work to date has been in the literary films directed by James Ivory: Howards End (1992, from the novel by E. M. Forster), for which she won an Oscar as best actress, and The Remains of the Day (1993, from the novel by Kazuo Ishiguro), for which she won a nomination. (She also gave us a great Hillary Clinton in Primary Colors, 1998.) In the oughts she has made a living from the Harry Potter movies while turning in two bravura performances in Angels in America (2003, Mike Nichols) and Stranger Than Fiction (2006, Marc Forster).
这部小说改编作品使她在九十年代中期开始的奇怪的简·奥斯汀热潮中扮演了核心角色。她凭借《理智与情感》（1995 年）再次获得奥斯卡提名，而她的妹妹苏菲则主演了《劝导》（1995 年）和《艾玛》（1996 年；那是小说，而不是女演员），她们的母亲菲丽达·洛也加入了她的行列。 。因此，汤普森家族在两年内参与了奥斯汀五部作品中的三部，只在 BBC/A&E 迷你剧《傲慢与偏见》（1995 年）和艾米·赫克林的《独领风骚》 （1995 年）（ 《艾玛》的更新版）中露面。 （小说，不是电影）。
This work in novel adaptations positioned her to play a central role in the strange Jane Austen craze that began in the mid-nineties. She collected another Oscar nomination for Sense and Sensibility (1995), while her younger sister, Sophie, starred in Persuasion (1995) and Emma (1996; that’s the novel, not the actress), where she was joined by their mother, Phyllida Law. The Thompson family thus had a hand in three of the five Austen projects that hit world screens within two years, missing appearances only in the BBC/A&E miniseries Pride and Prejudice (1995) and in Amy Heckerling’s Clueless (1995), an update of Emma (the novel, not the film).
为什么十九世纪初的小说家在二十世纪末重新受到欢迎，值得思考。也许后现代的性政治比我们愿意承认的更像前维多利亚时代的社会习俗。当然，奥斯丁的小说很早就被证明可以用于电视迷你剧。她的六部作品中的其余两部《诺桑觉寺》和《曼斯菲尔德庄园》是在 1979 年早期版本的《傲慢与偏见》获得成功之后于 80 年代初制作的系列。简·奥斯汀读书俱乐部 ( The Jane Austen Book Club)继续推动着奥斯汀热潮。 2007 年，罗宾·斯威考德 (Robin Swicord)）和《成为简》（Becoming Jane）（2007 年，朱利安·贾罗德）。奥斯汀的许多作品都被重新改编成电视剧，强调那个时期的帝国腰围和低领设计。
Why a novelist from the beginning of the nineteenth century found renewed popularity at the end of the twentieth is interesting to contemplate. Perhaps postmodern sexual politics are more like pre-Victorian social mores than we care to admit. Certainly, Austen’s novels had proved usable for television miniseries early on. Series of the remaining two of her six works, Northanger Abbey and Mansfield Park, were made in the early eighties after an earlier version of Pride and Prejudice had proved successful in 1979. The Austen craze continued into the oughts with The Jane Austen Book Club (2007, Robin Swicord), and Becoming Jane (2007, Julian Jarrold). Many Austen works were redone for television in the oughts emphasizing the Empire waistlines and decolletage of the period.
图 4-93。罗伯托·贝尼尼 (Roberto Benigni) 与乔治·坎塔里尼 (Giorgio Cantarini) 和尼科莱塔·布拉斯基 (Nicoletta Braschi) 在《美丽人生》(La Vita è bella)（ 1997 年）中分享了精彩瞬间。
Figure 4-93. Roberto Benigni shares a moment with Giorgio Cantarini and Nicoletta Braschi in La Vita è bella (Life Is Beautiful, 1997).
虽然历史小说是七八十年代迷你剧工厂的粮食，但这一时期这种形式在大银幕上保持活力主要是由詹姆斯·伊沃里、伊斯梅尔·麦昌特和露丝·普劳尔·贾布瓦拉的独立作品完成的。1963 年，Ivory（美国）和 Merchant（印度）建立了制片合作伙伴关系，拍摄波兰、犹太人、德国、英国、印度人 Prawer Jhabvala 的小说《家主》，该小说讲述了英国人在印度的经历。莎士比亚·沃拉（Shakespeare Wallah ，1963）有着类似的主题，给他们带来了一些国际关注。
While historical novels were grist for the miniseries mills of the seventies and eighties, the form was kept alive on the large screen during this period mainly by the independent work of James Ivory, Ismail Merchant, and Ruth Prawer Jhabvala. Ivory (American) and Merchant (Indian) formed a producing partnership in 1963 to film Polish-Jewish-German-English-Indian Prawer Jhabvala’s novel The Householder, about the English experience in India. Shakespeare Wallah (1963), with a similar theme, brought them some international attention.
七十年代，他们将注意力从英印关系转向历史小说，亨利·詹姆斯的小说取得了一些评论性的成功。《欧洲人》（1979 年）和《波士顿人》（1984 年），然后是《EM 福斯特：看得见风景的房间》（1986 年）、《莫里斯》（1987 年），最后是《霍华德庄园》（1992 年），后者获得了九项奥斯卡金像奖提名。好莱坞只花了三十年的耐心工作就接受了他们的观点。当然，这个团队预示了英国小说家简·奥斯汀在曼哈顿（1980）的热潮。
In the seventies they turned their attention from Anglo-Indian relations to historical novels, gaining some critical success with Henry James’s The Europeans (1979) and The Bostonians (1984) before moving on to E. M. Forster: A Room with a View (1986), Maurice (1987), and finally Howards End (1992), the recipient of nine Academy Award nominations. It had taken only thirty years of patient work for Hollywood to come around to their point of view. Of course this team had foreshadowed the craze for the English novelist with Jane Austen in Manhattan (1980).
Merchant-Ivory 团队在 20 世纪 90 年代末受到导演约翰·麦登 (John Madden) 的挑战。结束了成功的电视生涯后，他与《伊森·弗罗姆》( Ethan Frome，1992)（改编自伊迪丝·沃顿的小说）一起试水了历史。然后，《布朗夫人》（ Mrs. Brown，1997）关于维多利亚女王与她的狩猎经理的关系引起了批评家的关注。《恋爱中的莎士比亚》（1998 年）由马克·诺曼和汤姆·斯托帕德编写的诙谐剧本，由两位年轻的美国演员格温妮丝·帕特洛和本·阿弗莱克主演，赢得了七项奥斯卡金像奖（已获得十三项提名）。
The Merchant-Ivory team was challenged in the late 1990s by director John Madden. Coming out of a successful television career he tested the historical waters with Ethan Frome (1992), from the novel by Edith Wharton; then drew critical attention with Mrs. Brown (1997), about Queen Victoria’s relationship with her hunting manager. Shakespeare in Love (1998) with a witty script by Marc Norman and Tom Stoppard and featuring two young American actors—Gwyneth Paltrow and Ben Affleck—won seven Academy Awards (having been nominated for thirteen).
正如我们之前提到的，澳大利亚人也学会了在家乡和好莱坞之间往返。过去几十年的著名人才包括乔治·米勒（《洛伦佐的石油》， 1993 年；《宝贝》， 1995 年），他为他的未来派内陆“西部/公路”幻想找到了世界市场《疯狂的麦克斯》（1979 年）、《公路战士》（1981 年）、《超越》 《雷霆穹顶》 (Thunderdome ) (1985) 和简·坎皮恩 (Jane Campion) 凭借《同桌天使》(An Angel at My Table , 1990) 和《钢琴》( The Piano , 1993) 获得了国际评论界的认可。
As we noted earlier, Australians have also learned to commute between home and Hollywood. Notable talents of the last few decades included George Miller (Lorenzo’s Oil, 1993; Babe, 1995), who found a world market for his futuristic outback “Western/Road” fantasies Mad Max (1979), The Road Warrior (1981), Beyond Thunderdome (1985), and Jane Campion, who found international critical approbation with An Angel at My Table (1990) and The Piano (1993).
在法国，爸爸电影院再次占据统治地位，1970 年代的学徒已成为 1990 年代和 2000 年代的熟练导演。一如既往地擅长资产阶级戏剧和喜剧（科林·塞罗的《Trois hommes et un couffin》， 1985 年；英文版《三个男人和一个婴儿》， 1987 年），偶尔凭借警察或黑色电影在国际上取得成功（让-雅克·贝内克斯的《Diva》， 1980 年；吕克·贝松的《尼基塔女人》， 1991），法国电影制片人现在发现自己处于向好莱坞出售翻拍权的尴尬境地。
In France, le cinema du papa reigns once again as the apprentices of the 1970s have become the journeyman auteurs of the 1990s and 2000s. Adept as ever at bourgeois dramas and comedies (Coline Serreau’s Trois hommes et un couffin, 1985; remade in English as Three Men and a Baby, 1987) and occasionally finding international success with policiers or films noirs (Jean-Jacques Beineix’s Diva, 1980; Luc Besson’s La Femme Nikita, 1991), French filmmakers now find themselves in the humbling position of selling remake rights to Hollywood.
让-皮埃尔·热内凭借《异形：复活》 (1997) 在好莱坞尝试了自己的运气，随后又凭借《天使爱美丽》 (2001) 在国际上大获成功，这是一部“温暖人心”的故事，也是美国历史上票房最高的法国电影。玛丽昂·歌迪亚 (Marion Cotillard) 凭借《玫瑰人生》 (2007 年，奥利维尔·达汉) 凭借对伊迪丝·琵雅芙 (Edith Piaf) 的演绎获得奥斯卡最佳女主角奖。还有什么比法国现代更经典的呢？洛朗·蒂拉德（Laurent Tirard）像许多当代欧洲导演一样在纽约大学接受过培训，他为《莫里哀》（ Moliere，2007）配乐，这是一部多层次的传记片，让我们想起戈达尔或雷奈的复杂智慧。最重要的是，辛勤工作的雅克·佩兰 (Jacques Perrin) 创作了国际热门作品《有翼的迁徙》(2001)——这是新世纪的重要文献。非小说类电影。到了 2008 年，法国电影已经从低迷中恢复过来，以至于一部法国电影实际上在二十一年来首次赢得了戛纳金棕榈奖（《Entre les murs》， Laurent Cantet）。
Jean-Pierre Jeunet tried his luck in Hollywood with Alien: Resurrection (1997) then had an international hit with Amelie (2001), a “heart-warming” story—and the highest-grossing French film in U.S. history. Marion Cotillard won the Oscar for best actress for La Vie en Rose (2007, Olivier Dahan) for her portrayal of—Edith Piaf. What could be more classically French moderne? Laurent Tirard, trained at NYU like a number of contemporary European directors, scored with Moliere (2007), a many layered biopic that reminded us of the complex intelligence of Godard or Resnais. Most important, hard-working Jacques Perrin produced the international hit Winged Migration (2001)—a major document of the new nonfiction cinema. By 2008 French cinema had recovered from the doldrums sufficiently that a French film actually won the Palme d’Or at Cannes for the first time in twenty-one years (Entre les murs, Laurent Cantet).
图 4-94。罗曼·杜里斯 (Romain Duris) 在洛朗·蒂拉德 (Laurent Tirard) 多层面的《莫里哀》( Molière ，2007)中饰演剧作家，既具有当代性，又具有历史性。
Figure 4-94. Romain Duris as the playwright in Laurent Tirard’s multifaceted Molière (2007), as contemporary as it is historical.
1980 年后的德国电影无法保持 20 世纪 70 年代发展的新电影的国际地位。除了极个别的例外（沃尔夫冈·彼得森的史诗片《Das Boot》， 1981 年；迈克尔·范霍文的政治讽刺片《Das Schreckliche Mädchen》，《讨厌的女孩》， 1990 年），尽管汤姆·提克威的《罗拉快跑》（Run Lola Run， 1998 年），德国电影和德国电影制片人的发展并不顺利。）和弗洛里安·亨克尔·冯·多纳斯马克（Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck）的《Das Leben der Anderen》（《他人的生活》， 2006 年）在国际上取得了巨大的成功。洛拉·伦特 (Lola Rennt)在电影时代证明了一项复杂的实验：在《土拨鼠之日》中以双片形式进行。《他人的生活》是对柏林墙倒塌前斯塔西对东德普遍控制的扣人心弦的调查。
German film after 1980 could not maintain the international following the Neue Kino had developed in the 1970s. With very occasional exceptions (Wolfgang Petersen’s epic Das Boot, 1981; Michael Verhoeven’s political satire Das Schreckliche Mädchen, The Nasty Girl, 1990) German cinema has not traveled well, nor have German filmmakers, although Tom Tykwer’s Lola Rennt (Run Lola Run, 1998) and Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck’s Das Leben der Anderen (The Lives of Others, 2006) achieved significant international success. Lola Rennt proved a sophisticated experiment in film time: run it on a double bill with Groundhog Day. The Lives of Others was a gripping investigation of the pervasive hold of the Stasi on East Germany before the Wall fell.
意大利的情况仅稍好一些，尽管数十家新电视台据称受到了经济刺激，而且并非所有电视台都归西尔维奥·贝卢斯科尼所有。除了托纳托雷之外，毛里齐奥·尼凯蒂（《Ladri di Saponette》、《冰柱窃贼》， 1989 年）也吸引了一批国际追随者。尽管吉安卡洛·帕雷蒂（Giancarlo Parretti）试图通过收购米高梅公司进入好莱坞，但意大利演员和电影制片人在好莱坞的影响力比最近记忆中的任何时候都少。
The situation has been only slightly better in Italy, despite the supposed economic stimulation of dozens of new television stations, not all of which were owned by Silvio Berlusconi. In addition to Tornatore, Maurizio Nichetti (Ladri di Saponette, The Icicle Thief, 1989) developed an international following. Although Giancarlo Parretti tried to buy his way into Hollywood with his purchase of MGM, Italian actors and filmmakers are less in evidence in Hollywood than at any time in recent memory.
然而，有一颗明亮的星星。20世纪90年代的意大利国际新星是罗伯托·贝尼尼。他凭借《约翰尼·斯泰奇诺》（ Johnny Stecchino ，1991 年）创造了意大利票房纪录，并在国内享有盛誉，在国际上也享有同样显着的地位。他参演了吉姆·贾木许的电影《法律制裁》（1986 年）和《地球之夜》（1991 年），并主演了布莱克·爱德华兹的《粉红豹之子》（1993 年）。他自导自演的二战喜剧《美丽人生》（La Vita e bella， 1997）在国际上大获成功，并很快被称为现代经典。最近，Emmanuele Crialese 的《Nuovomondo》（《金门》， 2006）以生动的机智探讨了上世纪的移民经历，唤起了新现实主义的精神。我的叔叔帕斯夸莱会证实它的真实性。
There has been one bright star, however. The Italian international nova of the 1990s was Roberto Benigni. He set an Italian box-office record with Johnny Stecchino (1991), and matched his popularity at home with an equally prominent international standing. He acted in Jim Jarmusch’s Down By Law (1986) and Night on Earth (1991) and starred in Blake Edwards’s Son of the Pink Panther (1993). His World War II drama-comedy Life Is Beautiful (La Vita e bella, 1997), which he directed and in which he starred, proved a major international hit and was quickly dubbed a modern classic. More recently Emmanuele Crialese’s Nuovomondo (Golden Door, 2006) explored the emigrant experience of the last century with a vivid wit that evoked the spirits of Neorealism. My Uncle Pasquale would have confirmed its truth.
图 4-95。LOLA RUNS ：提克威的《Lola Rennt》中的弗兰卡·波坦特 (Franka Potente) ，一首时间与命运的交响曲。
Figure 4-95. LOLA RUNS: Franka Potente in Tykwer’s Lola Rennt, a symphony of time and fate.
20 世纪 80 年代，西班牙导演佩德罗·阿莫多瓦（《濒临崩溃的女人》， 1988 年）在出口其做作的情节剧方面取得了一些成功，并凭借《基卡》（1993 年）和《活肉》 （1997 年）等电影赢得了国际声誉，赢得了外语片奖奥斯卡奖《关于我母亲的一切》(1999)。近三十年来，他一直在国际舞台上为西班牙扛旗。《沃尔弗》（2006）以双语明星佩内洛普·克鲁兹为主角。最近，西班牙电影业重新获得了伦敦外景地的声誉，举办了许多英语作品。如果当代西班牙电影制片人受到的国际关注有西班牙厨师过去十五年所享受的一半就好了。
In the 1980s, Spain’s Pedro Almodóvar (Woman on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown, 1988) had some success exporting his campy melodramas and achieved an international reputation with films like Kika (1993) and Live Flesh (1997), winning a foreign-language Oscar for All About My Mother (1999). He has had to carry the flag for Spain internationally for nearly thirty years. Volver (2006) featured the bilingual star Penelope Cruz. Recently the Spanish film industry has renewed its reputation as London’s back lot, hosting a number of English-language productions. If only contemporary Spanish filmmakers had received half the international attention that Spanish chefs have enjoyed the last fifteen years.
近年来，斯堪的纳维亚电影制片人在世界市场上取得了相当程度的突出地位。Lasse Hallstrom（《My Life as a Dog》， 1985 年）主要在美国工作（《Cider House Rules》， 1999 年；《The Shipping News》， 2001 年；《The Hoax》， 2006 年）。也许是最有趣的导演近年来从斯堪的纳维亚半岛脱颖而出的是芬兰的 Aki Kaurismäki，他展示了从闹剧喜剧到荒诞、面无表情的戏剧等多种风格（Ariel， 1988；Leningrad Cowboys Go America， 1989；The Match Factory Girl， 1990）。
Scandinavian filmmakers have seen a fair degree of prominence in the world market during recent years. Lasse Hallstrom (My Life as a Dog, 1985) has worked mostly in the U.S. (Cider House Rules, 1999; The Shipping News, 2001; The Hoax, 2006). Perhaps the most interesting director to come out of Scandinavia in recent years has been Finland’s Aki Kaurismäki, who has displayed a wide range of styles from slapstick comedy to absurdist, deadpan drama (Ariel, 1988; Leningrad Cowboys Go America, 1989; The Match Factory Girl, 1990).
图 4-96。斯塔西聆听：乌尔里希·穆赫 (Ulrich Mühe) 的《Das Leben derAnderen》，一部偏执狂奏鸣曲。
Figure 4-96. THE STASI LISTENS: Ulrich Mühe in Das Leben derAnderen, a sonata of paranoia.
虽然亚洲的个人电影制片人（成龙、吴宇森）制作的电影在出口到西方的严酷考验中幸存下来，但自 20 世纪 70 年代的菲律宾和香港动作片以来，没有任何运动对世界电影产生过可衡量的影响，直到亚洲电影的蓬勃发展。 20世纪80年代末的中国“第五代”。这些在文革后进入北京电影学院的电影制片人利用媒体的图像来掩盖政治评论。陈凯歌（《黄土地》， 1984；《霸王别姬》， 1993）和前电影摄影师张艺谋（《红高粱》， 1987；菊豆， 1989；《大红灯笼高高挂》， 1991；《秋菊的故事》， 1992）在西方电影节，还有在张早期电影中出演的引人注目的女演员巩俐。第五代实际上随着 1989 年天安门广场起义而结束。后来的电影制片人被笼统地称为第六代。他们的电影更加独立，通常被视为新现实主义。他们没有像前一组那样在国际上取得成功。
While individual filmmakers based in Asia (Jackie Chan, John Woo) produced films that survived the rigors of export to the West, no movement since the Filipino and Hong Kong action films of the 1970s had a measurable impact on world cinema until the burgeoning of the Chinese “Fifth Generation” during the late 1980s. These filmmakers, who attended Beijing Film Institute after the period of the Cultural Revolution, used the imagery of the medium to cloak political commentary. Chen Kaige (Yellow Earth, 1984; Farewell, My Concubine, 1993) and former cinematographer Zhang Yimou (Red Sorghum, 1987; Ju Dou, 1989; Raise the Red Lantern, 1991; The Story of Qiu Ju, 1992) received considerable attention at Western film festivals, as did Gong Li, the striking actress who was featured in early Zhang films. The Fifth Generation effectively ended with the Tienanmen Square revolt in 1989. The filmmaker who have come after have been loosely referred to as the Sixth Generation. Their films are more independent, and often seen as Neorealist. They have not had the international success of the previous group.
在此期间，拉丁美洲和非洲电影制片人普遍局限于国内市场。偶尔会有电影在国际上取得成功（南非杰米·尤斯的《诸神一定很疯狂》， 1981），但在电影制片人和电影观众之间产生富有成效的对话的常规流程在当地边界之外并不存在。
During this period, Latin American and African filmmakers have generally been limited to their domestic markets. Occasional films succeed internationally (South African Jamie Uys’s The Gods Must Be Crazy, 1981), but the regular flow that produces the productive conversation between filmmaker and filmgoer has not existed outside of local borders.
《墨西哥新电影》是一个例外。由于与美国电影业的密切关系，创新的墨西哥导演近年来能够获得全世界的关注。阿方索·卡隆首先凭借《Y Tu Mamá También 》(2001) 给人留下了深刻的印象，然后凭借《哈利·波特与阿兹卡班的囚徒》 (2004) 和《人类之子》 (2006)进入英语轨道。吉列尔莫·德尔·托罗开发了一种噩梦风格，相当于他自己的恐怖类型：潘神的迷宫（2006）。亚历杭德罗·冈萨雷斯·伊纳里图 (Alejandro González Iñárritu) 负责《通天塔》(Babel ) (2006)。这是一部具有里程碑意义的电影，是全球化应该的象征。简而言之，四个故事相互交织：一名日本猎人将一把枪交给一名摩洛哥人，后者将枪卖给了他的邻居，而邻居的儿子则练习用枪向一辆旅游巴士开枪，并意外打伤了与丈夫一起旅行的美国人凯特·布兰切特，她的孩子已经回来了。他们在圣地亚哥的家中，由墨西哥女佣照顾，她带他们去墨西哥参加她儿子的婚礼，但很难穿越边境回来。哦，是的：日本人有一个聋哑女儿，她性饥渴，大部分时间都在日本。*
One exception has been El Nuevo Cine Mexicano. Because of the close relationship with the U.S. film industry innovative Mexican directors have been able to gain worldwide attention in recent years. Alfonso Cuarón first impressed with Y Tu Mamá También (2001) and then moved into the English-language orbit with Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (2004) and Children of Men (2006). Guillermo del Toro has developed a nightmare style that amounts to his own horror genre: Pan’s Labyrinth (2006). Alejandro González Iñárritu is responsible for Babel (2006). This is a landmark film, an emblem for the globalized oughts. In brief, four stories are intertwined: a Japanese hunter gives a gun to a Moroccan who sells it to his neighbor whose son practices with it by shooting at a tour bus and accidentally wounding Cate Blanchett, an American traveling with her husband whose kids are back home in San Diego being looked after by the Mexican maid who takes them to her son’s wedding in Mexico and has trouble getting back across the border. Oh yes: the Japanese guy has a deaf daughter who is sex-starved and gets most of the Japan time.*
从经济角度看，趋势已经并将继续走向更加全球化。美国电影公司可能仍然主导着国际电影市场，但至少其他国家存在加入竞争的潜力——不是通过禁止美国电影，随着技术使发行过程民主化，这变得越来越困难，而是通过挑战美国电影公司自己理解文化输出的经济乘数效应，并做出集体决策，积极参与本国文化的发展和输出。
Economically, the trend has been—and continues to be—toward greater globalization. American studios may still dominate the international film market, but at least the potential exists for other countries to join the contest—not by banning American films, which becomes increasingly difficult as technology democratizes the process of distribution, but by challenging American studios on their own ground, understanding the economic multiplier effects of the export of culture, and making collective decisions to engage enthusiastically in the development and export of their own culture.
从技术上讲，视觉媒体不断发展其精确性，进一步向新的艺术家群体开放神秘的技术过程。曾经是一项需要大量资本投资的庞大事业，现在变成了亚历山大·阿斯特鲁克（Alexandre Astruc）称之为“相机笔”的个人、灵活的沟通工具。与此同时，新技术的传播允许显着增加接触更广泛、更多样化的公众的机会——顺便说一句，与过去相比，这些公众对媒体体验的控制力要大得多。
Technologically, the visual media continue to develop their powers of precision, further opening up the mysterious technological process to new groups of artists. What was once a massive undertaking requiring vast investments of capital is now that personal, flexible instrument of communication that Alexandre Astruc called the “camera-pen.” At the same time, the new technologies of distribution allow markedly increased access to an ever wider and more varied public—a public, by the way, who have far greater control over their experience of media than they had in the past.
从美学角度来看，这些力量的融合正在产生更加多样化的电影产品。“精英”文化和“大众”文化之间的差距几乎消失了。十九世纪的“前卫”概念一年比一年变得不那么重要。
Esthetically, the confluence of these forces is producing a more varied range of cinematic product. The gap between “elite” and “mass” cultures has all but disappeared. And the nineteenth-century concept of the “avant garde” becomes less important with each passing year.
最后，这些力量的总和表明，现在可能是宣布电影/电影/电影院终结的好时机——至少就我们所知而言是这样。从现在开始，“电影”只是一种原材料，是媒体艺术家可以使用的可能选择之一，与光盘和磁带一样。“电影”现在是一种新的、包容性的艺术、技术和工业的一个组成部分，除了“多媒体”之外，我们还没有一个名字。还有“电影”？九十年来，电影主导了我们看待世界的方式——漫长、动荡、浪漫和有意义的生活——之后，电影已经悄然逝去。
Finally, the sum of these forces suggests that it may be a good time to announce the end of movies/film/cinema—at least as we have known them. From now on, “film” is simply a raw material, one of the possible choices, along with disc and tape, available to the media artist. “Movies” are now an integral part of a new, encompassing art, technology, and industry for which we do not yet have a name, except perhaps “multimedia.” And “cinema”? After ninety years of dominating the way we view our world—a long, tempestuous, romantic, and rewarding life—cinema has quietly passed on.
超越电影：元小说、元现实
Beyond Cinema: Metafiction, Metareality
多亏了 DVD、互联网、CGI 和全球化，好莱坞才达到了应有的水平。令人惊讶的是，七十年代的一代人仍然掌握着权力，无论是在片场还是在行政套房中。四十年前的叛逆者现在是当权者。罗伯特·奥特曼 (Robert Altman) 于 2006 年去世，但去世前他完成了他最好的两部电影。斯皮尔伯格、卢卡斯、科波拉和斯科塞斯都做了一些他们应该做的最好的工作。马丁·斯科塞斯甚至赢得了他的第一个奥斯卡奖（《无间行者》， 2006 年）。年近八十的克林特·伊斯特伍德获得了四项奥斯卡最佳导演奖和四项奥斯卡最佳影片提名，并各赢得两项。
Thanks to DVD, the internet, CGI, and globalization, Hollywood is in decent shape at the end of the oughts. Surprisingly, the generation of the seventies still wields power, both on the set and in the executive suites. The rebels of forty years ago are now the Establishment. Robert Altman died in 2006 but not before completing two of his best films. Spielberg, Lucas, Coppola, and Scorsese have all done some of their best work in the oughts. Martin Scorsese even won his first Oscar (The Departed, 2006). And Clint Eastwood, approaching eighty, has been nominated for four best director and four best picture Oscars, winning two of each.
是的，新一代才华横溢的电影制片人在过去十五年中成长起来，但他们并没有要挑战他们的父辈的意思。你说你想要一场革命？那真是……二十世纪。相反，第四代美国电影制片人似乎乐于探索媒体的边界——无论是大片还是更个人化的电影。
Yes, a new generation of talented filmmakers has grown up in the last fifteen years but there is no sense that they are out to challenge their fathers. You say you want a revolution? That’s so … twentieth-century. Instead, this fourth generation of American filmmakers appears content to explore the boundaries of the medium—whether blockbusters or more personal cinema.
认识到当今好莱坞产品有两种不同类型似乎很有用：我们可以称之为夏季电影和冬季电影。大部分收入来自暑期档电影，这些电影更准确地针对年轻电影观众。这里包括动作冒险、动画、漫画、奇幻的大部分类型，以及名副其实的“恶心”电影。*
It seems useful to recognize that there are two separate types of Hollywood product today: what we might call Summer movies and Winter films. Most of the revenue is generated by the Summer movies, aimed ever more precisely at young filmgoers. Include here most the genres of Action-Adventure, Animation, Comics, Fantasy, and the aptly-named Gross-out movie.*
动作冒险片作为九十年代的支柱之一，实际上在过去十年中有所下降。保罗·格林格拉斯的《谍影重重》 (2004) 和昆汀·塔伦蒂诺的《杀死比尔》 (2003) 脱颖而出。制片人杰里·布鲁克海默的《加勒比海盗》系列在为约翰尼·德普的职业生涯注入活力的同时，也成为了票房的主力。沃卓斯基兄弟为《黑客帝国》（1999）及其续集和电子游戏衍生作品配乐。那里有一个想法：唯一的问题是作家自己被困在矩阵内而无法逃脱。
Action-Adventure, one of the mainstays of the nineties, has actually declined somewhat in the last ten years. Paul Greengrass’s The Bourne Supremacy (2004) and Quentin Tarantino’s Kill Bill (2003) stand out. Producer Jerry Bruckheimer’s Pirates of the Caribbean series proved a major box-office force while invigorating the career of Johnny Depp. The Wachowski brothers scored with The Matrix (1999) and its sequels and videogame spinoffs. There was an idea there: the only problem was that the writers themselves were stuck inside the matrix and couldn’t escape.
在过去的十年里，动画一直由皮克斯及其开创的计算机技术统治。从《玩具总动员》（1995 年）到《海底总动员》（2003 年） ，再到《汽车总动员》（2006 年）、《料理鼠王》（2007 年）和《机器人总动员》（2008 年），皮克斯一直处于领先地位。它的主导地位如此之大，据报道迪士尼在 2006 年斥资 74 亿美元收购了该公司。创始人史蒂夫·乔布斯尽管不是电影制片人，但他一定被视为过去 15 年美国电影界的主要力量之一。（如果不是皮克斯，梦工厂动画公司的《怪物史莱克》系列就会统治动画界。）
For the last ten years animation has been ruled by Pixar and the computer techniques they pioneered. From Toy Story (1995) through Finding Nemo (2003) to Cars (2006), Ratatouille (2007), and WALL·E (2008), Pixar has led the way. Its dominance has been such that Disney came up with a reported $7.4 billion to buy the company in 2006. Founder Steve Jobs must be regarded as one of the major forces in American film during the last fifteen years even though he’s not a filmmaker. (If it weren’t for Pixar, Dreamworks Animation would have dominated the animated oughts with their Shrek series.)
正如我们所指出的，随着漫威角色对以山姆·雷米的蜘蛛侠系列为首的 DC 超人和蝙蝠侠进行全场紧逼，漫画类型已经蓬勃发展。与此同时，这一类型本身也受到以《哈利·波特》系列电影为首的奇幻军团的攻击。对哈利的迷恋已经成为一种重要的文化现象——但最重要的是，它首先是一种文学现象：电影是次要的。因为哈利，孩子们开始读书——厚厚的书！如果没有哈利，彼得·杰克逊根据 20 世纪 50 年代牛津大学盎格鲁-撒克逊教授 JRR 托尔金的著作改编的《指环王》电影将占据一席之地。越来越好奇。但托尔金和 JK 罗琳都在尝试古代史诗传奇的现代版本。如果我们回到原来的样子会怎样？现在是时候向《伊利亚特》、《奥德赛》、《埃涅阿斯纪》、《罗兰之歌》、《帕西法尔》、《解放的耶路撒冷》、《激情奥兰多》或《仙后》致敬？（至少《贝奥武甫》得到了应有的回报。）
As we’ve noted, the Comics genre has blossomed in the oughts as the Marvel characters have engaged in a full-court press against DC’s Superman and Batman, led by Sam Raimi’s Spider-Man series. Meanwhile, that genre is itself under attack by the legions of fantasy, led by the Harry Potter films. The fascination with Harry has been a major cultural phenomenon of the oughts—but what is most significant is that it is first a literary phenomenon: the films are quite secondary. Because of Harry, kids are reading books—fat books! If it weren’t for Harry, Peter Jackson’s Lord of the Rings films, based on the writings of J. R. R. Tolkien, an Oxford professor of Anglo-Saxon in the 1950s, would hold pride of place. Curiouser and curiouser. But both Tolkien and J. K. Rowling were attempting modern versions of ancient epic sagas. What if we returned to the originals? Is it time now to pay cinematic homage to The Iliad, The Odyssey, The Aeneid, La Chanson de Roland, Parzifal, La Gerusalemme Liberata, Orlando Furioso, or The Faerie Queene? (At least Beowulf has had its due.)
图 4-97。《料理鼠王》中的巴黎美食老鼠雷米（布拉德·伯德、扬·平卡瓦，2007 年）和《机器人总动员》中疯狂地刮土星环的同名英雄（安德鲁·斯坦顿，2008 年）。随着时间的推移，皮克斯的故事越来越面向成年人。
Figure 4-97. Remy the culinary rat sur les toits de Paris in Ratatouille (Brad Bird, Jan Pinkava, 2007) and the eponymous hero scraping Saturnian rings on a wild ride in WALL·E (Andrew Stanton, 2008). As time has passed, Pixar’s stories have become increasingly oriented to adults.
尽管夏季电影赚了大部分钱，好莱坞也对“长尾”有了新的认识。*最初的 VHS 和现在的 DVD 延长了电影的保质期。（如果你能弥补 DVD 市场上的差额，就不再需要在第一个周末赚大钱了。） 现在，电影的观众是相对较少的成年人——甚至是老年人！——他们冒险去电影院。保持——实际上是增加——它们的生存能力：这些是冬季电影。冬季系列电影并没有严格地划分为类型。相反，它们更好地由态度来定义。简而言之：它们要么是现代的，要么是后现代的。尽管现代主义已经消亡半个世纪，唐纳德·巴塞尔姆在三十年前为后现代主义写下了讣告，但它们仍然与我们同在。
While the Summer films make most of the money Hollywood has also developed a new appreciation for the “Long Tail.”* First VHS and now DVD have lengthened the shelf life of movies. (It is no longer necessary to earn big bucks the first weekend if you can make up the difference in the DVD market.) Now movies whose audience is the relatively small number of adults—and even seniors!—who venture out to the multiplex have maintained—actually increased—their viability: these are the Winter films. The set of Winter films does not break down neatly into genres. Rather they are better defined by attitude. Simply put: they are either Modern or Postmodern. Even though Modernism has been dead for half a century and Donald Barthelme wrote the obituary for Postmodernism thirty years ago they are still with us.
现代主义电影直接讲述关于人物的故事——将其称为“人物”，大写字母 C。想想克林特·伊斯特伍德最近的电影：《神秘河》 (2003 年)、《百万美元宝贝》 (2004 年)、《父辈的旗帜》和《硫磺岛来信》(均为 2006 年）。或者马丁·斯科塞斯的《无间行者》 （2006）或托尼吉尔罗伊的迈克尔克莱顿（2007），或贝蒂托马斯的28天（2000），或塔玛拉詹金斯的野蛮人（2007）。尼尔·拉布特的《贝蒂护士》（2000）和《柳条人》（2006）值得关注，詹姆斯·曼高德的电影《凯特和利奥波德》（2001）、《走线》（2005）、《3:10 to Yuma》（2007）也值得关注。所有这些电影都颂扬人物的丰富性。
The Modernist films tell stories, straight, about characters—make that Characters, with a capital C. Think of Clint Eastwood’s recent films: Mystic River (2003), Million Dollar Baby (2004), Flags of Our Fathers and Letters from Iwo Jima (both 2006). Or Martin Scorsese’s The Departed (2006) or Tony Gilroy’s Michael Clayton (2007), or Betty Thomas’s 28 Days (2000), or Tamara Jenkins’s The Savages (2007). Neil LaBute’s Nurse Betty (2000) and The Wicker Man (2006) deserve attention as do the films of James Mangold: Kate and Leopold (2001), Walk the Line (2005), 3:10 to Yuma (2007). All of these films celebrate the richness of character.
图 4-98。福里斯特·惠特克在《最后的苏格兰国王》中的精彩表演。
Figure 4-98. Forest Whitaker’s tour-de-force performance in The Last King of Scotland.
比尔·康登（Bill Condon）为《芝加哥》（2002 年，罗布·马歇尔）和《梦幻女郎》（2006 年）编写的剧本帮助这部音乐剧保持了活力。他的詹姆斯·鲸鱼（《诸神与怪物》， 1998 年）和阿尔弗雷德·金赛（金赛， 2004 年）传记片也值得关注。
Bill Condon has helped keep the Musical alive with his script for Chicago (2002, Rob Marshall) and Dreamgirls (2006). His biopics of James Whale (Gods and Monsters, 1998) and Alfred Kinsey (Kinsey, 2004) also demand attention.
新的好莱坞第二代已经在理应中站稳了脚跟。索菲亚·科波拉（弗朗西斯的女儿）凭借具有象征意义的跨代跨文化故事《迷失东京》（2003 年）而声名鹊起。正如您从我们的封面中看到的那样，它是本版的标志，唤起了代际过渡。杰森·雷特曼（伊万的儿子）因《谢谢你吸烟》（2005）而受到关注，这部电影具有足够的模糊性和逻辑性，符合埃里克·侯麦电影模式的《孔特·莫罗》。是的，这些道德混乱和复杂性存在于克里斯托弗·巴克利的原著小说中，但杰森认识到它们的价值，值得赞扬。随后他又讲述了一个同样具有道德意义的故事《朱诺》（ Juno，2007）。就像贾里德·赫斯 (Jared Hess) 的热门电影《拿破仑炸药》 ( Napoleon Dynamite，2004) 一样，这个关于怀孕青少年的离奇故事证明，并非所有青少年都陷入了发育迟缓的状态。
A new Hollywood second generation has gained a foothold in the oughts. Sofia Coppola (Francis’s daughter) established her reputation with the symbolic inter-generational, trans-cultural story Lost in Translation (2003). As you see from our cover, it is the emblem for this edition, evoking the generational transition. Jason Reitman (Ivan’s son) gained attention for Thank You for Smoking (2005), a film with enough ambiguities and logic that it qualifies as a Conte Moreau, on the model of Eric Rohmer’s films. Yes, these moral confusions and complexities are in the source novel by Christopher Buckley, but give Jason credit for recognizing their worth. He followed with an equally moral tale, Juno (2007). Like Jared Hess’s cult hit Napoleon Dynamite (2004) this quirky story of a pregnant teenager proves not all teens are stuck in a state of arrested development.
图 4-99。唐·钱德尔 (Don Cheadle) 在《卢旺达饭店》中的精彩表演。
Figure 4-99. Don Cheadle’s tour-de-force performance in Hotel Rwanda.
也许最伟大的两部表演杰作是福里斯特·惠特克在《最后的苏格兰国王》（2006 年，凯文·麦克唐纳）中饰演伊迪·阿明，以及唐·钱德尔在《卢旺达酒店》（2004 年，特里·乔治）中出色的表演。这些电影专注于故事和人物，没有任何伪装。他们引起我们的注意，因为我们想听这些故事。
Perhaps the two greatest acting tours de force in the oughts were Forest Whitaker’s personification of Idi Amin in The Last King of Scotland (2006, Kevin Macdonald) and Don Cheadle’s transcendent performance in Hotel Rwanda (2004, Terry George). These are films that focus on story and character, with no pretenses. They catch our attention because we want to hear these stories.
后现代主义电影的人物和故事可能同样有趣，但它们通过额外的元小说来看待它们：它们让人们注意它们的讲述方式和叙事技巧。与所有夏季电影不同，很少有冬季电影非常注重特效，无论是数字效果还是其他效果。对于这些电影制作人来说，现在操纵图像的惊人方式……已经不是重点了。他们对讲故事的所有不同方式更感兴趣。叙事是他们的痴迷。
The postmodernist films have characters and stories that may be just as interesting—but they see them through an extra layer of metafiction: they call attention to the way they are told, their narrative technique. Unlike all their Summer counterparts few of the Winter films pay much attention to special effects, digital or otherwise. For these filmmakers, the startling ways in which it is now possible to manipulate the image are … beside the point. They are more interested in all the different ways you can tell a story. Narrative is their obsession.
克里斯托弗·诺兰的《记忆碎片》（2000）或许就是这种方法的一个象征。《记忆碎片》的主人公伦纳德失去了短期记忆。为了知道昨天发生了什么，他必须在自己的身上纹上笔记。影片讲述了两个故事，一个向后，一个向前。这是叙事的第一条规则：那些不记得过去的人注定会重蹈覆辙。阿兰·雷奈 (Alain Resnais) 在《我爱你，我爱你》 (Je t'aime, je t'aime ，1968)中赞扬了这一理念，这是第一部关于电影剪辑师世界的电影，其中所有时间都是平等且可编辑的。
Perhaps an emblem for this approach is Christopher Nolan’s Memento (2000). Leonard, the hero of Memento, has lost his short-term memory. In order to know what happened yesterday he has to tattoo notes on his body. The film tells two stories, one backward, one forward. This is the first rule of narrative: those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it. Alain Resnais celebrated this idea in Je t’aime, je t’aime (1968), the first film about the film editor’s world where all times are equal and editable.
叙事自我反思的英雄是查理·考夫曼（查理·考夫曼）（既是真实的查理，又是虚构的查理）。他凭借《Being John》获得第一名 《马尔科维奇》（1999 年，斯派克·琼斯）讲述了一个木偶师进入了演员约翰·马尔科维奇的内心，然后与他的妻子和他所渴望的女人卷入了一个浪漫的四面体，这三个人都在马尔科维奇的内部和外部不同的时间。编剧查理·考夫曼（“真实的”）几年前就被聘请来改编苏珊·奥尔良的一部引人入胜的新闻作品《兰花小偷》。本质上，他放弃了，而是写了一个以自我为中心的剧本，讲述查理·考夫曼面临这个看似无法克服的任务。结果被恰当地命名为《改编》（Adaptation，2002，斯派克·琼斯）。当梅丽尔·斯特里普（饰演苏珊·奥尔良）和克里斯·库珀（饰演兰花小偷）徒步穿越佛罗里达州的沼泽时，我们大部分时间都和焦虑不安的查理和他发明的无忧无虑的双胞胎唐纳德（都是尼古拉斯·凯奇饰演）在一起。为了复合元小说，查理获得了奥斯卡最佳改编剧本提名，并与《唐纳德·考夫曼》分享。这是第一次：同样不真实的艾伦·史密斯可能比唐纳德拥有更多的荣誉，但他从未获得过奥斯卡提名。
The hero of narrative self-reflexivity is Charlie Kaufman (both the real Charlie and the fictional Charlie). He scored first with Being John Malkovich (1999, Spike Jonze) in which a puppeteer finds a way into the mind of the actor John Malkovich, then gets involved in a romantic tetrahedron with his wife and the woman he lusts for, with all three both in and out of Malkovich at various times. Screenwriter Charlie Kaufman (the “real”) had been hired years earlier to adapt The Orchid Thief, a fascinating piece of journalism by Susan Orlean. Essentially, he gave up and—instead—wrote a self-centered script about Charlie Kaufman confronted with this seemingly insuperable task. The result was aptly and ironically titled Adaptation (2002, Spike Jonze). While Meryl Streep (as Susan Orlean) and Chris Cooper (as the Orchid Thief) tramp through Florida swamps, we spend most of our time with angst-ridden Charlie and his invented happy-go-lucky twin Donald (both Nicolas Cage). To compound the metafiction Charlie was nominated for an Oscar for best adapted screenplay and shared it with “Donald Kaufman.” This is a first: the equally unreal Alan Smithee may have more credits than Donald, but he has never been nominated for an Oscar.
图 4-100。尼古拉斯·凯奇在改编剧中饰演查理·考夫曼和唐纳德·考夫曼。谁在写谁？
Figure 4-100. Nicolas Cage as Charlie Kaufman and Donald Kaufman in Adaptation. Who’s writing whom?
接下来是 2004 年的《美丽心灵的永恒阳光》（米歇尔·冈瑞导演）。这次的身份焦虑集中在记忆上。在一次失败的恋情之后，乔尔（金·凯瑞饰）想要忘记克莱门汀（凯特·温斯莱特饰）。Lacuna 公司提供这项服务，但在这个过程中，乔尔反抗，决定保留他失去的爱人的记忆。影片以十七分半钟的片头开始（创纪录？）：直到很久以后我们才明白这是故事的结尾，而不是开始。
Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind followed in 2004 (directed by Michel Gondry). This time the identity anxiety is focused on memory. After a failed affair, Joel (Jim Carrey) wants to forget Clementine (Kate Winslet). The Lacuna Company offers this service, but in the middle of this process Joel rebels, deciding to preserve the memories of his lost love. The film begins with a seventeen-and-a-half-minute pre-credit sequence (a record?): only much later do we understand that this was the end of the story, not the beginning.
查理·考夫曼在好莱坞的第一份工作是为情景喜剧《Get a Life》（1991）编剧。两集后他就离开了。嗯……
Charlie Kaufman’s first job in Hollywood was writing for the sitcom Get a Life (1991). He left after two episodes. Hmmn….
图 4-101。音乐剧万岁！_ _ _ 《德洛维》（De-Loveiy，2004）是黄金时代的奇怪回声，是一部科尔·波特的传记，由杰伊·科克斯撰写，欧文·温克勒执导，这两位老科克斯本来没有机会获得这样一部应该获得批准的电影。凯文·克莱恩是科尔，阿什莉·贾德是他的妻子。经典的波特曲调与情节紧密结合，由埃尔维斯·科斯特洛、娜塔莉·科尔和戴安娜·克拉尔等当代艺术家演唱。拉里·金被引述为“迄今为止最好的音乐传记”。我必须同意。生活是一件艺术品“每次我们说再见，我都会死去一点。”
Figure 4-101. LONG LIVE THE MUSICAL! A strange echo of the golden age, De-Loveiy (2004) is a biography of Cole Porter written by Jay Cocks and directed by Irwin Winkler, two alte kockes who should have had no chance getting a film like this greenlighted in the oughts. Kevin Kline is Cole, Ashley Judd his wife. The classic Porter tunes, tightly integrated with the plot, are sung by contemporary artists from Elvis Costello to Natalie Cole and Diana Krall. Larry King is quoted saying “far and away best musical biography ever made.” I must agree. Life as a work of art “Every time we say goodbye, I die a little.”
马克·福斯特的《比小说更陌生》 （2006 年，扎克·赫尔姆编剧）对角色和作者之间发生的戏剧性事件进行了更为巧妙的处理，其中哈罗德（威尔·法瑞尔饰）发现自己是凯伦（艾玛·汤普森饰）所写小说中的一个角色。他听到她讲述他的生活。他向文学评论家希尔伯特教授（达斯汀霍夫曼饰）咨询，希尔伯特教授恰好是凯伦作品的粉丝。哈罗德的困境：他应该为了小说的真实性而让自己死去吗？是的，这种不寻常的叙述让人回想起近九十年前路易吉·皮兰德娄（Luigi Pirandello）的《寻找作者的六个人物》 ，但谁声称后现代主义不是——也是——现代的？
The drama that ensues between character and author was handled more brightly in Marc Forster’s Stranger Than Fiction (2006, written by Zach Helm) in which Harold (Will Ferrell) discovers he is a character in a novel being written by Karen (Emma Thompson). He hears her narrating his life. He consults with Professor Hilbert (Dustin Hoffman), a literary critic who just happens to be a fan of Karen’s work. Harold’s dilemma: should he allow himself to die for the authenticity of the novel? Yes, this unusual narrative harks back to Luigi Pirandello’s Six Characters in Search of an Author nearly ninety years before, but whoever claimed postmodernism wasn’t—also—modern ?
韦斯·安德森给了我们一系列拱门、以自我为中心、但有时又很有趣的叙事：《皇家特南鲍姆》（The Royal Tenenbaums，2001 年）、《史蒂夫·齐苏的水上生活》（The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou，2004 年）、 《大吉岭有限公司》（ The Darjeeling Limited，2007 年）。你会发现很多作者论者的作品。自负和诡计，但最终韦斯·安德森的世界都是自我反思的纽约上西区中产阶级。
Wes Anderson has given us a series of arch, self-centered, but sometimes entertaining narratives: The Royal Tenenbaums (2001, The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou (2004), The Darjeeling Limited (2007). You’ll find a lot of auteurist conceits and tricks, but in the end Wes Anderson’s world is all self-reflexive Upper West Side New York middle class.
图 4-102。凯特·温丝莱特和金·凯瑞在《美丽心灵的永恒阳光》中。他们中的哪一个在做梦？
Figure 4-102. Kate Winslet and Jim Carrey in Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind. Which one of them is dreaming?
图 4-103。新生轴。_ _ 韦斯·安德森的《大吉岭有限》是延长青春期类型的象征。詹森·舒瓦兹曼、艾德里安·布罗迪和欧文·威尔逊开始寻找自己和他们的妈妈。
Figure 4-103. ADOLESCENT AXIS. Wes Anderson’s The Darjeeling Limited served as an emblem for the genre of extended adolescence. Jason Schwartzman, Adrien Brody, and Owen Wilson set out to find themselves—and their Mama.
相反，保罗·托马斯·安德森（无亲属关系）为我们描绘了西海岸社会的肖像，最著名的是《不羁之夜》（1997）和《木兰花》（1999），这两部令人印象深刻的集体电影。他沉默了一段时间，然后凭借历史史诗《血色将至》而在现场爆发
Paul Thomas Anderson (no relation), on the contrary, has given us portraits of West-Coast society, most notably in Boogie Nights (1997) and Magnolia (1999), two impressive ensemble films. He was quiet for awhile before exploding on the scene with the historical epic There Will Be Blood
保罗·哈吉斯的《撞车》 (2004)无疑是“应该”的标志性电影。这是一部终极合奏电影，共有 18 个主要角色（标题上方列出了 12 颗星星），它像 PT 安德森的电影一样讲述了多个故事，但对当时的政治局势有着深刻的认识。这部电影以当代洛杉矶为背景，历时三十六小时。唐·钱德尔（Don Cheadle）扮演该团体的核心人物，一名警探。
The emblematic film of the oughts must be Paul Haggis’s Crash (2004). With eighteen major characters (twelve stars listed above the title) it is the ultimate ensemble film telling multiple stories like P. T. Anderson’s films but with a profound sense of the politics of the situation. The film is set in contemporary Los Angeles and takes place over a thirty-six-hour period. Don Cheadle plays the central character of the group, a police detective.
设置：
The setup:
这就是触觉。任何真实的城市，你走路时，你知道，你会与人们擦肩而过
，人们会撞到你。在洛杉矶没人碰。我们始终
支持这种金属和玻璃。我想我们非常怀念那种触摸，以至于
我们互相撞在一起，这样我们就能感受到一些东西。
It’s the sense of touch. Any real city, you walk, you know, you brush past
people, people bump into you. In LA nobody touches. We’re always
behind this metal and glass. I think we miss that touch so much that
we crash into each other just so we can feel something.
种族和阶级错综复杂的交织在一起，《撞车》将你唤醒到二十一世纪的真实世界。它有多层讽刺：局外人（瑞恩·菲利普）是个红发女郎，就像阿尔伯特·加缪笔下的局外人一样。伊朗人扮演阿拉伯人，波多黎各人扮演墨西哥人，韩国人扮演中国人。（当然，保罗·哈吉斯出生于加拿大。）
An intricate weave of race and class, Crash wakes you up to the real world of the twenty-first century. It has multiple layers of irony: the outsider (Ryan Phillippe) is a red-head just like Albert Camus’s Outsider. The Arabs are played by Iranians, the Mexicans by Puerto Ricans, the Chinese by Koreans. (And, of course, Paul Haggis was born Canadian.)
查理·考夫曼几年前犯了一个重大错误，当时他决定无法为《兰花窃贼》写出合适的剧本。他是一个小说家，他看不到兰花的戏剧性。他错过了参与过去十年来电影艺术最重要的发展：非虚构作品的复兴。
Charlie Kaufman made a signal error years ago when he decided he couldn’t write a proper script for The Orchid Thief. Fictionist that he is, he couldn’t see the drama in orchids. He missed out on participating in the most important development in the art of film in the last ten years: the renaissance of nonfiction.
图 4-104。后现代叙事。_ 仅仅讲一个故事已经不够了；现在，电影制片人有责任讲述故事的故事。PT 安德森的《不羁之夜》中的唐·钱德尔。凯特·布兰切特和布拉德·皮特在亚历杭德罗·冈萨雷斯·伊纳里图的《通天塔》中。《詹姆斯·曼高德的身份》中的雷·利奥塔、约翰·霍克斯和约翰·库萨克。凯特·布兰切特 (Cate Blanchett ) 与史蒂夫·齐苏 (Steve Zissou) 在韦斯·安德森 (Wes Anderson) 执导的《水上生活》中采访比尔·默里 ( Bill Murray)。威尔·法雷尔在马克·福斯特的《比小说更陌生》中借助视觉界面测量自己的步伐。史蒂文·索德伯格的《交通》中的路易斯·古兹曼、米格尔·费雷尔和唐·钱德尔。所有这些电影——就像许多其他电影一样——都尝试了自我意识的叙事技巧。
Figure 4-104. POSTMODERN NARRATIVE. It is no longer sufficient to tell a story; now it is incumbent on filmmakers to tell stories about stories. Don Cheadle in P. T. Anderson’s Boogie Nights. Cate Blanchett and Brad Pitt in Alejandro González Iñárritu’s Babel. Ray Liotta, John Hawkes, and John Cusack in James Mangold’s Identity. Cate Blanchett interviewing Bill Murray in Wes Anderson’s The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou. Will Ferrell measuring his paces with the help of a visual interface in Marc Forster’s Stranger than Fiction. Luis Guzman, Miguel Ferrer, and Don Cheadle in Steven Soderbergh’s Traffic. All of these films—like so many others in the oughts—experiment with self-conscious narrative technique.
部分原因在于 DVD 介质。按理来说，一部电影可以在几周内拍摄和剪辑，并在几天后录制成光盘并可供出售。但大多数非小说类热门作品也取得了戏剧上的成功。我们已经注意到迈克尔·摩尔在三部有史以来最卖座的“纪录片”中所取得的成就。对于他所有的暴躁观点认为，摩尔仍然是这十年的导演。我们还注意到阿尔·戈尔的非凡成就。
Partly this was due to the DVD medium. In the oughts a film could be shot and edited within weeks, and committed to disc and available for sale days later. But most of the nonfiction hits of the oughts were theatrical successes, as well. We’ve already noted Michael Moore’s achievements with three of the top-grossing “documentaries” of all time. For all his irascible opinions, Moore remains the auteur of the decade. We’ve also noted Al Gore’s remarkable achievement.
Figure 4-105. Fathers carry the young in March of the Penguins.
但吸引大量观众的不仅仅是散文电影。自然电影也是如此。雅克·佩兰的《有翼的迁徙》（Le Peuple migrateur， 2001 年，雅克·克鲁佐和米歇尔·德巴特主演）在戏剧界大受欢迎，仅次于吕克·雅凯的《企鹅大迁徙》（2005 年）。为什么法国人在这一类型上取得如此成功？雅克·库斯托：他发明了现代自然电影。
But it wasn’t just the essay films that drew significant audiences. Nature films did as well. Jacques Perrin’s Winged Migration (Le Peuple migrateur. 2001, with Jacques Cluzaud and Michel Debats) was a theatrical hit, exceeded only by Luc Jacquet’s March of the Penguins (2005). Why do the French succeed so well at this genre? Jacques Cousteau: he invented the modern nature film.
七十多年来，从罗伯特·弗莱厄蒂（Robert Flaherty）和约翰·格里尔森（John Grierson）到让·鲁什（Jean Rouch）和唐恩·彭内贝克（Donn Pennebaker），纪录片制片人的纯粹目标就是捕捉（“记录”）现实：我们对电影制片人和电影制作过程的了解越少越好。 。现在，非虚构电影制片人更喜欢评论我们所看到的现实。他们和他们的想法是“活动的一部分”。这些散文家更关心元现实，就像他们的讲故事的同事总是意识到他们的叙述的元小说一样。
For more than seventy years, from Robert Flaherty and John Grierson to Jean Rouch and Donn Pennebaker, the pure goal of documentary filmmakers had been to capture—“document”—reality: the less we saw of the filmmakers and the filmmaking process, the better. Now nonfiction filmmakers prefer to comment on the reality we see. They, and their ideas, are “part of the event.” These essayists are more concerned with metareality, just as their storyteller colleagues are always conscious of the metafiction of their narrative.
二十多年来，自然纪录片一直是电视节目的主要内容（也是观众升级到高清屏幕的主要原因）。现在，保护自然世界的遗迹已成为一个主要的政治话题，它们在大银幕上也占有一席之地。如果查理·考夫曼敢于接受改编《兰花贼》的挑战，他的电影可能会成为新超现实的经典之一。但考夫曼——就像他这一代的许多人一样——被困在元小说的矩阵中。
Nature documentaries have been a staple of television programming for more than twenty years (and a major reason viewers were upgrading to high-definition screens in the oughts). Now that the preservation of what’s left of the natural world has become a major political topic they have a niche on the big screen, too. Had he risen to the challenge of adapting The Orchid Thief, Charlie Kaufman’s film might have been one of the classics of the new metareality. But Kaufman—like so many of his generation—was stuck in the matrix of metafiction.
图 4-106。权利的象征。_ 保罗·哈吉斯的《撞车》以复杂的演员阵容和情节反映了“应该”的新叙事形式，但它超越了这一类型，为在媒体圈中漂泊的当代美国城市提供了一幅令人心酸的肖像。（从左到右，从上到下）：马特·狄龙、泰伦斯·霍华德、克里斯·“卢达克里斯”·布里奇斯、桑德拉·布洛克、杰克·麦基、杰登·隆德、肖恩·托布、巴哈特·苏姆赫、瑞恩·菲利普、诺娜·盖伊、布伦丹·弗雷泽、詹妮弗·埃斯波西托、唐·钱德尔、凯瑟琳·约克和泰伦斯·霍华德。
Figure 4-106. EMBLEM OF THE OUGHTS. While reflecting the new narrative forms of the oughts with a complex ensemble cast and plot, Paul Haggis’s Crash transcended the genre, providing a poignant portrait of contemporary urban America, adrift in the mediasphere. (Left to right, from top): Matt Dillon, Terrence Howard, Chris “Ludacris” Bridges, Sandra Bullock, Jack McGee, Jayden Lund, Shaun Toub, Bahart Soomekh, Ryan Phillippe, Nona Gaye, Brendan Fraser, Jennifer Esposito, Don Cheadle, Kathleen York, and Terrence Howard.
5
电影理论：形式与功能
5
Film Theory: Form and Function
PUDOVKIN, EISENSTEIN, BALÁIS, AND
MISE-EN-SCÈNE: MISE-EN-SCÈNE: NEOREALISM, BAZIN, AND GODARD
“我们对电影是什么（形式）更感兴趣，还是对它如何作用于我们（功能）更感兴趣？”
“Are we more interested in what a film is (form) or in how it acts upon us (function)?”
批评家
The Critic
在梅尔·布鲁克斯（Mel Brooks）和欧内斯特·平托夫（Ernest Pintoff）有趣而富有洞察力的短片《批评家》（ The Critic，1963）中，我们观看屏幕上抽象的动画形状的表演，同时听到布鲁克斯这位老人的声音，他愉快地思考着这种“艺术”的意义：
In Mel Brooks’s and Ernest Pintoff’s funny and insightful short film The Critic (1963), we watch abstract animated shapes perform on the screen as we hear the voice of Brooks, an old man, puzzle his way happily through the significance of this “art”:
Vot da hell 是这样的吗？！
Vot da hell is dis?!
一定是个卡通人物。
Mus’ be a cahtoon.
哦……，必须是两者。迪斯看起来像博思。我记得我小时候在俄罗斯……生物学。
Op.…, Mus’ be boith. Dis looks like boith. I remembeh when I was a boy in Russia … biology.
欧！它诞生了。不管是什么，它诞生了...... 小心！为时已晚。它已经死了……Vot 是dis？招待员！迪斯很可爱！迪斯很可爱。迪斯很好。这是什么鬼？哦。我知道是这样。这是垃圾。这就是投票！我花两块钱看一部法国电影，一部外国电影，现在我要看这些垃圾！
Op! It’s born. Whatever it is, it’s born…. Look out! Too late. It’s dead already … Vot’s dis? Usher! Dis is cute! Dis is cute. Dis is nice. Vot da hell is it? Oh. I know vot it is. It’s gobbage. Dat’s vot it is! Two dollas I pay for a French movie, a foreign movie, and now I gotta see dis junk!
第一个形状与第二个形状相连，布鲁克斯解释道：
The first shape is joined by a second, and Brooks interprets:
是的。这是两件事……两件事，他们彼此喜欢。当然。看火花四射。两件事相爱！你看到它变得更像了吗？——它非常羡慕另一件事。难道这就是两件事的性生活吗？
Yes. It’s two … two things dat, dat, dat—they like each other. Sure. Lookit da sparks. Two things in love! Ya see how it got more like?—it envied the other thing so much. Could dis be the sex life of two things?
场景再次变化，布鲁克斯的老家伙开始失去兴趣：
The scene changes again and Brooks’s old codger begins to lose interest:
投票是dis？点！可能是一只眼睛。可以是任何东西！这一定是某种象征意义。我认为……它象征着……垃圾！呃-哦！这是一只蟑螂！祝你好运，先生！
Vot is dis? Dots! Could be an eye. Could be anything! It mus’ be some symbolism. I t’ink … it’s symbolic of … junk! Uh-oh! It’s a cock-a-roach! Good luck to you vit ya cock-a-roach, mister!
As the artistic short comes to a close, the critic passes final judgment:
我对心理分析不太了解，但我想说这是一个doity pictcha！
I dunno much about psych’analysis, but I’d say dis is a doity pictcha!
《批评家》之所以幽默，部分原因是布鲁克斯在短短三分钟的独白中设法触及了批评的一些重要真理。我们为一部电影支付“两美元”；我们能得到什么？我们如何确定电影价值？我们如何知道什么是“垃圾的象征”？梅尔·布鲁克斯的评论家中的观众中还有其他人似乎很喜欢这部电影。那么，价值观完全是相对的吗？电影艺术有真正的普遍“规则”吗？电影有什么作用？它的局限性是什么？
The Critic is humorous partly because Brooks manages, in the short space of his three-minute monologue, to touch on a number of vital truths about criticism. “Two dollas” we pay for a movie; what do we get for it? How do we determine cinematic value? How do we know what’s “symbolic of junk”? There are others in the audience with Mel Brooks’s critic who seem to be enjoying the film. Are values, then, entirely relative? Are there any true universal “rules” for film art? What does film do? What are its limits?
诸如此类的问题属于电影理论和批评的范畴，这两项相关但不相同的活动的共同目标是加深对电影现象的理解。从广义上讲，理论是抽象的；批评就是实践。在规模的最低端，我们发现审稿人所进行的批评：报告文学多于分析。影评人的职责就是描述电影并评价它，这是两个相对简单的任务。处于最上层的电影理论与电影的实际实践几乎没有关系：一种智力活动，主要是为了自身的目的而存在，通常有其自身的回报，但并不一定能带来回报。与现实世界有很大关系。在这两个极端之间，还有很大的空间可以开展有用且有趣的工作。
Questions like these are the province of film theory and criticism, two related but not identical activities that have as their common end an increased understanding of the phenomenon of film. Broadly, theory is the abstraction; criticism is the practice. At the lowest end of the scale, we find the kind of criticism a reviewer practices: more reportage than analysis. The reviewer’s function is to describe the film and evaluate it, two relatively simple tasks. At the upper end of the scale is the kind of film theory that has little or nothing to do with the actual practice of film: an intellectual activity that exists primarily for its own sake, and often has its own rewards, but doesn’t necessarily have much relation to the real world. Between these two extremes there is much room for useful and interesting work.
许多重要的二分法支配着电影理论的工作。首先，实践与理想的对比，是由批评（实践）与理论（理想）之间的差异所暗示的。
A number of important dichotomies govern the work of film theory. The first, the contrast between the practical and the ideal, is suggested by the difference between criticism (practical) and theory (ideal).
与此密切相关的是“规范性”和“描述性”理论与批评之间的对比。规定性理论家关心电影应该是什么，而描述性理论家只关心电影是什么。规定性理论是归纳性的：也就是说，理论家首先决定一个价值体系，然后根据他的体系来衡量实际的电影。相比之下，描述性理论是演绎性的：理论家检查电影活动的整个范围，然后，只有到那时，才能得出关于电影真实本质的初步结论。提出规定的理论家和批评家自然关心评价；他们拥有强大的价值观体系，可以根据自己的要求逻辑地衡量真实的电影并对其进行评判。
Closely associated with this is the contrast between “prescriptive” and “descriptive” theory and criticism. The prescriptive theorist is concerned with what film should be, the descriptive theorist only with what film is. Prescriptive theory is inductive: that is, the theorist decides on a system of values first, then measures actual films against his system. Descriptive theory, in contrast, is deductive: the theorist examines the entire range of film activity and then, and only then, draws tentative conclusions about the real nature of film. Theorists and critics who prescribe are naturally concerned about evaluation; having strong systems of values, they logically measure real films against their requirements and judge them.
第三个也是最重要的管理二分法是理论与实践之间的二分法。事实上，没有哪个电影制片人需要为了实践艺术而学习理论。确实，早年很少有电影人对理论有兴趣。他们本能地知道（或不知道）必须做什么。然而，随着电影艺术变得更加复杂，理论与实践之间的桥梁逐渐建立起来。与他们的前辈不同，许多当代电影制片人现在都有强大的理论基础。就连好莱坞的办公室现在也挤满了电影研究博士。自从科波拉、斯科塞斯和卢卡斯（都是电影学院的学生）这一代人掌权以来，高级学位就为电影制片厂系统提供了重要的入口。
The third and most important governing dichotomy is that between theory and practice. The fact is, no filmmaker needs to study the theory in order to practice the art. Indeed, in the early years very few filmmakers had any interest in theory. They knew (or did not know) instinctively what had to be done. Gradually, however, as film art became more sophisticated, a bridge between theory and practice was established. Many contemporary filmmakers, unlike their predecessors, now proceed from strong theoretical bases. Even Hollywood offices are now full of cinema studies Ph.D.s; since the generation of Coppola, Scorsese, and Lucas (film-school students all) took charge, advanced degrees have provided an important entree to the studio system.
这是好莱坞经营方式的重大变化。事实上，在很大程度上仍然主导着电影史的好莱坞风格从未产生过一套成文的理论体系。从表面上看，三四十年代的好莱坞电影依赖于发达的审美体系，但并不存在好莱坞理论。没有任何艺术需要理论；没有艺术家需要高级学位。当学术研究成为就业的必要条件时，艺术的本质就发生了变化：它变得自我意识，并且可能变得不那么令人兴奋。即使你不是一个疯狂的浪漫主义者，你也会相信，正是那些违反规则的叛徒创造了最迷人的艺术。正规培训可以确保一定水平的熟练工人的能力，但它往往会抑制创造力。我们用天才的兴奋来换取品牌质量的保证。这或许可以解释自七十年代初以来美国电影所发生的一切。
This is a major change in the way Hollywood does business. Indeed, the Hollywood style, which to a great extent still dominates film history, never produced a codified body of theory. On the face of it, the Hollywood film of the thirties and forties depended on a well developed esthetic system, yet there is no Hollywood theory as such. No art needs theory; no artist needs an advanced degree. When academic study becomes a requirement for employment, the very nature of the art changes: it becomes self-conscious and it probably becomes less exciting. You don’t have to be a wild-eyed romantic to believe that it’s the renegades who break the rules who make the most intriguing art. Formal training ensures a certain level of journeyman competence, but it tends to suppress creativity. We trade off the excitement of genius for the assurance of branded quality. This may explain what has happened to American film since the early seventies.
当然，古代大师们都是见机行事。DW 格里菲斯（DW Griffith）（他启发了许多理论家）所能想到的最好的办法就是一个相当令人眼花缭乱的想法，即“人体脉搏跳动”是有效电影制作的秘密节拍器。在《电影中的节奏》（自由杂志，1926 年）中，他写道：
The old masters, of course, played it by ear. The best that D. W. Griffith (who inspired so many theorists) could come up with was a rather dizzy idea that the “human pulse beat” was the secret metronome of effective filmmaking. In “Pace in the Movies” (Liberty magazine, 1926), he wrote:
美国学派……努力使画面的节奏与人类的平均心跳保持一致，当然，在兴奋等影响下，心跳的速度会加快，并且可能在充满悬念的时刻几乎停止。
The American school … makes an effort to keep the tempo of the picture in tune with the average human heartbeat, which, of course, increases in rapidity under such influences as excitement, and may almost stop in moments of pregnant suspense.
这种事后思考很大程度上是电影作为最年轻的艺术本身的自卑感的结果。克里斯蒂安·梅茨认为，从精神分析的角度来看，这种批评的作用是将电影从“坏客体”的状态中拯救出来。更简单地说，这种想法是：如果电影能够支持一个重要的理论体系，那么它一定和其他任何古老的艺术一样受人尊敬。对于电影理论来说，这似乎是一个相当幼稚的动机，但不久前，受过教育的人普遍认为电影不值得认真对待。例如，在美国，电影并没有成为大学和学院普遍接受的学习科目。直到 1970 年左右，大学才开始研究电影理论。因此，早期电影理论的大部分推动力是获得一定程度的尊重。*
Much of this sort of after-the-fact cogitation was the result of film’s own inferiority complex as the youngest of the arts. Christian Metz suggests that the function of such criticism, psychoanalytically, is to rescue film from its “bad-object” status. More simply, the thinking went: if film can support a weighty system of theory, then it must be just as respectable as any of the other, older arts. This may seem a rather childish motive for film theory, but it was not so long ago that film was commonly regarded by educated people as not to be taken seriously. In the U.S., for example, film did not become a generally accepted subject for study in colleges and universities until about 1970. So the impetus for much of early film theory was to gain a degree of respectability.*
由于这种对受人尊敬的渴望，许多最早的电影理论著作都是规定性的——通常相当自命不凡，但有时却非常详尽。继续精神分析的隐喻，我们可以将其视为电影“超我”的优势——它对艺术界行为标准和受人尊敬的感觉——因为它努力被平等对待，并控制了其自然的性欲冲动。“标准”是必要的，电影理论家提供了它们。现在电影理论已经成熟，它不太可能坚持通常源自电影本身领域之外的规则和规定，而是专注于发展自己的更灵活和更复杂的价值观。
Because of this desire for respectability many of the earliest works of film theory were prescriptive—often quite pretentiously so, but sometimes intriguingly elaborate. Continuing the psychoanalytic metaphor, we can think of this as the ascendancy of film’s “superego”—its sense of the artistic community’s standards of behavior and respectability—as it struggled to be treated as an equal, and mastered its natural libidinous impulses. “Standards” were necessary, and film theorists provided them. Now that film theory has matured, it is much less likely to insist on rules and regulations often derived from outside the domain of film itself and instead concentrates on developing its own more flexible and more sophisticated values.
在任何特定的电影理论中，都存在许多对立的观点。该理论主要是美学的还是主要是哲学的？它是否涉及电影各个部分之间的关系，或者特定电影的各个部分之间的关系？还是关心电影与文化、电影与个人、电影与社会之间的关系？
Within any specific film theory, there are a number of oppositions at work. Is the theory mainly esthetic or mainly philosophical? Does it deal with the relationships of parts of cinema to each other, or the parts of a specific film to each other? Or does it concern itself with the relationships between film and culture, film and the individual, film and society?
谢尔盖·爱森斯坦仍然是最丰富的电影理论家，他使用电影术语来描述各种电影研究方法之间的差异。在他 1945 年的论文《特写镜头》中，他将“远景”电影理论描述为在语境中处理电影，判断其政治和社会影响的理论。与此同时，“中镜头”电影批评则侧重于电影的人性尺度，这也是大多数评论家所关心的。然而，“特写”理论“将电影‘分解’成各个部分”并“将电影分解成其元素”。例如，电影符号学和其他试图处理电影“语言”的理论都是近距离的方法。
Sergei Eisenstein, still the most fecund of film theorists, used cinematic terminology to describe the difference between various approaches to film study. In his 1945 essay “A Close-up View” he described “long-shot” film theory as that which deals with film in context, which judges its political and social implications. “Medium-shot” film criticism, meanwhile, focuses on the human scale of the film, which is what most reviewers concern themselves with. “Close-up” theory, however, “‘breaks down’ the film into its parts” and “resolves the film into its elements.” Film semiotics and other theories that attempt to treat the “language” of film, for example, are close-up approaches.
这里的基本概念是形式与功能之间的经典对立。我们对电影是什么（形式）更感兴趣，还是对它如何作用于我们（功能）更感兴趣？正如我们将看到的，电影理论花了很长一段时间才从对艺术形式的关注转向对其功能进行更困难和更有意义的分析。渐渐地，处方已经让位于更多像电影理论那样的科学调查方法已经变得不那么苛刻并且更加好奇。
The essential concept here is the classic opposition between form and function. Are we more interested in what a film is (form) or in how it acts upon us (function)? As we shall see, it was quite a while before film theory turned from a focus on the form of the art to the more difficult and meaningful analysis of its function. Gradually, prescription has yielded to more scientific methods of investigation as film theory has become less demanding and more inquisitive.
诗人和哲学家：林赛和明斯特伯格
The Poet and the Philosopher: Lindsay and Münsterberg
正如我们所指出的，第一批电影理论家主要感兴趣的是——有些人比其他人更有意识地——为年轻艺术提供令人尊敬的艺术声望。1915 年，正当故事片崭露头角时，当时的著名诗人瓦切尔·林赛 (Vachel Lindsay) 出版了《电影的艺术》，这是一部活泼、天真的、往往简单化但仍然富有洞察力的对狂野、青春的赞歌。流行艺术。
The first film theorists, as we have noted, were mainly interested—some more consciously than others—in providing a respectable artistic cachet for the young art. In 1915, just as the feature film was rising to prominence, Vachel Lindsay, at that time a well-known poet, published The Art of the Moving Picture, a lively, naive, often simplistic, but nevertheless insightful paean to the wild, youthful popular art.
他的书的标题就是一个有争议的命题：他挑战读者将这种杂耍娱乐视为一种真正的艺术。他以既定的叙事和视觉艺术模型为基础，确定了三种基本类型的“摄影剧”，当时那些自命为艺术站的电影被称为：“动作摄影剧”、“亲密摄影剧”和“动作摄影剧”。自此之后，《光辉灿烂的图片》这三个类别就很好地对好莱坞电影进行了三角剖分。在每种情况下，林赛都注意到并制定了叙事元素，在这些元素中，电影不仅可以与其他艺术相媲美，而且常常超越其他艺术：动作、亲密和辉煌都是强大的（有时是粗鲁的）、直接的价值——而且仍然如此。
The very title of his book was an argumentative proposition: he challenged his readers to consider this sideshow entertainment as a real art. Working on the model of the established narrative and visual arts, he identified three basic types of “photoplays,” as movies with pretensions to artistic station were then called: “The Photoplay of Action,” “The Intimate Photoplay,” and “The Motion Picture of Splendor,” three categories that serve well to triangulate Hollywood cinema ever since. In each case, Lindsay had noticed and formulated elements of narrative in which film could not only rival but often surpass the other arts: Action, Intimacy, and Splendor were all strong (sometimes crude), direct values—and still are.
林赛凭着对电影的热情，凭直觉进一步将电影的潜力与旧艺术的成就进行比较，依次将电影讨论为“运动中的雕塑”、“运动中的绘画”和“运动中的绘画”。 “运动中的建筑。” 他用两章总结了电影美学的基本轮廓，每一章都以自己的方式令人惊讶地具有先见之明。在他写作的时候，那些少数受到文化机构认真对待的电影是那些模仿舞台的电影——“照片剧”。
Working intuitively from his lively passion for the movies, Lindsay then further compared the potential of film with the accomplishments of the older arts, discussing film as, in turn, “sculpture-in-motion,” “painting-in-motion,” and “architecture-in-motion.” He concluded his basic outline of the esthetics of film with two chapters, each in its own way surprisingly prescient. At the time he wrote, those few films taken seriously by the cultural Establishment were the ones that mimicked the stage—the “photoplays.”
然而林赛很早就明白——在《一个国家的诞生》（1915年）之后但在《不宽容》（1916年）之前——电影的真正力量可能恰恰相反。在《摄影剧与舞台之间的三十个差异》一书中，他概述了一个论点，该论点在整个二十世纪二十年代和三十年代成为电影理论家主要关注的问题，因为他解释了这两种看似平行的艺术如何进行对比。这当电影理论家试图为青少年艺术建立一个独立的身份时，它成为了主导主题。
Yet Lindsay understood very early on—after The Birth of a Nation (1915) but before Intolerance (1916)—that the real strength of film might lie in precisely the opposite direction. In “Thirty Differences Between Photoplays and the Stage” he outlined an argument that was to become a major concern of film theorists throughout the twenties and into the thirties as he explained how the two seemingly parallel arts contrasted. This became the dominant theme as film theorists tried to establish a separate identity for the adolescent art.
林赛关于美学的最后一章“象形文字”更具洞察力。他以深刻的洞察力写道：
Lindsay’s last chapter on esthetics, “Hieroglyphics,” is even more insightful. With profound insight, he wrote:
影剧的发明就像石器时代图画写作的开始一样伟大。
The invention of the photoplay is as great a step as was the beginning of picture-writing in the stone age.
然后，他继续将电影视为一种语言，尽管正如他所说，他的分析可能是“一种异想天开的飞行而不是清醒的论证”，但它仍然直接指向电影理论的最新发展阶段——符号学。1915 年，对于一位热衷于“野蛮咆哮”且未受过学术训练的反学院派诗人来说，这是一项相当大的成就！
He then goes on to treat film as a language and, although his analysis may be, as he suggests, “a fanciful flight rather than a sober argument,” it nevertheless points directly to a more recent stage of development in film theory—semiotics. Quite an achievement in 1915 for an antiacademic poet enamored of the “barbaric yawp” and untrained in the scholarly disciplines!
林赛也没有止步于电影的内在美学。他的书的第三部分专门讨论“影视剧”的外在效果。再次强调，这一讨论并不重要，因为它对我们理解这一媒介的具体贡献在于它作为一个早期的历史标记，但林赛最独特的理论之一——总是被后来的理论家和批评家所忽视——值得进一步检验。
Nor does Lindsay stop with the internal esthetics of film. The third section of his book is devoted to the extrinsic effects of the “photoplay.” Again, the discussion is not so important for its concrete contributions to our understanding of the medium as it is as an early historical marker, yet one of Lindsay’s most idiosyncratic theories—always dismissed by later theorists and critics—bears further examination.
林赛建议观众在观看（无声）电影时应该进行对话，而不是听音乐。没有人认真对待他的建议。如果他们这样做了，我们可能会比我们更早地开发出公共和互动的电影院。许多第三世界电影（以及戈达尔的电影）尽管有配乐，但被设计为电影制片人和观察者之间对话的第一个陈述。简而言之，瓦切尔·林赛作为诗人和电影的狂热爱好者，凭直觉领悟了许多真理，而更多的学院派理论家受限于僵化的系统思维，永远无法理解这些真理。
Lindsay suggests that the audience should engage in conversation during a (silent) film rather than listen to music. No one took his suggestion seriously; if they had, we might have developed a cinema that was communal and interactive much earlier than we did. Many Third World films (as well as those of Godard) were designed, despite their soundtracks, as first statements in conversation between filmmaker and observer. In short, Vachel Lindsay as poet and passionate lover of film intuited a number of truths that more academic theorists, limited by their rigid systematic thinking, never could have understood.
林赛对电影的赞歌首次问世一年后，另一部重大贡献加入其中——在风格、方法和基调上直接相反，但同样有价值：雨果·明斯特伯格的开创性的《摄影剧：一项心理研究》（1916）。明斯特伯格是德国裔，是哈佛大学哲学教授，和他的赞助人威廉·詹姆斯一样，都是现代心理学的创始人之一。与民粹主义诗人林赛不同，明斯特伯格为他的作品带来了学术声誉。他不是一个“电影迷”，而是一个公正的院士，在他的书出版前一年，他对喧闹的流行艺术几乎没有经验。
A year after Lindsay’s paean to movies first appeared, it was joined by another major contribution—directly opposed in style, approach, and tone, but just as valuable: Hugo Münsterberg’s seminal The Photoplay: A Psychological Study (1916). Münsterberg, of German origin, was a professor of philosophy at Harvard and, like his sponsor William James, one of the founders of modern psychology. Unlike Lindsay, the populist poet, Münsterberg brought an academic reputation to his work. He was not a “movie fan” but rather a disinterested academician who only a year before his book was published had little or no experience of the rowdy popular art.
他对这一现象的智力分析不仅提供了急需的声望，而且即使在今天仍然是一种更加平衡和更加平衡的分析。电影理论的客观轮廓。明斯特伯格致力于弥合专业理论与大众理解之间的差距。“从理智上来说，世界被分为两个阶级，”他写道，“‘高雅者’和‘低俗者’。”他希望他对电影心理学的分析能够“将这两种观点结合在一起”。遗憾的是，他的书多年来一直被忽视，直到 1969 年才被电影理论家和学生重新发现。
His intellectual analysis of the phenomenon not only provided a much-needed cachet but also remains even today one of the more balanced and objective outlines of film theory. Münsterberg was committed to bridging the gap between professional theory and popular understanding. “Intellectually the world has been divided into two classes,” he wrote, “the ’highbrows’ and the ’lowbrows.’” He hoped that his analysis of the psychology of film would “bring these two brows together.” Sadly, his book was ignored for many years and was only rediscovered by film theorists and students in 1969.
和林赛一样，明斯特伯格很快就明白，电影有其独特的天赋，其审美的未来并不在于复制舞台或小说中更好的作品。和诗人一样，教授也明白电影理论不仅必须考虑隐含的美学，还必须考虑外显的社会和心理影响。他将这两个方面称为电影的“内在”和“外在”发展，并从对它们的讨论开始他的研究。
Like Lindsay, Münsterberg quickly understood that film had its own special genius and that its esthetic future did not lie in replicating the kind of work that was better done on stage or in the novel. Like the poet, the professor also understood that film theory must take into account not only implicit esthetics but also explicit social and psychological effects. He calls these two facets the “Inner” and the “Outer” developments of motion pictures, and he begins his study with a discussion of them.
然而，可以预见的是，他最有价值的贡献在于将心理学原理应用于电影现象。弗洛伊德的梦心理学是二十世纪二十年代以来许多流行电影理论的有用工具。然而，明斯特伯格的方法是前弗洛伊德式的（这也是它长期被忽视的一个很好的原因）；同时，他是格式塔心理学的重要先驱，这使得他的方法看起来令人惊讶地具有当代性。弗洛伊德的电影心理学强调体验的无意识、梦幻般的本质，因此专注于对媒介的被动态度。相比之下，明斯特伯格提出了一种电影与观察者之间互动关系的概念。
His most valuable contribution, however, predictably lies in his application of psychological principles to the film phenomenon. Freudian dream psychology was a useful tool for many popular theories of cinema from the twenties on. Münsterberg’s approach, however, is pre-Freudian (which is one good reason why it was ignored for so long); at the same time he is an important precursor of Gestalt psychology, which makes his approach seem surprisingly contemporary. Freudian film psychology emphasizes the unconscious, dreamlike nature of the experience and therefore concentrates on the passive attitude toward the medium. Münsterberg, in contrast, develops a conception of the relationship between film and observer as interactive.
他首先描述了我们对运动图像中运动的感知，与其说取决于视觉暂留的静态现象，不如说取决于我们解释这一系列静止图像的活跃心理过程。三十年后，这一活跃过程被称为 Phi 现象。明斯特伯格于 1916 年描述了它（没有贴标签）。
He begins by describing how our perception of movement in moving pictures depends not so much on the static phenomenon of persistence of vision as on our active mental processes of interpretation of this series of still images. Thirty years later, this active process became known as the Phi phenomenon. Münsterberg had described it (without labeling it) in 1916.
在题为“注意力”、“记忆与想象力”和“情感”的章节中，他发展了一套复杂的电影心理学理论，将电影视为一个积极的过程——一种强烈的心理活动——其中观察者是与观众的伙伴。电影制片人。在题为“摄影剧的美学”的第二部分中，他研究了这种过程观点的一些后果。通过将注意力从视觉暂留的被动现象转向 Phi 现象的主动心理过程，明斯特伯格为电影作为主动过程的理论奠定了逻辑基础。在当时，这个理论是规范性的而不是描述性的。在电影理论的前三十或四十年中，媒介本质上是被动的和操纵性的概念占主导地位，就像在电影实践中一样。然而，明斯特伯格对媒体至少具有潜在互动性的理解最终将得到救赎。
In chapters titled “Attention,” “Memory and Imagination,” and “Emotions,” he then develops a sophisticated theory of film psychology that conceives of film as an active process—a strongly mental activity—in which the observer is a partner with the filmmaker. In a second section, titled “The Esthetics of the Photoplay,” he investigates some of the ramifications of this view of the process. In shifting attention away from the passive phenomenon of persistence of vision and toward the active mental process of the Phi phenomenon, Münsterberg established a logical basis for theories of film as an active process. At the time, this theory was prescriptive rather than descriptive. During the first thirty or forty years of film theory, the concept of the medium as essentially passive and manipulative was dominant, as it is in film practice. Yet Münsterberg’s understanding of the medium as at least potentially interactive would eventually be redeemed.
奇怪的是，林赛和明斯特伯格的书是美国直到最近才出版的最后一部真正重要的电影理论著作。一旦好莱坞开始主导电影实践，电影理论似乎就不再是重点了。到了二十年代初期，电影理论的中心已经转移到欧洲，并由法国、德国和东欧思想家主导了五十年。
Curiously, Lindsay’s and Münsterberg’s books were the last really significant works of film theory produced in the United States until quite recently. It seemed as if film theory was beside the point once Hollywood began to dominate film practice. By the early twenties, the locus of film theory had shifted to Europe and was for fifty years dominated by French, German, and Eastern European thinkers.
与英国传统一样，美国理论/批评的发展路线主要是实践性的——关注具体的批评而不是抽象的理论。理想情况下，它并不是因为这种实用导向而变得不那么有价值的传统，而是因为它是分散的，所以不那么容易描述或研究。抽象理论的浓缩单卷更容易分析，这一事实应该被记住，因为它往往会扭曲我们对发展中的电影理论形态的概念。
Like the British tradition, the American line of development of theory/criticism has been mainly practical—concerned with concrete criticism rather than abstract theory. Ideally, it is not a less valuable tradition because of this practical orientation, but because it is diffuse it is not so easy to describe or to study. Concentrated single volumes of abstract theory lend themselves to analysis much more readily, a fact that should be remembered, since it tends to distort our conception of the shape of developing film theory.
矛盾的是，二十世纪二十年代欧洲电影理论日益增长的活力的最初迹象之一是在路易斯·德吕克的著作中发现的，尽管他写了几卷理论书（Cinéma et cie， 1919；Photogénie， 1920），最为人们所铭记的身份是一名执业每日电影评论家、电影制片人和电影俱乐部运动的创始人。他与莱昂·穆西纳克 (Léon Moussinac) 一起，将电影评论确立为一项严肃的事业，与当时常见的报道文学和浮夸宣传形成鲜明对比。德吕克于 1924 年去世，当时他还没有满 35 岁生日，但那时欧洲艺术电影（以及艺术电影）的传统已经牢固确立。
Paradoxically, one of the first signs of the growing vitality of film theory in Europe in the twenties was found in the work of Louis Delluc, who, although he produced several volumes of theory (Cinéma et cie, 1919; Photogénie, 1920), is best remembered as a practicing daily film critic, filmmaker, and founder of the ciné-club movement. Together with Léon Moussinac, he established film reviewing as a serious undertaking, in direct contrast to the reportage and puff publicity then common. Delluc died in 1924, before his thirty-fifth birthday, but by that time the European tradition of the art film (and the film of art) was solidly established.
表现主义与现实主义：阿恩海姆和克拉考尔
Expressionism and Realism: Arnheim and Kracauer
J. Dudley Andrew在对该主题的有益介绍《主要电影理论》（1976 年）中采用了源自亚里士多德的范畴来分析电影理论的结构。他通过四个途径来探讨各种理论：“原材料”、“方法和技术”、“形式和形状”以及“目的和价值。” 如果我们认识到两个核心类别——“方法和技术”和“形式和形状”——只是同一现象的相反方面，第一个是实践的，第二个是理论的，我们就可以进一步简化这些类别。每个类别都侧重于电影制作过程的不同方面，即连接材料、电影制片人和观察者的链条。理论安排这些关系的方式在很大程度上决定了它的目标，并且是其基本原理的直接函数。那些颂扬原材料的理论本质上是现实主义的。那些首先关注电影制片人修改或操纵现实的力量的人本质上是表现主义者：也就是说，他们更关心电影制片人对原材料的表达，而不是拍摄的现实本身。
In his useful introduction to the subject, The Major Film Theories (1976), J. Dudley Andrew adopted categories derived from Aristotle to analyze the structure of film theory. He approached various theories by four avenues: “Raw Material,” “Methods and Techniques,” “Forms and Shapes,” and “Purpose and Value.” We can further simplify the categories if we realize that the two central ones—“Methods and Techniques” and “Forms and Shapes”—are simply opposite facets of the same phenomenon, the first practical, the second theoretical. Each of these categories focuses on a different aspect of the film process, the chain connecting material, filmmaker, and observer. The way in which a theory arranges these relationships to a large extent determines its aim, and is a direct function of its underlying principles. Those theories that celebrate the raw material are essentially Realist. Those that focus first on the power of the filmmaker to modify or manipulate reality are, at base, Expressionist: that is, they are more concerned with the filmmaker’s expression of the raw materials than with the filmed reality itself.
自从卢米埃兄弟（他似乎痴迷于在电影中捕捉原始现实）和梅里爱（他显然更感兴趣的是他可以对原材料做些什么）以来，这两种基本态度一直主导着电影理论和实践的历史。直到最近，这个过程的第三个方面，即电影与观察者之间的关系（用亚里士多德的术语“目的与价值”），才开始主导电影理论，尽管它总是隐含在现实主义和表现主义的论点中。电影的符号学和电影的政治都从观察者开始，通过电影制片人的艺术回到另一边原材料的现实。
These two basic attitudes have dominated the history of film theory and practice ever since the Lumiere brothers (who seemed to be obsessed with capturing raw reality on film) and Méliès (who obviously was more interested by what he could do to his raw materials). It is only recently that the third facet of the process, the relationship between film and observer (in Aristotle’s terms “Purpose and Value”), has begun to dominate film theory, although it was always implicit in both Realist and Expressionist arguments. The semiotics of film and the politics of film both begin with the observer and work back through the art of the filmmaker to the reality of the raw materials on the other side.
兴趣中心已从生成理论转向接受理论。我们现在不再关心电影是如何制作的，而是关心它如何被感知以及它对我们的生活产生什么影响。明斯特伯格的工作（甚至林赛的）预示了这种重点的转变。此外，我们应该记住，所有这三个相互关联的要素在电影的实际发展过程中都是显而易见的，即使不同观点的理论倾向于强调其中一个要素而排除其他要素。
The center of interest has shifted from generative to receptive theories. We are now no longer so concerned with how a film is made as with how it is perceived and what effect it has in our lives. Münsterberg’s work (and even Lindsay’s) had foreshadowed this shift of emphasis. Moreover, we should remember that all three of these interrelated elements were evident during the practical development of film, even if theory at various points tended to emphasize one to the exclusion of the others.
表现主义在整个二三十年代主导了电影理论。DW 格里菲斯描述了电影实践的两个主要“流派”：美国和德国。他告诉观众，美国学校“对你说：‘来吧，享受一次美妙的经历！’” 而德国学派却说：“来看看一次很棒的体验！”格里菲斯的意思是说二十年代的美国电影比德国电影更加活跃和充满活力，事实确实如此。然而，尽管我们在二十年代谈论“德国表现主义”并且很少在美国语境中使用这个词，但格里菲斯的两个学派都关注“伟大体验”这一本质上表现主义的目标。正如格里菲斯描述他的理论电影的节奏，它是操纵观众情绪的工具：
Expressionism dominated film theory throughout the twenties and thirties. D. W. Griffith described two major “schools” of film practice, the American and the German. The American School, he told his audience, “says to you: ’Come and have a great experience!’ Whereas the German school says: ’Come and see a great experience!’” Griffith’s meant to suggest that American cinema in the twenties was more active and energetic than German cinema, as indeed it was. Yet although we speak of “German Expressionism” in the twenties and seldom use the word in an American context, nevertheless both of Griffith’s schools focus on the essentially Expressionist aim of the “great experience.” As Griffith describes his theory of pacing in the movies, it is a tool for the manipulation of the spectators’ emotions:
为了快速、敏锐地评估一部电影，请给我一个十岁的男孩和一个十五岁的女孩——男孩喜欢动作，女孩喜欢浪漫。他们的生活中很少发生什么事情会影响他们的自然反应。
For a quick, keen estimate of a motion picture give me a boy of ten and a girl of fifteen—the boy for action, the girl for romance. Few things have happened in their lives to affect their natural reactions.
格里菲斯和好莱坞想要的是对他们的刺激的纯粹反应；因此，电影艺术几乎完全在于有效刺激的设计。观察者很少或根本没有积极参与该过程的感觉。
What Griffith and Hollywood wanted were pure reactions to their stimuli; the art of film, accordingly, lies almost entirely in the design of effective stimuli. There is little or no sense of the observer actively involved in the process.
在电影史的前四十年中，现实主义是电影实践中的一种常见（尽管是次要的）压力。直到三十年代末（在约翰·格里尔森领导的英国纪录片作家的实践工作中）和四十年代（意大利新现实主义），它才在理论上得到了应用。这种迟到的发展有充分的理由：首先，由于现实主义理论自然地暗示电影本身不太重要（现实比“艺术”更重要），这导致电影制作人和理论家都倾向于表现主义立场。表现主义不仅使电影制片人在总体方案中变得更加重要，而且也是早期为使电影“艺术”获得一定程度的尊重而做出的努力的自然产物。在二十世纪初，所有其他古老的艺术都在朝着更加抽象、更少真实性的方向发展——“更少的物质，更多的艺术”。为什么青少年暴发户、电影人不应该朝这个方向发展呢？此外，如果电影实际上被认为是一种成熟的艺术，那么有必要表明电影艺术的活动与绘画活动一样复杂和要求很高。表现主义通过强调电影制片人的操纵能力，很好地发挥了这一作用。
Realism was a common, if subordinate, strain in film practice throughout the first four decades of film history; it didn’t come into its own theoretically until the late thirties (in the practical work of the British documentarists led by John Grierson) and the forties (with Italian Neorealism). There were good reasons for this late blooming: first, since Realist theory naturally implied that film itself was of lesser importance (that reality was more important than “art”), this led both filmmakers and theorists toward Expressionist positions. Expressionism not only made the filmmaker more important in the general scheme of things, it was also a natural outgrowth of the early efforts to achieve for film “art” a certain degree of respectability. During the early twentieth century, every one of the other, older arts was moving toward greater abstraction, less verisimilitude—“less matter with more art.” Why shouldn’t the adolescent upstart, film, move in this direction as well? Moreover, if film was in fact to be considered a mature art, it was necessary to show that the activity of the art of film was just as complex and demanding as, say, the activity of painting. Expressionism, by placing emphasis on the manipulative power of the filmmaker, served this function nicely.
也许更重要的是表现主义理论主导电影理论的前五十年的第二个原因：电影中私人或个人艺术的空间很小。由于电影成本高昂，它必然成为一种非常受欢迎的形式。现实主义理论要求我们将观察者视为过程的参与者。如果电影严格来说是一种商品，我们怎么能证明“让消费者为他的娱乐而工作”呢？作为一种产品，电影必须具有操控性：电影的“效果”越多，消费者花的钱就越值。事实上，大多数受欢迎的电影仍然是用这个简单的规则来评判的：见证《驱魔人》（ 1973）、 《异形》 （1979）、《终结者2》（1991）或《黑客帝国》（1999）等“令人兴奋的电影”的成功。从经济意义上来说，电影仍然是嘉年华的吸引力——乘坐过山车穿过恐怖的密室和爱情的隧道——而现实主义完全不是重点。
More important, perhaps, is the second reason theories of Expressionism dominated the first fifty years of film theory: there was very little room for private or personal art in film. Because it was so expensive, cinema had to be a very popular form. Theories of Realism demand that we see the observer as a participant in the process. If film is strictly a commodity, how could we justify “making the consumer work” for his entertainment? As a product, film had to be manipulative: the more “effect” the film had, the better value for the money the consumer had spent. In fact, most popular film is still judged by this simple rule: witness the success of such “mind-blowers” as The Exorcist (1973), Alien (1979), Terminator 2 (1991), or The Matrix (1999). In this economic sense, movies are still a carnival attraction—rides on roller coasters through chambers of horror and tunnels of love—and Realism is totally beside the point.
描述表现主义和现实主义立场对比的两本标准、最简洁、最丰富多彩的文本是鲁道夫·阿恩海姆的《电影作为艺术》（1933年以德文版《Film als Kunst》首次出版，并几乎立即翻译成英文）和西格弗里德·克拉考尔的《电影理论：救赎》物理现实（1960 年首次出版）。这两本书都具有强烈的——几乎是好斗的——规定性。两者都呈现了“揭示的真相”，就好像电影理论是一个声明而不是调查的问题。然而，这两部作品仍然令人难忘，并成为电影文学的经典，不仅因为它们各自简洁地总结了各自流派的立场，而且在很大程度上还因为它们是如此的警句：更复杂、更少决定论的电影理论显然是更复杂的、更少决定论的电影理论。不那么容易记住。
The two standard, most succinct, and colorful texts describing the contrasting Expressionist and Realist positions are Rudolf Arnheim’s Film as Art (published first in German in 1933 as Film als Kunst and translated into English almost immediately) and Siegfried Kracauer’s Theory of Film: The Redemption of Physical Reality (first published in 1960). Both books are strongly—almost belligerently—prescriptive. Both present “revealed truths” as if film theory were a matter of pronouncements rather than investigations. Yet both remain memorable and have become classics of the literature of film, not only because they each neatly summarize the positions of their respective schools, but also in no small part because they are so sententious: more complex, less determinist theories of film are obviously not so easily remembered.
阿恩海姆作为一名心理学家有着杰出的职业生涯（他是《艺术与视觉感知：创造性眼睛的心理学》一书的作者， 1954年），因此发现电影作为艺术的基本原则是心理学的也就不足为奇了。但与他的前任明斯特伯格不同的是，他更关心电影是如何制作的，而不是如何被感知。他这本小书的主旨可以非常简洁地描述：他的基本前提是电影艺术取决于其局限性，其物理局限性恰恰是其审美优点。正如他本人在 1957 年版序言中总结的那样：
Arnheim had a distinguished career as a psychologist (he was the author of Art and Visual Perception: A Psychology of the Creative Eye, 1954), so it is no surprise to discover that the basic tenets of Film as Art are psychological. But unlike his predecessor Münsterberg, he is more concerned with how film is made than with how it is perceived. The thrust of his small volume can be described quite succinctly: he proceeds from the basic premise that the art of film depends on its limitations, that its physical limitations are precisely its esthetic virtues. As he himself summarizes his position in his preface to the 1957 edition:
我致力于详细展示那些使摄影和电影无法完美复制的特性如何成为艺术媒介的必要模具。
I undertook to show in detail how the very properties that make photography and film fall short of perfect reproduction can act as the necessary molds of an artistic medium.
这是一个奇怪的命题，但却是正确的，因为从逻辑上讲，每种艺术都必须由其局限性形成。问题在于，阿恩海姆建议，它不应该超越这些限制，而技术的发展——声音、色彩、宽屏等等——确实进一步突破了限制，因此不受欢迎。他发现默片后期的电影在艺术上达到了顶峰，这一立场虽然在 1933 年就可以理解，但他在 1957 年的版本中继续保持这一立场。
It is a curious proposition, yet correct, since logically each art must be formed by its limitations. The problem is that Arnheim suggests that it should not exceed those limitations and that technological developments—sound, color, widescreen, and so forth—that do push the limits further out are not to be welcomed. He finds film at its height artistically in the late silent period, a position that, although understandable enough in 1933, he continued to maintain in the 1957 edition.
在列出了电影表现与现实不同的多种方式之后，阿恩海姆接着列举了每一种差异（这些限制）如何产生艺术内容和形式。他的论点要点是，电影越接近再现现实，艺术家创造效果的空间就越小。该理论的成功取决于两个肯定有问题的假设：
After listing a number of ways in which film representation differs from reality, Arnheim proceeds to enumerate how each of these differences—these limitations—yields artistic content and form. The gist of his argument is that the closer film comes to reproducing reality, the less room there is in which the artist can create his effects. The success of this theory rests on two assumptions that are certainly problematic:
艺术等于效果或表达；一件艺术作品的规模与艺术家对材料的运用程度直接相关；和
that art equals effect, or expression; that the magnitude of a work of art is directly related to the degree of the artist’s manipulation of materials; and
艺术形式的局限性只会产生它的美感，而不是限制它们。
that the limitations of an art form only generate its esthetics and do not restrict them.
例如，他写道：“增加屏幕尺寸的诱惑与对彩色、立体和有声电影的渴望相伴。这是那些不知道艺术效果与媒介的局限性息息相关的人的愿望……” 然而，随着这些新的维度被添加到电影艺术的全部内容中，电影制作者发现了更多而不是更少的自由，并且可能的艺术效果的范围也大大扩大了。
“The temptation to increase the size of the screen,” he writes, for example, “goes with the desire for colored, stereoscopic, and sound film. It is the wish of people who do not know that artistic effect is bound up with the limitations of the medium….” Yet as those new dimensions were added to the repertoire of film art, filmmakers discovered more freedom, not less, and the range of possible artistic effects expanded considerably.
基本上，阿恩海姆局限性理论的困难在于，他过于狭隘地关注电影的制作，而没有考虑到电影感知的解放性和复杂性因素。他列出的许多限制（除了技术之外）——图像的框架、电影的二维性、剪辑对时空连续体的破坏——对于我们如何看待电影而言，远不如在我们如何看待电影方面重要。我们如何构建一个。通过忽略电影制作过程的总体范围，阿恩海姆为电影艺术提出了一个严格理想的处方，但它与实际电影的实际现象的关系并不像乍看起来那样。无论如何，随着技术的发展和务实的电影制片人发现了新变量的可能性，他对电影的纯粹、有限的概念很快就被事件所取代。
Basically, the difficulty with Arnheim’s theory of limitations is that he focuses all too narrowly on the production of film and doesn’t take into account the liberating and complicating factor of its perception. Many of the limitations he lists (aside from the technological)—the framing of the image, film’s two-dimensionality, the breakup of the space-time continuum by editing—are far less important in terms of how we perceive a film than in terms of how we construct one. By ignoring the total scope of the film process, Arnheim produces a strictly ideal prescription for film art that has less to do with the actual phenomenon of practical film than it might at first appear. In any event, his pure, limited conception of film was quickly overtaken by events as technology developed and practical filmmakers discovered the possibilities of new variables.
几乎所有电影理论都充满了现实主义和表现主义之间的冲突，但它并不像看起来那么直接、明确和很好的平衡。这种关系更多是辩证的而不是二分的，因此现实主义理论是从表现主义理论中发展出来的，就像表现主义理论反过来是从为电影建立艺术声誉的冲动中发展出来的一样。
The conflict between Realism and Expressionism that colors nearly all film theory is not so direct, explicit, and nicely balanced as it might seem. The relationship is more dialectical than dichotomous, so that Realist theory grows out of Expressionist theory just as Expressionist theory had, in its turn, grown out of the urge to build an artistic reputation for film.
齐格弗里德·克拉考尔的代表作《电影理论：物理现实的救赎》是在阿恩海姆提出优雅、精简的处方二十七年后出版的，它是对一直在发展的广泛的现实主义理论进行的一项庞大的、有时是直率的、往往是困难的调查。在二十多年的时间里慢慢地。表现主义，因为它是自我限制和自我定义的，所以相对容易概括。另一方面，现实主义是一个模糊的、包容性的术语，对很多人来说意味着很多事情。所有文学专业的学生都曾遇到过现实主义的“问题”。简·奥斯汀所写的正是社会的一小部分人，她是现实主义者吗？或者对于现实主义者来说，广度与深度同样重要？自然主义很容易被定义为一种艺术吗？基于决定论哲学的形式，一种现实主义，它的一个分支，还是直接反对它？在电影中，“现实主义”也是一个难以捉摸的术语。罗马的罗西里尼，《不设防的城市》 （1945）是一个“现实主义者”，但《路易十四的权力崛起》中的罗西里尼呢？还是费里尼？现实主义需要政治吗？演戏呢？纪录片总是比故事片更“现实”吗？或者有可能成为一个现实主义者同时仍然是一个讲故事的人吗？关于电影现实主义本质的问题是无穷无尽的。
Siegfried Kracauer’s magnum opus, Theory of Film: The Redemption of Physical Reality, coming twenty-seven years after Arnheim’s elegant, lean prescription, is in contrast a sprawling, sometimes blunt, often difficult investigation into wide-ranging theories of Realism that had been developing slowly over a period of more than twenty years. Expressionism, because it is self-limiting and self-defining, is relatively easy to outline. Realism, on the other hand, is a vague, inclusive term that means many things to many people. All students of literature have run into the “problem” of Realism before. Is Jane Austen, who wrote precisely about a very narrow segment of society, a Realist? Or is breadth as important as depth to the Realist sensibility? Is Naturalism, rather easily defined as an artistic form based on Determinist philosophy, a kind of Realism, an offshoot from it, or in direct opposition to it? In film, too, “Realism” is a slippery term. The Rossellini of Rome, Open City (1945) is a “Realist,” but what about the Rossellini of The Rise to Power of Louis XIV? Or Fellini? Are politics necessary to Realism? What about acting? Are documentaries always more “realistic” than fiction films? Or is it possible to be a Realist and still be a story teller? The catalogue of questions about the nature of film Realism is endless.
克拉考尔涵盖了其中的许多内容，但他的书绝不是对这个词的古怪定义的完整调查。这是电影理论，而不是电影理论。就像阿恩海姆的文章一样，它选择电影体验的一个中心事实作为关键，然后制定一个处方，得出一个具体的结论。与阿恩海姆一样，克拉考尔主要是在事后写作。如果说二十世纪二十年代是电影表现主义的伟大时代，那么电影现实主义的中心时期就是四五十年代。例如，六十年代最重要的现实主义趋势出现在纪录片中——克拉考尔对此几乎没有什么可说的。
Kracauer covers many of them, but his book is by no means a complete survey of the quirky definitions of the word. It is a theory of film, not the theory of film. Like Arnheim’s essay, it chooses a single central fact of the film experience as crucial, then builds a prescription that leads to a specific conclusion. Like Arnheim, too, Kracauer was writing mainly after the fact. If the great age of film Expressionism was the twenties, then the central period of film Realism was the forties and fifties. The most important Realist trend of the sixties, for instance, occurred in documentary—an area of film activity about which Kracauer has very little to say.
尽管克拉考尔被誉为最重要的电影现实主义理论家，但他实际上只是其中之一。例如，安德烈·巴赞通常也被认为是一位“现实主义者”，然而，尽管他在克拉考尔的书之前的十五年里对这一现象进行了更丰富的研究，但他的作品从未像克拉考尔的作品那样清晰地编纂而成，因此没有立即被人们所接受。直接影响他的继任者。
While Kracauer has the reputation of being the foremost theorist of film Realism, he was actually only one among many. André Bazin, for instance, is also generally considered a “Realist,” yet although he offered a much richer investigation of the phenomenon during the fifteen years preceding Kracauer’s book, his work was never so clearly codified as Kracauer’s and therefore didn’t immediately have the direct impact of his successor’s.
纵观大部分电影史，现实主义电影制作人比理论评论家更感兴趣。1920年代苏联的吉加·维尔托夫、法国的让·维果、1930年代英国的约翰·格里尔森、罗伯托·罗西里尼、切萨雷·扎瓦蒂尼以及1940年代意大利的新现实主义者，都发展了反对表现主义理论的现实主义立场。就好像电影制片人对媒体权力的潜在滥用做出了反应，而是在现实主义中寻找更“道德”的立场。
Throughout most of film history, Realism has been of more interest to practical filmmakers than theoretical critics. Dziga Vertov in the Soviet Union in the 1920s, Jean Vigo in France, and John Grierson in England in the 1930s, Roberto Rossellini, Cesare Zavattini, and the Neorealists in Italy in the 1940s, all developed Realist positions in opposition to Expressionist theories. It was as if the filmmakers reacted against the potential abuse of power of their medium, instead searching for a more “moral” position in Realism.
阿恩海姆理论的核心是技术和电影艺术形式的局限性。克拉考尔理论的核心是电影艺术的摄影“使命”。仅仅因为摄影和电影确实非常接近再现现实，所以它们必须在美学上强调这种能力。这个前提与阿恩海姆的截然相反。克拉考尔写道：“电影具有独特的能力来记录和揭示物理现实，因此被它所吸引。” 因此，他建议，内容必须优先于形式。然后他发展了他所谓的物质美学而不是形式美学。
At the center of Arnheim’s theory had been the limitations of the technology and the form of film art. The kernel of Kracauer’s theory is the photographic “calling” of film art. Simply because photography and film do come so close to reproducing reality, they must emphasize this ability in their esthetics. This premise is diametrically opposed to Arnheim’s. “Film,” Kracauer wrote, “is uniquely equipped to record and reveal physical reality and, hence, gravitates toward it.” Therefore, he suggests, content must take precedence over form. He then develops what he calls a material esthetic rather than an esthetic of form.
由于艺术理论如此严重地依赖于形式主义，因此，对于克拉考尔来说，电影就变成了一种反艺术。“由于其固定的含义，”他总结道，
Because theories of art depend so heavily on formalism, then, film becomes for Kracauer a kind of antiart. “Due to its fixed meaning,” he concludes,
艺术的概念没有、也不可能涵盖真正的“电影”电影——也就是说，电影融合了物理现实的各个方面，以便让我们体验它们。然而，正是它们，而不是让人想起传统艺术作品的电影，在美学上是有效的。
the concept of art does not, and cannot, cover truly ’cinematic’ films—films, that is, which incorporate aspects of physical reality with a view to making us experience them. And yet it is they, not the films reminiscent of traditional art works, which are valid esthetically.
这是电影作为艺术的心理发展的第三阶段。在青春期确立了自己受人尊敬的地位，然后在青年时期通过展示自己与艺术界的真实相似性而加入了艺术界之后，现在它走向了成熟，通过将自己与社区分离并发挥其“自我完整性”建立自己的个人价值观体系。如果电影不符合艺术的定义，那么艺术的定义就必须改变。
This is the third stage of the psychological development of film as art. After having established itself as respectable in its adolescence, then having joined the community of the arts in its young adulthood by showing how like them it really was, it now moves into maturity, exerting its “ego integrity” by separating itself from the community and establishing its own personal system of values. If film doesn’t fit the definition of art, then the definition of art must be changed.
在赞扬了电影的独特性之后，克拉考尔做出了一个关键的逻辑跳跃。他认为，既然它可以很好地再现现实，那就应该如此。正是在这一点上，他的理论最容易出现矛盾。很容易提出（就像阿恩海姆在某种程度上所做的那样），既然电影和现实有着如此密切的联系，电影应该以相反的方式运用这种模仿的力量：通过矛盾、塑造、形成、塑造现实而不是再现它。然而，在这些最初的重大声明之后，克拉考尔开始对电影媒介进行更普遍、更客观的研究。他关于电影与现实的密切关系的主要论点的逻辑终点是将电影记录、非虚构电影和纪录片提升到虚构电影之上。然而，正如我们所指出的，克拉考尔相对较少关注严格的事实电影，而是关注最常见的电影类型：叙事。他认为理想的电影形式是“发现的故事”。此类电影是虚构的，但它们是“发现的而不是虚构的”。他继续解释了这种准虚构的理想形式与完全发展的“艺术品”之间的区别：
Having celebrated film’s uniqueness, Kracauer then makes a crucial logical jump. Since it can reproduce reality so well, he suggests, it ought to. It is at this point that his theory is most open to contradiction. It would be just as easy to propose (as Arnheim does in a way) that, since film and reality have such a close and intimate connection, film ought to exercise this mimetic power in the opposite way: by contradicting, molding, forming, shaping reality rather than reproducing it. Nevertheless, after these first significant pronouncements, Kracauer moves on into a more general and more objective study of the medium of film. The logical end point of his primary contention about the close relationship of film and reality would be to elevate the film record, the nonfiction film, and the documentary over the fictional film. Yet Kracauer, as we have noted, pays relatively little attention to strict factual film and instead focuses on the most common type of film: the narrative. He finds the ideal film form to be the “found story.” Such films are fiction, but they are “discovered rather than contrived.” He continues, explaining the difference between this quasi-fictional ideal form and the fully developed “artwork”:
由于发现的故事是其休眠的原材料的重要组成部分，因此它不可能发展成为一个独立的整体——这意味着它几乎与戏剧故事相反。246]。
Since the found story is part and parcel of the raw material in which it lies dormant, it cannot possibly develop into a self-contained whole—which means that it is almost the opposite of the theatrical story [p. 246].
随着他的理论的发展和拓宽，克拉考尔显然并不反对形式——只要它服务于内容的目的。在这里，我们触及了克拉考尔对电影理论真正贡献的核心：电影是有目的的。它并不是仅仅为自身而存在，作为一个纯粹的审美对象；它存在于周围世界的背景中。既然它源于现实，它也必须回归现实——因此克拉考尔的书的副标题是：物理现实的救赎。
As his theory develops and broadens, it becomes clear that Kracauer has no great objections to form—so long as it serves the purpose of content. And here we get to the heart of Kracauer’s true contribution to film theory: film serves a purpose. It does not exist simply for itself, as a pure esthetic object; it exists in the context of the world around it. Since it stems from reality it must also return to it—hence the subtitle of Kracauer’s book: The Redemption of Physical Reality.
如果这听起来有点宗教色彩，但我认为其内涵是有意的。对于克拉考尔来说，电影具有人性和伦理的本质。伦理必须取代美学，从而实现让-吕克·戈达尔喜欢引用的列宁的预言：“伦理是未来的美学”。由于科学和美学的抽象而脱离了物理现实，我们需要电影提供的救赎：我们需要重新与物理世界沟通。电影可以为我们调解现实。它既可以“证实”也可以“揭穿”我们对现实的印象。
If this sounds vaguely religious, the connotation is, I think, intended. For Kracauer, film has a human, ethical nature. Ethics must replace esthetics, thereby fulfilling Lenin’s prophecy, which Jean-Luc Godard was fond of quoting, that “ethics are the esthetics of the future.” Having been divorced from physical reality by both scientific and esthetic abstraction, we need the redemption film offers: we need to be brought back into communication with the physical world. Film can mediate reality for us. It can both “corroborate” and “debunk” our impressions of reality.
现在，这似乎是一个比以往任何时候都更令人钦佩的目标。
Now more than ever before this seems an admirable goal.
蒙太奇：普多夫金、爱森斯坦、巴拉兹和形式主义
Montage: Pudovkin, Eisenstein, Balázs, and Formalism
“表现主义”和“形式主义”这两个词在电影批评中经常互换使用，以表示那些通常反对“现实主义”的倾向。表现主义和形式主义也是特定文化历史时期的标签：表现主义是 20 年代德国文化（戏剧、绘画以及电影）的主要力量，正如在同一时期，形式主义标志着新兴文化的发展。苏联的文学和电影生活。本质上，这两种运动之间的差异取决于轻微但显着的焦点转移。表现主义是一种更普遍、更浪漫的电影概念，将其视为一种表现力。形式主义更具体、更“科学”，更关注构成这种力量的元素和细节。它更多地是分析性的，而不是综合性的，并且还带有强烈的功能和形式在艺术中的重要性的意识。
The words “Expressionism” and “Formalism” are often used interchangeably in film criticism to denote those tendencies generally opposed to “Realism.” Both Expressionism and Formalism are also labels attached to specific periods of cultural history: Expressionism was the major force in German culture—in theater and painting as well as film—during the 1920s, just as, during the same period, Formalism marked the burgeoning cultural life—both literary and cinematic—in the Soviet Union. Essentially, the difference between the two movements depends on a slight but significant shift of focus. Expressionism is a more generalized, romantic conception of film as an expressive force. Formalism is more specific, more “scientific,” and more concerned with the elements, the details that go to make up this force. It is more analytic and less synthetic, and it also carries with it a strong sense of the importance of function as well as form in art.
20 年代，即俄罗斯革命之后的时期，苏联电影不仅在实践上而且在理论上都是世界上最令人兴奋的电影之一。毫无疑问，苏联电影制片人兼理论家不仅想要捕捉现实，而且想要改变它。现实主义，至少在美学上，并不是特别革命性的：正如我们所见值得注意的是，它往往会否认电影制片人的力量，因此使得电影作为影响社会变革的工具似乎不那么强大。在此期间，在斯大林强行推行社会主义现实主义（既不是现实主义也不是社会主义）的学说之前，两位电影制片人，VI·普多夫金和谢尔盖·爱森斯坦，不仅制作了许多杰出的电影，而且还创作了一系列具有深刻影响的形式主义理论。对电影理论发展历程的影响。与此同时，匈牙利作家、评论家和电影制片人贝拉·巴拉兹（Béla Balázs）正在追求一种形式主义思想，尽管它不如普多夫金和爱森斯坦的思想广为人知，但仍值得与他们的思想并列。
During the 1920s, the period immediately following the Russian Revolution, the Soviet cinema was among the most exciting in the world, not only practically but theoretically. There is no doubt that the Soviet filmmaker-theorists wanted not only to capture reality but also to change it. Realism, at least esthetically, is not particularly revolutionary: as we have noted, it tends to deny the power of the filmmaker and therefore makes film seem to be less powerful as a tool to effect social change. During this period—before Stalin imposed the doctrine of Socialist Realism (which is neither Realist nor Socialist)—two filmmakers, V. I. Pudovkin and Sergei Eisenstein, produced not only a number of exceptional films but also an amorphous body of Formalist theory that had a profound impact on the course of development of film theory. At the same time, the Hungarian writer, critic, and filmmaker Béla Balázs was pursuing a line of Formalist thinking that, although it is less well known than those of Pudovkin and Eisenstein, nevertheless deserves to be ranked with theirs.
与阿恩海姆和克拉考尔不同，普多夫金、爱森斯坦和巴拉兹都是电影制片人，他们想要描述他们的艺术，而不是为其开处方。他们的理论著作并没有被压缩成单卷，而是多年来分散在单独的论文中。它是有机的、发展中的、持续的，而不是封闭的、完整的、最终的。因此，快速总结就不容易了。它也更加有用和富有洞察力。
Unlike Arnheim and Kracauer, Pudovkin, Eisenstein, and Balázs were practicing filmmakers who wanted to describe their art rather than prescribe for it. Their theoretical work was not compressed into single volumes, but rather spread out in individual essays over many years. It was organic, developing, and ongoing rather than closed, complete, and final. It is thus much less easy to summarize quickly; it is also much more useful and insightful.
1917 年革命后不久，一位名叫列夫·库列绍夫 (Lev Kuleshov) 的电影制片人被任命负责一个工作室。普多夫金是他的学生之一，简单地说，爱森斯坦也是他的学生之一。由于无法找到足够的胶片来支持他们的项目，他们转而重新剪辑已经制作的电影，并在这个过程中发现了一些关于电影蒙太奇技术的真相。
Very soon after the revolution of 1917, a filmmaker named Lev Kuleshov was put in charge of a workshop. Pudovkin was one of his students as was, briefly, Eisenstein. Unable to find enough filmstock to fuel their projects, they turned to reediting films already made, and in the process discovered a number of truths about the techniques of film montage.
在一项实验中，库列绍夫将在不同时间和地点拍摄的许多镜头连接在一起。该组合是一个统一的电影叙事。库列绍夫称之为“创意地理学”。在可能是他们最著名的实验中，库列绍夫小组为著名的革命前演员莫斯茹金拍摄了三张相同的照片，并将它们与一盘汤、棺材里的女人和小女孩的镜头穿插在一起。普多夫金后来描述了实验结果，据他说，观众对莫斯朱金传达各种不同情绪（饥饿、悲伤、感情）的微妙而富有情感的能力惊叹不已。
In one experiment, Kuleshov linked together a number of shots made at varying times and places. The composite was a unified piece of film narrative. Kuleshov called this “creative geography.” In probably their most famous experiment, the Kuleshov group took three identical shots of the well-known prerevolutionary actor Moszhukin and intercut them with shots of a plate of soup, a woman in a coffin, and a little girl. According to Pudovkin, who later described the results of the experiment, audiences exclaimed at Moszhukin’s subtle and affective ability to convey such varied emotions: hunger, sadness, affection.
在他的两部主要作品《电影技术》（1926）和《电影表演》（1935）中，普多夫金从他与库列绍夫实验的基本根源出发，发展了一种以他所谓的“关系剪辑”为中心的多样化电影理论。对于普多夫金来说，蒙太奇是“控制观众‘心理引导’的方法”。在这方面，他的理论简直就是表现主义的——也就是说，主要关注电影制片人如何影响观察者。但他确定了五种独立且不同的蒙太奇类型：
In his two major works, Film Technique (1926) and Film Acting (1935), Pudovkin developed from the basic root of his experiments with Kuleshov a varied theory of cinema centered on what he called “relational editing.” For Pudovkin, montage was “the method which controls the ’psychological guidance’ of the spectator.” In this respect, his theory was simply Expressionist—that is, mainly concerned with how the filmmaker can affect the observer. But he identified five separate and distinct types of montage:
图 5-1。当敖德萨人民聚集在一起向停泊在港口的战舰波将金号上的叛乱士兵致敬时，士兵们出现了。当士兵们开枪时，人群惊恐地跑下台阶。一名小男孩被击中身亡。他的母亲把他抱在怀里，转身面对台阶顶端的士兵……
Figure 5-1. As the people of Odessa gather to hail the rebellious soldiers on the battleship Potemkin in the harbor, soldiers appear. The crowd runs down the steps in horror as the soldiers fire. A young boy is hit and killed. His mother picks him up in her arms and turns to face the soldiers at the top of the steps….
图 5-2。……当她向前恳求他们时，他们准备开火。军官放下军刀，齐射一枪，杀死了母子。人群跑下台阶，践踏那些倒下的人……
Figure 5-2. … As she advances, pleading with them, they prepare to fire. The officer lowers his saber and a volley is fired, cutting down the mother and child. The crowd runs down the steps, trampling those who have fallen….
图 5-3。……当他们到达底部的道路时，他们遭到骑马的哥萨克的攻击。人民被夹在无情地走下台阶的士兵和鞭打践踏他们的哥萨克之间。爱森斯坦在受害者的镜头和压迫者的镜头之间切换。一名推着婴儿车的妇女在台阶顶部附近被撞。当她跌倒时，她将马车推到了第一个台阶上……
Figure 5-3. … As they reach the pathway at the bottom, they are attacked by mounted Cossacks. The people are caught in the pincers between the rank of soldiers relentlessly advancing down the steps, and the Cossacks who whip and trample them. Eisenstein cuts between shots of the victims and shots of the oppressors. A woman with a baby carriage is hit near the top of the steps. As she falls, she nudges the carriage over the first step….
图 5-4。……它从尸体上的台阶上倾斜下来，人们惊恐地看着它，直到它到达最下面的台阶并翻倒。（框架放大。）
Figure 5-4. … It careens down the steps over corpses, as people watch in terror, until it reaches the bottom step and overturns. (Frame enlargements.)
contrast, parallelism, symbolism, simultaneity, and leitmotif (reiteration of theme).
这里我们就有了电影形式主义的基本前提：普多夫金发现了形式的范畴并对其进行了分析。此外，他非常关心镜头（场景调度）的重要性，因此表现出一种我们逐渐认为本质上是现实主义的态度。他将蒙太奇视为电影复杂而充满活力的核心，但他也认为蒙太奇的目的是支持叙事而不是改变叙事。
Here we have the basic premise of film Formalism: Pudovkin discovered categories of form and analyzed them. Moreover, he was greatly concerned with the importance of the shot—of mise-en-scène—and therefore displayed an attitude that we have come to regard as essentially Realist. He saw montage as the complex, pumping heart of film, but he also felt that its purpose was to support narrative rather than to alter it.
爱森斯坦建立了自己的蒙太奇理论——作为碰撞而不是联系——与普多夫金的理论相对立。在二十出头开始并持续一生的一系列文章中，他在与电影的形式和本质作斗争时，不断修改和修改了一些基本概念。*对于爱森斯坦来说，蒙太奇的目的是创造思想、创造新的现实，而不是支持叙事、旧的经验现实。作为一名学生，他对东方表意文字着迷，这些表意文字结合了意义广泛的不同元素，创造出全新的含义，他将表意文字视为电影蒙太奇的典范。他借鉴了文学形式主义者的想法，设想将电影的元素“分解”或“中和”，以便它们可以作为辩证蒙太奇的新鲜素材。即使是演员，也不是根据他们的个人品质来选角，而是根据他们所代表的“类型”。
Eisenstein set up his own theory of montage—as collision rather than linkage—in opposition to Pudovkin’s theory. In a series of essays beginning in the early twenties and continuing throughout most of his life, he worked and reworked a number of basic concepts as he struggled with the shape and nature of cinema.* For Eisenstein, montage has as its aim the creation of ideas, of a new reality, rather than the support of narrative, the old reality of experience. As a student, he had been fascinated by Oriental ideograms that combined elements of widely different meaning in order to create entirely new meanings, and he regarded the ideogram as a model of cinematic montage. Taking an idea from the literary Formalists, he conceived of the elements of a film being “decomposed” or “neutralized” so that they could serve as fresh material for dialectic montage. Even actors were to be cast not for their individual qualities but for the “types” they represented.
爱森斯坦甚至将辩证法的概念延伸到了镜头本身。由于镜头之间辩证地相互关联，因此单个镜头的基本元素（他称之为“吸引力”）可以相互关联以产生新的含义。他定义的景点包括
Eisenstein extended this concept of dialectics even to the shot itself. As shots related to each other dialectically, so the basic elements of a single shot—which he called its “attractions”—could interrelate to produce new meanings. Attractions as he defined them included
每一个侵略性的时刻……每一个元素……都给观众带来了影响他的体验的那些感官或心理——每一个元素都可以被验证和数学计算，以在整体中以适当的顺序产生某些情感冲击……[电影感， p。231]。
every aggressive moment … every element … that brings to light in the spectator those senses or that psychology that influence his experience—every element that can be verified and mathematically calculated to produce certain emotional shocks in a proper order within the totality … [Film Sense, p. 231].
由于景点存在于整体框架内，因此有人建议进一步扩展蒙太奇：景点蒙太奇。“我们不是对一个事件进行静态的‘反映’，而是在事件的逻辑行为的范围内进行所有活动的可能性，而是前进到一个新的平面——任意选择的、独立的……景点的自由蒙太奇……” [p. 11] 232]。这是蒙太奇的全新基础，与布多夫金的五个类别不同。
Because attractions existed within the framework of that totality, a further extension of montage was suggested: a montage of attractions. “Instead of a static ’reflection’ of an event with all possibilities for activity within the limits of the event’s logical action, we advance to a new plane— free montage of arbitrarily selected, independent … attractions …” [p. 232]. This was an entirely new basis for montage, different in kind from Pudovkin’s five categories.
图 5-5。爱森斯坦的《亚历山大·涅夫斯基》（ Alexander Nevsky，1938）：冰上之战。俄罗斯军队已做好防御德国侵略者的准备。战斗场景具有强烈的视觉对立，是爱森斯坦最引人注目的场景之一。（框架放大。）
Figure 5-5. Eisenstein’s Alexander Nevsky (1938): the Battle on the Ice. The Russian army is in position to defend against the German invaders. Battle scenes, with their strong visual oppositions, were among Eisenstein’s most striking sequences. (Frame enlargement.)
后来，爱森斯坦对吸引力系统提出了一种更详尽的观点，其中一个总是占主导地位，而其他则处于次要地位。这里的问题是，主导的想法似乎与中和的概念相冲突，中和的概念应该准备好所有元素，供电影制片人同样轻松地使用。爱森斯坦的思想中有许多这样的表面上的矛盾——这是一个好迹象，表明他的电影理论是有机的、开放的和健康的不完整的。
Later, Eisenstein developed a more elaborate view of the system of attractions in which one was always dominant while others were subsidiary. The problem here was that the idea of the dominant seemed to conflict with the concept of neutralization, which supposedly prepared all the elements to be used with equal ease by the filmmaker. There are a number of such seeming contradictions in Eisenstein’s thought—a good sign that his theory of film was organic, open, and healthily incomplete.
爱森斯坦的吸引、主导和辩证碰撞蒙太奇体系最重要的影响可能在于它对电影观察者的影响。普多夫金将蒙太奇技术视为叙事的一种辅助手段，而爱森斯坦则重构了蒙太奇，以反对直接叙事。如果镜头 A 和镜头 B 要形成一个全新的想法 C，那么观众就必须直接参与其中。它他们必须努力理解蒙太奇的内在含义。普多夫金的思想在精神上似乎更接近现实主义的原则，他矛盾地提出了一种控制观众“心理引导”的叙事风格。
Possibly the most important ramification of Eisenstein’s system of attractions, dominants, and dialectic collisional montage lies in its implications for the observer of film. Whereas Pudovkin had seen the techniques of montage as an aid to narrative, Eisenstein reconstructed montage in opposition to straight narrative. If shot A and shot B were to form an entirely new idea, C, then the audience had to become directly involved. It was necessary that they work to understand the inherent meaning of the montage. Pudovkin, whose ideas seem closer in spirit to the tenets of Realism, had paradoxically proposed a type of narrative style that controlled the “psychological guidance” of the audience.
与此同时，爱森斯坦提出了一种极端的形式主义，在这种形式主义中，拍摄的现实不再是其本身，而只是一堆原材料——吸引力或“冲击”——供电影制作者按照他认为合适的方式重新安排，这也是自相矛盾地描述了一个系统观察员是其中必要且平等的参与者。
Eisenstein, meanwhile, in suggesting an extreme Formalism in which photographed reality ceased to be itself and became instead simply a stock of raw material—attractions, or “shocks”—for the filmmaker to rearrange as he saw fit, was also paradoxically describing a system in which the observer was a necessary and equal participant.
因此，表现主义和现实主义之间的简单二分法不再成立。对于爱森斯坦来说，为了接近现实就必须摧毁现实主义。电影体系的真正关键不是艺术家与其原材料的关系，而是他与观众的关系。一部假设的电影可能对拍摄的现实表现出最大的尊重，但同时也可能对观众表现出很少或根本不尊重。相反，高度形式主义、抽象的电影表达——例如爱森斯坦自己的《波将金号》 （1925）——可能会让观众参与辩证过程，而不是用精心策划的情感体验来压倒他们。
The simplistic dichotomy between Expressionism and Realism thus no longer holds. For Eisenstein it was necessary to destroy Realism in order to approach reality. The real key to the system of film is not the artist’s relationship with his raw materials but rather his relationship with his audience. A hypothetical film that might show the greatest respect for photographed reality might at the same time show little or no respect for its audience. Conversely, a highly Formalist, abstract film expression—Eisenstein’s own Potemkin (1925), for instance—might engage its audience in a dialectical process instead of overpowering them with a calculated emotional experience.
爱森斯坦关于电影体验的基本概念，就像他的理论一样，是开放式的。电影的过程（就像理论的过程一样）远比其结果重要，电影制作者和观察者都动态地参与其中。同样，作为创作者和观看者之间沟通渠道的电影体验元素也彼此之间存在着逻辑上的联系。因此，爱森斯坦广泛的电影理论预示了电影理论的两个最新发展，因为他自始至终不仅关心电影语言，而且关心电影制作者和观察者如何使用这种语言。
Eisenstein’s basic conception of the film experience was, like his theories, open-ended. The process of film (like the process of theory) was far more important than its end, and the filmmaker and observer were engaged in it dynamically. Likewise, the elements of the film experience that was the channel of communication between creator and observer were also connected logically with each other. Eisenstein’s wide-ranging theories of film thus foreshadow the two most recent developments of cinematic theory, since he is concerned throughout not only with the language of film but also with how that language can be used by both filmmakers and observers.
和爱森斯坦一样，贝拉·巴拉兹花了很多年时间才对电影结构进行了描述。他出生于匈牙利，1919 年公社被推翻后，他离开了祖国，此后在德国、苏联和其他东欧国家度过了一段时光。他的主要著作《电影理论：新艺术的特征与成长》（1948 年）总结了一生的理论。由于他在艺术方面拥有实践经验，并且多年来不断发展自己的理论，《电影理论》仍然是同类书籍中最平衡的著作之一。
Like Eisenstein, Béla Balázs worked out his description of the structure of cinema over a period of many years. Hungarian by birth, he left his native country after the Commune was overthrown in 1919 and spent time thereafter in Germany, the Soviet Union, and other East European countries. His major work, Theory of the Film: Character and Growth of a New Art (1948), summarizes a lifetime of theorizing. Because he had practical experience in the art and because he developed his theory over a number of years, Theory of the Film remains one of the most balanced volumes of its kind.
图 5-6。蒙太奇反革命。_ _ 亚历山大·索科洛夫 2002 年的杰作《俄罗斯方舟》与俄罗斯形式主义蒙太奇理论形成了令人振奋的对比。圣彼得堡艾尔米塔什博物馆的游览由数千名演员一次性拍摄完成，跨越了三百年的历史，它引人入胜地证明了场景调度的力量，以及时长 99 分钟的当前作为追踪镜头的记录保持者。它没有保持最长镜头的记录：这个荣誉属于安迪·沃霍尔的帝国。（见图1-7。）
Figure 5-6. MONTAGE COUNTER-REVOLUTION. Aleksandr Sokurov’s 2002 tour de force Russian Ark served as an exhilarating contrast to Russian Formalist theories of montage. A tour of the Hermitage in St. Petersburg shot entirely in one take with a cast of thousands, and spanning three hundred years of history, it is a riveting testament to the power of mise-en-scène and—at 99 minutes—the current record-holder as a tracking shot. It does not hold the record for longest take: that honor belongs to Andy Warhol’s Empire. (See Figure 1-7.)
在《绳索》（1948）中，阿尔弗雷德·希区柯克曾尝试一次拍摄一部电影，但由于胶片相机只能容纳十分钟的胶卷，他不得不捏造镜头。索科洛夫将他的数字图像记录到一个大容量的磁盘上。整个拍摄工作进行了四次尝试才成功。人们只能想象所需的体力劳动。但请不要被误导：“俄罗斯方舟”不仅仅是一场技术和运动的杰作；它还体现在“俄罗斯方舟”上。这也是对俄罗斯文化的一次共鸣式的庆祝，其视角复杂，充满智慧和戏剧性。
With Rope (1948) Alfred Hitchcock had attempted to make a film in one take but he had to fudge the shot since film cameras only held ten-minute reels. Sokurov recorded his digital image to a capacious disk. It took four attempts before the entire take worked. One can only imagine the physical effort required. But don’t be misled: Russian Ark is much more than a technical and athletic tour de force; it’s also a resonant celebration of Russian culture with a complex perspective, suffused with wit and drama.
巴拉兹分享了爱森斯坦和二十世纪苏联文学批评家的许多基本形式主义原则，他成功地将这些概念与某些现实主义原则结合起来。他对特写镜头揭示事实和情感细节的“秘密力量”着迷，并发展了一种关于电影真正领域的理论，即“微戏剧”，即特写镜头所表现出的意义的微妙转变和情感的安静相互作用。非常有能力传达。他最早的关于电影的书名为《可见的人，或电影文化》（1924 年）。它强烈地表达了这一本质上的现实主义观点，并可能影响了普多夫金。
Sharing many of the basic Formalist principles of Eisenstein and Soviet literary critics of the twenties, Balázs manages to integrate these concepts with certain Realist principles. He was fascinated by the “secret power” of the closeup to reveal details of fact and emotion and developed a theory of the true province of film as “micro-dramatics,” the subtle shifts of meaning and the quiet interplay of emotions that the closeup is so well equipped to convey. His earliest book on film had been entitled The Visible Man, or Film Culture (1924). It made this essentially Realist point strongly and probably influenced Pudovkin.
但在赞扬特写镜头的现实性的同时，巴拉兹也将电影直接置于经济领域。他意识到电影的经济基础是电影美学的主要决定因素，他是最早理解和解释我们对任何电影的态度是如何由我们共同的文化价值观塑造和形成的电影理论家之一。他比马歇尔·麦克卢汉早很多年，就预见到一种新的视觉文化的发展，这种文化将复活某些他说一直处于休眠状态的感知能力。“印刷术的发现，”他写道，“逐渐使人们的面孔变得难以辨认。从纸上可以读到的东西太多了，以至于通过面部表情传达意义的方法已经被废弃了。” 现在这种情况正在发生变化，因为我们拥有一种不断发展的、可复制的视觉文化，可以在多功能性和影响力方面与印刷品相媲美。巴拉兹认为电影作为一种文化实体，与任何其他文化元素一样受到同样的压力和力量，这在今天看来似乎是显而易见的，但他是最早认识到电影这一重要方面的人之一。
But while he celebrated the reality of the closeup, Balázs also situated film squarely in the economic sphere. He realized that the economic foundation of film is the prime determinant of film esthetics, and he was one of the earliest film theorists to understand and explain how our approach to any film is molded and formed by the cultural values we share. Predating Marshall McLuhan by many years, he anticipated the development of a new visual culture that would resurrect certain powers of perception that, he said, had lain dormant. “The discovery of printing,” he wrote, “gradually rendered illegible the faces of men. So much could be read from paper that the method of conveying meaning by facial expression fell into desuetude.” That is changing now that we have a developing, reproducible visual culture that can match print in versatility and reach. Balázs’s sense of film as a cultural entity subject to the same pressure and forces as any other element of culture may seem obvious today, but he was one of the first to recognize this all-important aspect of film.
场景调度：新现实主义、巴赞和戈达尔
Mise-en-Scène: Neorealism, Bazin, and Godard
与爱森斯坦一样，安德烈·巴赞从 20 世纪 40 年代中期到 1958 年 39 岁英年早逝，他的短暂职业生涯一直在不断地修正和重新评估。与几乎所有其他主要电影理论的作者不同，巴赞是一位经常撰写有关个人电影的评论家。他的理论主要表达在他去世后几年出版的四卷文集（Qu'est-ce que le cinéma？）中（精选并翻译成两卷：什么是电影？）。它深深地融入了他的实践、演绎经验。在巴赞那里，电影理论第一次不再是一个声明和规定的问题，而是一种完全成熟的智力活动，意识到了自己的局限性。巴赞文集的标题就揭示了这种方法的谦虚。对于巴赞来说，问题比答案更重要。
Like Eisenstein, André Bazin was engaged in a continual process of revision and reevaluation as his short career progressed from the mid-1940s to his early death in 1958 at the age of thirty-nine. Unlike nearly all other authors of major film theories, Bazin was a working critic who wrote regularly about individual films. His theory is expressed mainly in four volumes of collected essays (Qu’est-ce que le cinéma?) published in the years immediately succeeding his death (selected and translated in two volumes: What Is Cinema?). It is deeply imbued with his practical, deductive experience. With Bazin, for the first time, film theory becomes not a matter of pronouncement and prescription but a fully mature intellectual activity, aware of its own limitations. The very title of Bazin’s collected essays reveals the modesty of this approach. For Bazin, the questions are more important than the answers.
巴赞的理论源于他作为现象学学生的背景，其理论在组织上显然是现实主义的，但焦点再次发生了转移。如果形式主义是表现主义更复杂、更不自命不凡的表亲，那么巴赞所追求的也许应该被称为“功能主义”而不是简单的现实主义，因为贯穿他的论点的是一个重要的思想，即电影的重要性不在于它是什么，而在于它的意义。确实如此。
With roots in his background as a student of phenomenology, Bazin’s theories are clearly Realist in organization, but once again the focus has shifted. If Formalism is the more sophisticated, less pretentious cousin of Expressionism, perhaps what Bazin is after should be called “Functionalism” rather than simply Realism, for running throughout his argument is the important idea that film has significance not for what it is but for what it does.
对于巴赞来说，现实主义更多的是心理学问题，而不是美学问题。他没有像克拉考尔那样在电影和现实之间建立一个简单的等式，而是描述了两者之间更微妙的关系，其中电影是现实的渐近线，是几何曲线接近但从未接触的假想线。他在他最早的一篇论文《摄影图像的本体论》一开始就提出：“如果将造型艺术置于精神分析之下，那么对死者进行防腐处理的做法可能会成为其创作的一个基本因素。” 他认为，艺术的出现是因为“人们……寻求其他形式的保险”。防腐的原始记忆在摄影和电影中得以延续，它们“对时间进行防腐，只是将其从适当的腐败中拯救出来”。这导致了一个优雅简单的结论：
For Bazin, Realism is more a matter of psychology than of esthetics. He does not make a simple equation between film and reality, as does Kracauer, but rather describes a more subtle relationship between the two in which film is the asymptote to reality, the imaginary line that the geometric curve approaches but never touches. He began one of his earliest essays, “The Ontology of the Photographic Image,” by suggesting: “If the plastic arts were put under psychoanalysis, the practice of embalming the dead might turn out to be a fundamental factor in their creation.” The arts arose, he contends, because “other forms of insurance were … sought.” That primal memory of embalming lives on in photography and cinema, which “embalm time, rescuing it simply from its proper corruption.” This leads to an elegantly simple conclusion:
如果造型艺术的历史与其说是审美问题，不如说是心理问题，那么它本质上就会被视为一个关于相似的故事，或者，如果你愿意的话，关于现实主义的故事。
If the history of the plastic arts is less a matter of their aesthetic than of their psychology then it will be seen to be essentially the story of resemblance, or, if you will, of realism.
如果摄影艺术的起源本质上是心理学问题，那么它们的效果也是如此。在《电影语言的演变》中，巴赞将电影现实主义的根源追溯到无声电影中的穆尔瑙和斯特罗海姆，并快速而优雅地描述了一系列技术创新如何推动电影渐近地接近现实。尽管技术是这种特殊力量的源泉，但它也被用来产生心理、道德和政治影响。这种倾向在二战刚刚结束和刚结束后的意大利新现实主义运动中蓬勃发展——巴赞对这个电影时代有着浓厚的兴趣。“新现实主义难道不是首先是一种人文主义，”他总结道，“其次才是一种电影制作风格吗？” 他认为，真正的革命更多地发生在主题层面，而不是风格层面。
If the genesis of the photographic arts is essentially a matter of psychology, then so is their effect. In “The Evolution of the Language of Cinema,” Bazin traces the roots of film Realism back to Murnau and Stroheim in the silent cinema, and quickly and elegantly describes how a series of technological innovations pushed film ever closer, asymptotically, to reality. But while technology was the source of this particular power, it was used for psychological, ethical, and political effects. This tendency blossomed in the movement of Italian Neorealism just at the end of and directly after World War II—a cinematic era for which Bazin felt a great affinity. “Is not Neorealism primarily a kind of humanism,” he concludes, “and only secondarily a style of filmmaking?” The real revolution, he thinks, took place more on the level of subject matter than of style.
图 5-7。哲学家布莱斯·帕莱恩 (Brice Parain) 与安娜·卡琳娜 (Anna Karina) 在戈达尔的《我的一生》（My Life to Live， 1962）中谈论自由和交流。
Figure 5-7. Philosopher Brice Parain chats with Anna Karina about freedom and communication in Godard’s My Life to Live ( 1962).
图 5-8。MISE -EN - SCENE AS VIEW。戈达尔的《相机之眼》（远离越南， 1967）。（框架放大。）
Figure 5-8. MISE-EN-SCENE AS VIEW. Godard in “Camera-Eye” (Far from Vietnam, 1967). (Frame enlargement.)
图 5-9。“Rosy”和“Raoul”消费者拼贴画，《Les Carabiniers》（1963）。
Figure 5-9. “Rosy” and “Raoul” consumer collages, in Les Carabiniers (1963).
图 5-10。《Le Gai Savoir》（1968）。朱丽叶·贝尔托 (Juliet Berto) 和让-皮埃尔·利奥德 (Jean-Pierre Léaud) 在黑暗的电视演播室中进行未播出的讨论。（图框放大）
Figure 5-10. Le Gai Savoir (1968). Juliet Berto and Jean-Pierre Léaud in the middle of the dark television studio engage in discussions that aren’t broadcast. (Frame enlargement)
图 5-11。朱丽叶·贝托（Juliet Berto）在《周末》（1968）中，夹在电影中的两种难以驾驭的力量之间：性与能量、胸罩广告和埃索老虎。
Figure 5-11. Juliet Berto, in Weekend (1968), is caught between the two unruly forces of the film, sex and energy, a bra ad and the Esso tiger.
图 5-12。《英国之声》 （1969）中的这个开场镜头让人回想起《周末》 （见图 3-67）中经过无止尽的停顿汽车队列的长跟踪镜头，它客观地跟踪了装配线上汽车的制造过程。配乐是机器的尖叫声，因为工人只被视为更大机器的一部分。汽车的制造就像交通事故一样痛苦。在《周末》和《英国之声》的跟踪镜头中，场面调度成为了一种意识形态工具，而蒙太奇则是分析性的：因为它为我们总结，但并不鼓励我们制定自己的逻辑。蒙太奇得出结论；mise-en-scène 提出问题。（图框放大）
Figure 5-12. Recalling the long tracking shot in Weekend (see Figure 3-67) past the endless line of stalled autos, this opening sequence from British Sounds (1969) objectively follows the construction of a car on the assembly line. The soundtrack is a screech of machinery, as the workers are seen only as parts of the larger machine. The fabrication of the car is as painful as traffic accidents. In both the Weekend and British Sounds tracking shots, mise-en-scène becomes an ideological tool, whereas montage is analytical: because it summarizes for us, it does not encourage us to work out our own logic. Montage draws conclusions; mise-en-scène asks questions. (Frame enlargement)
图 5-13。在《弗拉基米尔和罗莎》（197l）中，戈达尔（左）和他的合作者让-皮埃尔·戈林（右）建立了“网球场的辩证法”。辩证法的要素有：弗拉基米尔（列宁）和罗莎（卢森堡）、让-吕克（戈达尔）和让-皮埃尔（戈林）、声音和图像。美国的经验和法国的实践，电影制片人（这里）和电影观看者（也暗示在这里）。
Figure 5-13. In Vladimir and Rosa (197l), Godard (left) and his collaborator Jean-Pierre Gorin (right) set up the “dialectic of the tennis court.” The elements of the dialectic are, variously: Vladimir (Lenin) and Rosa (Luxemburg), Jean-Luc (Godard) and Jean-Pierre (Gorin), sound and image. American experience and French practice, filmmakers (here) and filmwatchers (also here by implication).
图 5-14。在一篇关于芝加哥八人组审判的文章中，弗拉基米尔和罗莎密切关注了媒体的功能。“鲍比 X”（戈达尔/戈林为现实生活中的鲍比西尔饰演的角色）在法庭上被堵住嘴并捆绑起来（就像他在现实生活中一样）。为了向媒体展示Bobby X的缺席，电影中的革命者们为他举办了一场新闻发布会。但他不能出现。他用红色椅子上的录音机说话。为了寻找一个戏剧性的故事，电视摄像机被迫报道一个不那么令人兴奋的想法：声音和图像之间的斗争。在这张照片中，声音终于有了自己的图像！（框架放大。）
Figure 5-14. An essay on the trial of the Chicago 8, Vladimir and Rosa paid close attention to the function of the media. “Bobby X” (Godard/Gorin’s character for the real-life Bobby Seale) is gagged and bound in the courtroom (as he was in real life). To demonstrate the absence of Bobby X for the media, the group of revolutionaries in the movie set up a press conference for him. But he can’t appear. He speaks from a tape recorder set up on a red chair. Looking for a dramatic story, the television cameras are forced to cover a less exciting idea: the struggle between sound and image. In this shot, sound finally gets its own image! (Frame enlargement.)
图 5-15。《Tout va bien》中超市里的跟踪镜头与《周末》中的早期镜头一样长（也一样令人兴奋）。戈达尔的摄影机无情地经过一排二十四台收银机，其中大多数收银机发出铿锵声，一群年轻的粗俗人在市场上演一场政治事件：图像和产品的生产与消费。
Figure 5-15. The tracking shot in the supermarket in Tout va bien is as long (and as exhilarating) as the earlier shot in Weekend. Godard’s cameras moves inexorably past a rank of twenty-four cash registers, most of them clanging away, as the group of young gauchistes stages a political event in the market: production versus consumption—of images as well as products.
正如形式主义者发现蒙太奇是电影事业的核心一样，巴赞也声称场景调度是现实主义电影的关键。他所说的场景调度特指深焦摄影和连拍镜头。这些技术使观众能够更充分地参与电影体验。因此，巴赞发现深度聚焦的发展不仅仅是另一种电影手段，而是“电影语言史上辩证的一步”。
Just as the Formalists had found montage to be the heart of the cinematic enterprise, so Bazin claims that mise-en-scène is the crux of the Realist film. By mise-en-scène he means specifically deep focus photography and the sequence-shot; these techniques allow the spectator to participate more fully in the experience of film. Thus, Bazin finds the development of deep focus to be not just another filmic device, but rather “a dialectical step forward in the history of film language.”
他概述了原因：焦深“使观众与图像的关系比与现实的关系更密切”。因此，这意味着“观察者采取更积极的心态，并对正在进行的行动做出更积极的贡献”。不再有布多夫金的“心理指导”。图像的意义源自观众的注意力和意愿。此外，深度聚焦还有一个形而上学的后果：“蒙太奇本质上排除了表达的歧义。” 爱森斯坦的吸引力就在于它们本身：它们具有强烈的外延性。另一方面，新现实主义“倾向于给电影带来一种现实的模糊感”。自由选择，我们自由诠释。
He outlines why this is so: depth of focus “brings the spectator in closer relation with the image than he is with reality.” This implies consequently “both a more active mental attitude on the part of the observer and a more positive contribution on his part to the action in progress.” No more the “psychological guidance” of Pudovkin. From the attention and the will of the spectator, the meaning of the image derives. Moreover, there is a metaphysical consequence of deep focus: “montage by its very nature rules out ambiguity of expression.” Eisenstein’s attractions are what they are: they are strongly denotative. Neorealism, on the other hand, “tends to give back to the cinema a sense of the ambiguity of reality.” Free to choose, we are free to interpret.
与这种模糊性价值概念密切相关的是空间的存在和现实这两个概念。巴赞在后来的一篇文章中指出，戏剧和电影之间的本质区别就在于这一领域。在电影中只有一个现实是不可否认的——空间的现实。反之，舞台上的空间很容易产生虚幻感；不可否认的一个现实是演员和观众的存在。这两种简化是各自艺术的基础。
Closely associated with this concept of the value of ambiguity are the twin concepts of the presence and reality of space. Bazin, in a later essay, suggests that the essential difference between theater and cinema lies in this area. There is only one reality that cannot be denied in cinema—the reality of space. Contrariwise, on the stage space can easily be illusory; the one reality that cannot be denied there is the presence of the actor and the spectator. These two reductions are the foundations of their respective arts.
对电影的启示是，由于不存在不可还原的存在现实，“没有什么可以阻止我们在想象中将自己与眼前移动的世界联系起来，而这个世界就成为了世界。” 于是，认同就成为电影美学词汇中的关键词。此外，一个不可简化的现实是空间。因此，电影形式与空间关系密切相关：换句话说，就是场景调度。
The implications for cinema are that, since there is no irreducible reality of presence, “there is nothing to prevent us from identifying ourselves in imagination with the moving world before us, which becomes the world.” Identification then becomes a key word in the vocabulary of cinematic esthetics. Moreover, the one irreducible reality is that of space. Therefore, film form is intimately involved with spatial relationships: mise-en-scène, in other words.
巴赞的寿命不足以更精确地阐述这些理论，但他的作品仍然对一代电影制片人产生了深远的影响，爱森斯坦也是如此（但阿恩海姆和克拉考尔的处方却没有）。巴赞为后来的符号学和伦理理论奠定了基础。更直接的影响是，他在 1951 年与 Jacques Doniol-Valcroze 和 Joseph-Marie Lo Duca 共同创办的杂志《电影手册》中激励了许多同事。《手册》是历史上的电影杂志，在五十年代和六十年代初期为弗朗索瓦·特吕弗、让-吕克·戈达尔、克洛德·夏布洛尔、埃里克·侯麦和雅克·里维特等人提供了知识家园。作为批评家，这些人对理论的发展做出了重大贡献。作为电影制作人，他们是第一代电影人，他们的作品完全植根于电影历史和理论；他们的电影——尤其是戈达尔的电影——不仅是理论的实际例子，而且本身也常常是理论文章。
Bazin did not live long enough to formulate these theories more precisely, but his work nevertheless had a profound effect on a generation of filmmakers, as did Eisenstein’s (but as Arnheim’s and Kracauer’s prescriptions did not). Bazin laid the groundwork for the semiotic and ethical theories that were to follow. More immediately, he inspired a number of his colleagues on Cahiers du Cinéma, the magazine he founded with Jacques Doniol-Valcroze and Joseph-Marie Lo Duca in 1951. The most influential film journal in history, Cahiers provided an intellectual home during the fifties and early sixties for François Truffaut, Jean-Luc Godard, Claude Chabrol, Eric Rohmer, and Jacques Rivette, among others. As critics, these men contributed significantly to the development of theory; as filmmakers, they comprised the first generation of cinéastes whose work was thoroughly grounded in film history and theory; their films—especially those of Godard—were not only practical examples of theory but often themselves theoretical essays.
电影理论第一次以电影而非印刷品的形式书写。
For the first time, film theory was being written in film rather than print.
这一事实本身就证明评论家和电影制片人亚历山大·阿斯特鲁克的愿景正在实现。1948 年，阿斯特鲁克 (Astruc) 呼吁开启电影新时代，他将其定义为相机笔 (camerapen) 时代。他预测电影将“逐渐摆脱视觉的暴政、摆脱图像本身的束缚、摆脱叙事的直接而具体的要求，成为一种像书面语言一样灵活和微妙的写作手段。 ”*许多早期的理论家都谈到过电影的“语言”；caméra-stylo 的概念要复杂得多。阿斯特鲁克不仅希望电影能够发展出自己的风格，他还希望该风格能够表达最微妙的想法。除了爱森斯坦之外，之前没有一位电影理论家将电影视为一种可以表达抽象概念的智力媒介。
This fact itself was evidence that the vision of critic and filmmaker Alexandre Astruc was being realized. In 1948, Astruc had called for a new age of cinema, which he identified as the age of caméra-stylo (camerapen). He predicted that cinema would “gradually break free from the tyranny of what is visual, from the image for its own sake, from the immediate and concrete demands of the narrative, to become a means of writing just as flexible and subtle as written language.” * Many earlier theorists had spoken of film’s “language”; the concept of the caméra-stylo was significantly more elaborate. Astruc not only wanted film to develop its own idiom, he also wanted that idiom to be capable of expressing the most subtle ideas. Except for Eisenstein, no previous film theorist had conceived of film as an intellectual medium in which abstract concepts could be expressed.
几乎所有的理论家都自然地认为电影记录媒介的正确领域是具体的。甚至爱森斯坦的辩证蒙太奇也完全依赖于具体的图像——我们可以称之为客观关联物的辩证法。阿斯特鲁克想要更多。在随意提及爱森斯坦时，他指出：
Nearly all theorists naturally assumed that the proper province of the recording medium of film was the concrete. Even Eisenstein’s dialectical montage depended thoroughly on concrete images—we might call it a dialectic of objective correlatives. Astruc wanted something more. In an offhand reference to Eisenstein, he noted:
电影现在正在走向一种使其成为一种如此精确的语言的形式，以至于很快就可以直接在电影上写下想法，甚至不必诉诸无声电影所带来的那些沉重的图像联想。
the cinema is now moving towards a form which is making it such a precise language that it will soon be possible to write ideas directly on film without even having to resort to those heavy associations of images that were the delight of silent cinema.
Astruc 的相机笔是一种功能而非形式的原则。这是对影响巴赞的新现实主义实践的适当补充。
Astruc’s caméra-stylo was a doctrine of function rather than form. It was a fitting complement to the developing practice of Neorealism that so influenced Bazin.
十多年之后，Astruc 1948 年的愿景才在新浪潮电影中得以实现。与此同时，特吕弗、戈达尔和其他人开始在《电影手册》中发展批评实践理论。安德烈·巴赞始终是一个存在主义者，致力于发展一种基于实践的演绎电影理论。这项工作的大部分内容是通过对流派的识别和批判性审查而进行的。“电影的存在先于其本质，”他以优美的存在主义形式写道。巴赞得出的任何结论都是对电影具体事实的体验的直接结果。
It would be more than ten years before Astruc’s 1948 vision would be realized in the cinema of the New Wave. Meanwhile, Truffaut, Godard, and the others set about developing a theory of critical practice in the pages of Cahiers du Cinéma. Always the existentialist, André Bazin was working to develop a theory of film that was deductive—based in practice. Much of this work proceeded through identification and critical examination of genres. “Cinema’s existence precedes its essence,” he wrote in fine existential form. Whatever conclusions Bazin drew were the direct result of the experience of the concrete fact of film.
弗朗索瓦·特吕弗最好地表达了五十年代《电影手册》的主要理论原则。特吕弗在其具有里程碑意义的文章“法国电影的必然趋势” （《电影手册》， 1954 年 1 月）中提出了“作者政治”，成为年轻法国评论家的战斗口号。通常被翻译为“作者理论”，它根本不是一种理论，而是一种政策：一种相当武断的批评方法。正如巴赞几年后在一篇文章中解释的那样，他在文章中试图反驳该政策的一些过度行为：
François Truffaut best expressed the major theoretical principle that came to identify Cahiers du Cinéma in the fifties. In his landmark article “Une certaine tendance du cinéma français” (Cahiers du Cinéma, January 1954), Truffaut developed the “Politique des auteurs,” which became the rallying cry for the young French critics. Usually translated as “auteur theory,” it wasn’t a theory at all but a policy: a fairly arbitrary critical approach. As Bazin explained several years later in an essay in which he tried to counter some of the excesses of the policy:
简而言之，作者政治就是选择艺术创作中的个人因素作为参考标准，然后假设它从一部电影到下一部电影都会继续甚至进展。
The Politique des auteurs consists, in short, of choosing the personal factor in artistic creation as a standard of reference, and then of assuming that it continues and even progresses from one film to the next.
正如巴赞所指出的，这导致了对个别电影的一些相当荒谬的看法，但正是由于其令人震惊的导演政治，为六十年代作家的个人电影的复兴铺平了道路，这些作家可以运用阿斯特鲁克的相机风格恩典和智慧。电影正在从抽象设计理论转向具体传播理论。现在重要的不是物质现实主义，甚至不是心理现实主义，而是思想现实主义。一旦人们明白电影是作者的作品，一旦作者的“声音”清晰，那么观众就可以将电影视为另一个人的陈述，而不是现实或现实的梦想。 。
This led to some rather absurd opinions on individual films, as Bazin points out, but by its very egregiousness the Politique des auteurs helped to prepare the way for a resurgence of the personal cinema of authors in the sixties who could wield Astruc’s caméra-stylo with grace and intelligence. Cinema was moving from theories of abstract design to theories of concrete communication. It was not material Realism or even psychological Realism that counted now, but rather intellectual Realism. Once it was understood that a film was the product of an author, once that author’s “voice” was clear, then spectators could approach the film not as if it were reality, or the dream of reality, but as a statement by another human being.
让-吕克·戈达尔的蒙太奇理论比特吕弗的《政治》更重要，尽管在当时的影响力要小得多，该理论在五十年代中期的一系列文章中得到了发展，最好的表达是《蒙太奇，我的美人》（Cahiers du Cinéma ） 65；1956 年 12 月）。戈达尔以巴赞关于场景调度和蒙太奇之间基本对立的理论为基础，对这两个长期主导电影理论的论点进行了辩证综合。这是电影理论中最重要的步骤之一。戈达尔重新思考了这种关系，以便蒙太奇和场景调度都可以被视为同一电影活动的不同方面。
More important than Truffaut’s Politique, though much less influential at the time, was Jean-Luc Godard’s theory of montage, developed in a series of essays in the middle fifties and best expressed in “Montage, mon beau souci” (Cahiers du Cinéma 65; December 1956). Building on Bazin’s theory of the basic opposition between mise-en-scène and montage, Godard created a dialectical synthesis of these two theses that had governed film theory for so long. This is one of the most important steps in film theory. Godard rethought the relationship so that both montage and mise-en-scène can be seen as different aspects of the same cinematic activity.
“蒙太奇首先是场景调度的一个组成部分，”他写道。“只有在危险的情况下才能将一个人与另一个人分开。人们不妨尝试将节奏与旋律分开……。一个人试图在空间中预见什么，另一个人则在时间中寻求预见。” 此外，对于戈达尔来说，场景调度自动意味着蒙太奇。在源于普多夫金并影响了好莱坞最佳作品的心理现实电影中，“镜头剪辑几乎就是蒙太奇的定义”。因此，蒙太奇是由场景调度具体决定的。当演员转身看一个物体时，剪辑立即将其展示给我们。在这种被称为“经典剪纸”的结构中，镜头的长度取决于其功能，而镜头之间的关系则由镜头内的材料（场景调度）控制。
“Montage is above all an integral part of mise-en-scène,” he wrote. “Only at peril can one be separated from the other. One might just as well try to separate the rhythm from a melody…. What one seeks to foresee in space, the other seeks in time.” Moreover, for Godard, mise-en-scène automatically implies montage. In the cinema of psychological reality that derived from Pudovkin and influenced the best of Hollywood, “cutting on a look is almost the definition of montage.” Montage is therefore specifically determined by mise-en-scène. As the actor turns to look at an object the editing immediately shows it to us. In this kind of construction, known as “découpage classique,” the length of a shot depends on its function and the relationship between shots is controlled by the material within the shot—its mise-en-scène.
戈达尔对经典对立的综合是优雅而简单的。它有两个重要的推论：首先，当导演用场景调度来扭曲现实时，它就可能像蒙太奇一样不真实；其次，蒙太奇并不一定是电影制片人不诚实的证据。毫无疑问，简单的塑料现实更适合场景调度，从最严格的巴赞式意义上来说，场景调度仍然比蒙太奇更诚实。但戈达尔重新定义了现实主义的界限，使我们现在不再关注造型现实（电影制片人与其原材料的具体关系），也不再关注心理现实（电影制片人与观众的操纵关系），而是关注智力现实（电影制片人的辩证关系）。 ，或对话，与观众的关系）。
Godard’s synthesis of the classic opposition is elegantly simple. It has two important corollaries: first, that mise-en-scène can thus be every bit as untruthful as montage when a director uses it to distort reality; second, that montage is not necessarily evidence of bad faith on the part of the filmmaker. No doubt, simple plastic reality is better served by mise-en-scène, which in the strictest Bazinian sense is still more honest than montage. But Godard has redefined the limits of Realism so that we now no longer focus on plastic reality (the filmmaker’s concrete relationship with his raw materials) nor on psychological reality (the filmmaker’s manipulative relationship with the audience), but on intellectual reality (the filmmaker’s dialectical, or conversational, relationship with the audience).
这样一来，场景调度和蒙太奇等模式就不再是人们的主要兴趣。我们更关心电影的“声音”：电影制作者是否善意操作？他直接对我们说话吗？他设计了一台操纵机器吗？或者这部电影是诚实的话语？
Modes like mise-en-scène and montage then cease to be of main interest. We are more concerned with the “voice” of a film: Is the filmmaker operating in good faith? Is he speaking directly to us? Has he designed a machine of manipulation? Or is the film an honest discourse?
（1977 年《如何阅读电影》第一版出版时，“诚实话语”这个问题只是一个好主意；现在更加重要。八十年代以来特效技术的发展和数字化的引入九十年代为电影制片人提供了构建“操纵机器”的强大新工具，他们正在使用它们。正如我们将在第七章中看到的，道德问题现在变得更加重要。）
(When the first edition of How to Read a Film appeared, in 1977, this question of “honest discourse” was simply a nice idea; it’s much more important now. The growth of special-effects technology since the eighties and the introduction of digitization in the nineties gave filmmakers powerful new tools for constructing “manipulation machines,” and they are using them. As we’ll see in Chapter 7, ethical questions now take on added significance.)
戈达尔将蒙太奇重新定义为场景调度的一部分。因此，制作蒙太奇就是进行场景调度。这预示着符号学方法六十年代发展起来。戈达尔喜欢引用他以前的老师之一、哲学家布莱斯·帕兰的格言：
Godard redefined montage as part of mise-en-scène. So to do montage is to do mise-en-scène. This presages the semiotic approach that was to develop in the sixties. Godard was fond of quoting the apothegm of one of his former teachers, the philosopher Brice Parain:
图 5-16。五十年后，让-吕克·戈达尔仍在创作电影协奏曲，自己担任独奏者，并得到电影图像和声音管弦乐队的支持。《音乐之城》（ Notre musique，2004）是他前往萨拉热窝演讲的回忆录。（“戈达尔先生，新的小摄影机能拯救电影院吗？”戈达尔先生没有回应。）
Figure 5-16. Fifty years on, Jean-Luc Godard was still composing film concertos with himself as the soloist, supported by the orchestra of images and sounds that is cinema. Notre musique (2004) was a memoir of his trip to Sarajevo, where he gave a lecture. (“M. Godard, can the new little cameras save the cinema?” M. Godard does not respond.)
我们所期待的所有和弦变化和和声都在这里，以老将的保留精心编排：建筑、水、桥梁、焦点的痛苦、玛丽安的形象（法国自由与理性的化身）、迫使我们的标志通过其意义、黑暗的观点、符号破坏和面孔来看待物体：暴力和讽刺的不可言喻的冲突。
All the chord changes and harmonies we have come to expect are here, orchestrated with the reserve of a veteran: architecture, water, bridges, the pain of focus, the Marianne figure (personification of French Liberty and Reason), the sign that forces us to see the object through its significance, the darkness of point of view, semioclasm, and the face: the ineffable conflict of violence and irony.
“射击和对射。L'imaginaire：确定性。Réel：不确定性。电影原理。Aller a la lumiére et dirige sur I'autre nuit: Notre Musique”。
“Shot et contre-shot. L’imaginaire: certitude. Réel: incertitude. La principe du cinéma. Aller a la lumiére et dirige sur I’autre nuit: Notre Musique.”
塑料或材料现实主义只处理所指的事物。戈达尔更先进的智力或感性现实主义包括能指。戈达尔还习惯于引用布莱希特的格言：
Plastic or material Realism deals only with what is signified. Godard’s more advanced intellectual or perceptual Realism includes the signifier. Godard was also in the habit of quoting Brecht’s dictum that
现实主义并不在于再现现实，而是在于展示事物的本来面目。
Realism doesn’t consist in reproducing reality, but in showing how things really are.
这两种说法都将现实主义的论点集中在感知问题上。克里斯蒂安·梅茨后来详细阐述了这个概念，对电影实质内容的现实性和表达该实质内容的话语的现实性进行了重要区分。“一方面，”他写道，“有现实的印象；另一方面是对现实的感知……”
Both of these statements concentrate the Realist argument on matters of perception. Christian Metz later elaborated this concept, making an important differentiation between the reality of the substance of a film and the reality of the discourse in which that substance is expressed. “On the one hand,” he wrote, “there is the impression of reality; on the other the perception of reality….”
戈达尔在成为电影制片人后继续审视这些理论问题。到六十年代中期，他开发了一种电影散文形式，其中思想结构通常取代了情节和人物的经典决定因素。这些电影中的大多数——例如《已婚女人》（1964年）、《阿尔法城》（1965年）、《男性与女性》（1966年）、《我对她了解的两三件事》（1966年）——都涉及一般的政治和哲学问题：卖淫、婚姻、叛逆，甚至建筑社会学。然而，到了六十年代末，他再次深入研究电影理论，这次是电影政治。在一系列困难的、尝试性的、实验性的电影论文中，他进一步发展了他的电影感知理论，将电影与观察者之间的政治关系纳入其中。
Godard continued his examination of these theoretical problems after he became a filmmaker. By the mid-sixties, he had developed a form of filmed essay in which the structure of ideas usually superseded the classic determinants of plot and character. Most of these films—The Married Woman (1964), Alphaville (1965), Masculine-Feminine (1966), Two or Three Things That I Know about Her (1966), for example—dealt with general political and philosophical questions: prostitution, marriage, rebellion, even the sociology of architecture. By the late sixties, however, he was once more deeply involved in film theory, this time the politics of film. In a series of difficult, tentative, experimental cinematic essays, he further developed his theory of film perception to include the political relationship between film and observer.
其中第一部也是最激烈的一部是《Le Gai Savoir》（1968），其中戈达尔处理了电影语言的尖锐问题。他认为，由于被操纵，它已经变得如此堕落，以至于没有电影能够准确地再现现实。由于其语言的内涵，它只能呈现出现实的一面虚假的镜子。因此，它必须是表现性的，而不是代表性的。虽然它不能诚实地再现现实，但它也许能够诚实地生产自己。戈达尔建议，为了让语言重新获得一些力量，电影制片人有必要将其分解，进行文学评论家罗兰·巴特所说的“符号破坏”——对符号的复兴破坏——我们必须“回归零” ”这样我们就可以重新开始。
The first of these, and the most intense, was Le Gai Savoir (1968), in which Godard dealt with the acute problem of the language of film. He suggested that it had become so debased by being used manipulatively that no film can accurately represent reality. It can only, because of the connotations of its language, present a false mirror of reality. It must therefore be presentational rather than representational. While it cannot reproduce reality honestly and truthfully, it may be able to produce itself honestly. So that the language may regain some of its force, Godard suggests, it will be necessary for filmmakers to break it down, to engage in what literary critic Roland Barthes called “semioclasm”—the revivifying destruction of signs—we must “return to zero” so that we may begin again.
在接下来的五年里，戈达尔将注意力转向录像之前，他完成了许多 16 毫米电影，在这些电影中，他试图归零。在《真理报》（ Pravda，1969）中，他研究了某些电影手段的意识形态意义。在《Vent d'est》（1969）中，他探索了电影类型的意识形态意义；在《英国声音》（1969）和《弗拉基米尔与罗莎》（1971）中，他研究了声音和图像的关系等。他认为，声音在图像的暴政下遭受苦难。两者之间应该是平等的关系。爱森斯坦和布多夫金早在1928年就发表了一份宣言，宣称声音应该被视为电影方程的平等组成部分，并允许独立于图像。但四十年来，电影理论家对配乐元素只给予了最敷衍的关注。戈达尔希望这种不平衡能够得到纠正。
During the following five years, before Godard turned his attention to video, he completed a number of 16 mm films in which he attempted to return to zero. In Pravda (1969) he investigated the ideological significance of certain cinematic devices; in Vent d’est (1969) he explored the ideological meaning of film genres; in British Sounds (1969) and Vladimir and Rosa (1971) he examined, among other things, the relationship of sound and image. Sound, he thought, suffers under the tyranny of image; there should be an equal relationship between the two. Eisenstein and Pudovkin had published a manifesto as early as 1928 declaring that sound should be treated as an equal component of the cinematic equation and allowed to be independent of image. But for forty years film theorists had given only the most perfunctory attention to the element of the soundtrack. Godard hoped the imbalance could be redressed.
《Tout va bien》和《给简的信》（均于 1972 年出版）是戈达尔这一时期最重要的理论著作。前者总结了他从实验中学到的东西；后者在某种程度上是对前者的自我批判。
Tout va bien and Letter to Jane (both 1972) were the most important of Godard’s theoretical works during this period. The former summarizes what he had learned from his experiments; the latter is, in part, an autocritique of the former.
《Tout va bien》让一名电影制片人和一名记者（丈夫和妻子）置身于具体的政治情境（罢工和工人占领工厂）中，然后研究他们对此的反应。以此为基础，对电影的整个生产和消费过程进行了分析。戈达尔从经济角度重新审视了他早期对蒙太奇和场面调度的综合，他将电影视为一种经济、感知和政治结构，其中“生产关系”——生产者和消费者之间的关系——决定电影体验的形态。重点不是电影与理想系统（美学）的关系，而是它如何直接影响我们作为观众。因此，电影的伦理和政治决定了它的本质。
Tout va bien involves a filmmaker and a reporter (husband and wife) in a concrete political situation (a strike and the worker occupation of a factory) and then studies their reaction to it. From this it builds to an analysis of the entire filmic process of production and consumption. Godard reworked his earlier synthesis of montage and mise-en-scène in economic terms, seeing cinema not as a system of esthetics but as an economic, perceptual, and political structure in which the “rapports de production”—the relationships between producer and consumer—determine the shape of the film experience. The emphasis is not on how cinema relates to an ideal system (esthetics) but rather on how it directly affects us as viewers. Film’s ethics and politics therefore determine its nature.
这并不是一个特别新的想法。巴拉兹意识到了电影的这个维度。三四十年代，法兰克福社会批评学派（主要是沃尔特·本雅明、西奥多·阿多诺和马克斯·霍克海默）在这一背景下审视了电影，最著名的是本雅明非常重要的论文《机械复制时代的艺术作品》。 ”。本杰明写道：
This was not a particularly new idea; Balázs was aware of this dimension of film. In the thirties and forties, the Frankfurt school of social criticism (Walter Benjamin, Theodor Adorno, and Max Horkheimer, mainly) had examined film in this context, most notably in Benjamin’s very important essay “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction.” Benjamin had written:
世界历史上第一次，机械复制将艺术作品从对仪式的寄生依赖中解放出来…… 它不再基于仪式，而是开始基于另一种实践——政治。
For the first time in world history, mechanical reproduction emancipates the work of art from its parasitical dependence on ritual…. Instead of being based on ritual, it begins to be based on another practice—politics.
然而，本雅明谈论的是一个理想。戈达尔必须展示商业电影如何篡夺了本雅明所说的电影的独特能力，即打破传统、驯服传统，并使其服务于大众的目的。镇压机构。戈达尔知道必须打破这种潜意识里强大的习语。
Benjamin, however, was speaking of an ideal. Godard had to show how commercial cinema had usurped what Benjamin had termed film’s unique ability to shatter tradition, tamed it, and made it serve the purposes of a repressive establishment. It was this subliminally powerful idiom that Godard knew had to be broken down.
《给简的信》是一篇长达四十五分钟的文章，讲述了简·方达（ 《Tout va bien》的明星之一）的一张照片的意识形态意义，详细地执行了这一过程。戈达尔与让-皮埃尔戈林合作，试图分析照片美学元素的意义。戈达尔表明，角度、设计和各个组成部分之间的关系具有微妙但真实的意识形态意义。到《给简的信》时，戈达尔绝不是唯一一个采用这种辩证的、符号学的电影方法的人。
Letter to Jane, a forty-five-minute essay about the ideological significance of a photo of Jane Fonda (one of the stars of Tout va bien), carries out this process in detail. Working with Jean-Pierre Gorin, Godard attempted to analyze the signification of the esthetic elements of the photo. The angle, design, and relationships between components, Godard showed, have delicate but real ideological significance. By the time of Letter to Jane, Godard was by no means alone in this dialectic, semiotic approach to film.
电影的言行：梅斯与当代理论
Film Speaks and Acts: Metz and Contemporary Theory
当戈达尔在电影中研究“符号迫使我们通过其意义来看待一个物体”这一想法的后果时，克里斯蒂安·梅茨和其他人正在研究这一格言的印刷品的影响。在 1968 年和 1972 年出版的两卷《Essais sur la signification au cinéma》（其中第一卷英文版被翻译为“电影语言：电影符号学”）以及他的主要著作《语言与电影》（1971）中，梅茨概述了将电影视为一种可以用科学方法研究的逻辑现象。梅斯论文的要点已经在第三章中讨论过。这里只需概述迄今为止最复杂、最微妙和最精确的电影理论的广泛原则就足够了。
While Godard was studying on film the consequences of the idea that “the sign forces us to see an object through its significance,” Christian Metz and others were studying in print the ramifications of that dictum. In two volumes of Essais sur la signification au cinéma (the first of which appeared in English translated as Film Language: A Semiotics of the Cinema), published in 1968 and 1972, and in his major work Language and Cinema (1971), Metz outlined a view of film as a logical phenomenon that can be studied by scientific methods. The main points of Metz’s thesis have already been discussed in Chapter 3. It will suffice here simply to outline the broad principles of what is the most elaborate, subtle, and precise theory of film yet developed.
符号学是一个通用术语，涵盖了将文化作为语言进行研究的许多具体方法。它深深植根于费迪南德·德·索绪尔的语言理论，它使用语言作为各种现象的一般模型。这种方法首先在五十年代和六十年代初期克洛德·列维-斯特劳斯的文化人类学中形成。这种“结构主义”很快就被接受为一种普遍的世界观。迈克尔·伍德 (Michael Wood) 简洁地描述了这种知性时尚的本质：
Semiotics is a general term that covers many specific approaches to the study of culture as language. With strong roots in the linguistic theories of Ferdinand de Saussure, it uses language as a general model for a variety of phenomena. The approach first took shape in the cultural anthropology of Claude Lévi-Strauss in the fifties and early sixties. This “structuralism” quickly became accepted as a general worldview. Michael Wood described the nature of this intellectual fashion succinctly:
结构主义也许最好被理解为现代思想史上一条错综复杂、可能无法命名的线索。有时它似乎是现代主义本身的代名词。有时，它似乎只是二十世纪几种形式主义中的一种……。有时，它似乎是与兰波一起诞生的庞大计划的继承者，尼采在马拉美那里得到阐述，在索绪尔、维特根斯坦和乔伊斯那里被追寻，在贝克特和博尔赫斯那里被击败，现在分散到许多无助的教派中：马拉美称之为对地球的俄耳甫斯式解释，描绘世界的计划不是在语言中但作为语言[纽约书评， 1976 年 3 月 4 日]。
Structuralism is perhaps best understood as a tangled and possibly unnameable strand in modern intellectual history. At times it seems synonymous with modernism itself. At times it seems to be simply one among several twentieth-century formalisms…. And at times it seems to be the inheritor of that vast project which was born with Rimbaud and Nietzsche, spelled out in Mallarmé, pursued in Saussure, Wittgenstein, and Joyce, defeated in Beckett and Borges, and is scattered now into a host of helpless sects: what Mallarmé called the Orphic explanation of the earth, the project of picturing the world not in language but as language [New York Review of Books, March 4,1976].
简而言之，结构主义及其后代符号学是一种以语言概念为基本工具的广义世界观。
In short, structuralism, with its offspring, semiotics, is a generalized worldview that uses the idea of language as its basic tool.
梅斯的电影方法（像所有电影符号学一样）既是最抽象又是最具体的电影理论。因为符号学旨在成为一门科学，所以它在很大程度上依赖于对特定电影和电影部分的实际详细分析。在这方面，符号学批评比任何其他方法都更加具体和激烈。但与此同时，符号学往往是精致的哲学。从某种意义上说，对电影宇宙的符号学描述是为了它自己而存在的：它有它自己的吸引力，而且重点往往不是电影而是理论。此外，符号学家——尤其是梅茨——因其本身就是优雅的造型师而闻名。阅读符号学研究的乐趣很大程度上与纯粹的知识创造力和实践者技巧的精妙有关。例如，梅斯有一种滑稽、雄辩的幽默感，这极大地改善了他常常华丽的理论。
Metz’s approach to film (like all film semiotics) is at once the most abstract and the most concrete of film theories. Because it intends to be a science, semiotics depends heavily on the practical detailed analysis of specific films—and parts of films. In this respect, semiotic criticism is far more concrete and intense than any other approach. Yet at the same time, semiotics is often exquisitely philosophical. The semiotic description of the universe of cinema, in a sense, exists for its own sake: it has its own attractions, and the emphasis is often not on film but on theory. Moreover, semioticians—Metz especially—are noted for being elegant stylists in their own right. Much of the pleasure of reading semiotic studies has to do with the pure intellectual creativity and the subtlety of technique of its practitioners. Metz, for example, has a droll, eloquent sense of humor that does much to meliorate his often florid theorizing.
翁贝托·艾柯（Umberto Eco）是仅次于梅斯的最著名的电影符号学家，他概述了自六十年代初以来科学发展的四个阶段。根据艾柯的说法，第一阶段一直持续到七十年代初，其特点是他所说的“对语言模式的高估”。当符号学努力获得合法性时，它紧紧抓住之前语言学研究的公认模式。（以同样的方式，电影理论的最早阶段模仿了古老的艺术。）
Umberto Eco, next to Metz the most prominent of film semioticians, outlined four stages of the development of the science since the early sixties. The first stage, which according to Eco lasted until the early seventies, was marked by what he calls “the overevaluation of the linguistic mode.” As semiotics struggled to achieve legitimacy, it clung tightly to the accepted patterns of the study of linguistics that had preceded it. (In the same way, the earliest stages of film theory had mimicked that of the older arts.)
当符号学家开始意识到他们的分析系统并不像他们最初希望相信的那么简单和普遍时，第二阶段就开始了。
The second stage began when semioticians started to realize that their system of analysis was not so simple and universal as they would have liked to believe at first.
在第三阶段——七十年代初期——符号学集中研究电影意义宇宙的一个特定方面：制作。文本制作过程的符号学是这里的核心，政治意识形态成为符号学方程式的一部分。
During the third stage—the early seventies—semiotics concentrated on the study of one specific aspect of the universe of meaning in film: production. The semiotics of the process, of the making of texts, was central here, and political ideology became part of the semiotic equation.
第四阶段——从 1975 年开始——注意力从生产转向消费，从文本的制作转向对文本的感知。这一阶段的电影符号学深受法国圣人雅克·拉康弗洛伊德心理学方法的影响。
The fourth stage—beginning in 1975—saw attention shift from production to consumption, from the making of texts to the perception of them. In this stage, film semiotics was greatly influenced by the approach to Freudian psychology of the French sage Jacques Lacan.
图L.服装的句法结构和范式结构。_
DIAGRAM L. SYNTAGMATIC AND PARADIGMATIC STRUCTURES OF CLOTHING.
符号学从一个旨在量化并提供对电影现象进行完整而精确分析的准科学体系开始，逐渐倒退到困扰所有电影学生的基本问题：我们如何知道什么我们看？一路走来，通过用新的方式重新表述旧问题，符号学为理解电影本质的共同斗争做出了重大贡献。
Having begun with a quasi-scientific system that purported to quantify and offered the prospect of complete and exact analysis of the phenomenon of film, semiotics gradually worked its way backward to the basic question that has puzzled all students of film: how do we know what we see? Along the way, by rephrasing old questions in new ways, semiotics contributed significantly to the common struggle to understand the nature of film.
我们现在可能想添加第五个阶段——尤其是在英国和美国：符号学的学术建立。自七十年代末以来，符号学及其后继的批评体系已成为学者们的有用工具，这些学者更感兴趣的是在他们消亡之前出版，而不是增加我们对电影理论的理解。由于符号学本质上是极其深奥的，因此在这方面尤其危险。在梅斯、埃科（后来开始写通俗小说）或罗兰·巴特（他的散文集就是他们自己的目的）等优雅的文体家手中，符号学工具可以产生有吸引力和启发性的讨论。但低级侍僧在这里却能逃脱很多惩罚。任何想要阅读符号学的人都应该预先警告：仅仅因为你无法理解它并不意味着它有任何意义。
We now might want to add a fifth stage—especially in England and the United States: the academic establishment of semiotics. Since the late seventies semiotics, along with its successor critical systems, has become a useful tool for academicians interested more in publishing before they perish than in increasing our understanding of film theory. Because it is inherently, defiantly abstruse, semiotics is especially dangerous in this regard. In the hands of elegant stylists like Metz, Eco (who later moved on to write popular novels), or Roland Barthes (whose books of essays were their own ends), the tools of semiotics can produce attractive and enlightening discursions. But lesser acolytes can get away with a lot here. Anyone intending to read semiotics should be forewarned: just because you can’t understand it doesn’t mean it means anything.
克里斯蒂安·梅茨最早的大部分工作都与建立电影符号学的前提有关。蒙太奇这一事实似乎提供了电影与一般语言之间最简单的比较。图像不是一个词。该序列不是一个句子。然而电影就像一种语言。电影与其他语言的明显区别在于它的短路符号，其中能指和所指几乎相同。
Much of Christian Metz’s earliest work was concerned with setting up the premises of a semiotics of film. It would seem that the fact of montage offers the easiest comparison between film and language in general. The image is not a word. The sequence is not a sentence. Yet film is like a language. What makes film distinctly separate from other languages is its short-circuit sign, in which signifier and signified are nearly the same.
图M. 代码集理论：特定、非特定和共享代码。
DIAGRAM M. CODE SET THEORY: specific, nonspecific, and shared codes.
正常语言表现出“双重发音”的力量：也就是说，为了使用一种语言，人们必须能够理解它的声音和意义，既能理解它的能指，又能理解它的所指。但电影却并非如此。能指和所指几乎相同：所见即所得。
Normal languages exhibit the power of “double articulation”: that is, in order to use a language one must be able to understand its sounds and meanings, both its signifiers and its signifieds. But this is not true of film. Signifier and signified are nearly the same: what you see is what you get.
因此克里斯蒂安·梅茨很快就留下了语言学的结构，这些结构曾作为电影、文学和其他文化领域的各种符号学研究的模型。他转向具体问题分析。尽管他不同意蒙太奇是电影语言的决定性因素，但他认为叙事的使用对于电影体验至关重要。他认为，定义电影符号的动机很重要：电影中的外延和内涵之间的区别很重要。（参见第 3 章。）
So Christian Metz quickly left behind the structures of linguistics that had served as models for all the various semiotic studies of film, literature, and other areas of culture. He turned to the analysis of specific problems. Although he didn’t agree that montage was the governing determinant of film language, he felt that the use of narrative was central to the film experience. The motivation of cinematic signs, he felt, was important to define: the difference between denotation and connotation in cinema is important. (See Chapter 3.)
他认为，叙事中的第二个重要区别是组合结构和范式结构之间的区别。这两者都是理论建构，而非实际事实。电影或序列的句法显示了其线性叙事结构。它关心的是“接下来发生什么”。电影的范式是垂直的：它涉及选择——“什么搭配什么”。
The second important differentiation in narrative, he felt, was between syntagmatic and paradigmatic structures. Both of these are theoretical constructions rather than practical facts. The syntagma of a film or sequence shows its linear narrative structure. It is concerned with “what follows what.” The paradigm of a film is vertical: it concerns choice— “what goes with what.”
现在，梅斯觉得他拥有了一套逻辑系统，可以对电影现象进行真正的分析。蒙太奇和场面调度被彻底重新定义为组合和范式类别。这些笛卡尔坐标决定了电影的领域。
Now Metz felt he had a system of logic that would permit the real analysis of the film phenomenon. Montage and mise-en-scène had been thoroughly redefined as the syntagmatic and paradigmatic categories. These Cartesian coordinates determined the field of film.
梅茨接下来在《语言与电影》一书中对控制电影意义的代码系统进行了彻底的阐述。在电影理论的语法和范式中，是什么决定了我们如何从电影中获取意义？当代数学集合论在他精心设计的代码结构中发挥了重要作用。梅茨在区分我们之前提到的“电影”和“电影”时解释说，代码的概念超越了电影的限制。电影中运作的许多代码来自其他文化领域。这些是“非特定”代码。例如，我们对《惊魂记》 （1960）中谋杀案的理解并不依赖于特定的电影代码。然而，希区柯克呈现谋杀案的方式是“特定”电影代码的一个例子。最后，还有电影借用或与其他媒体共享的代码。《惊魂记》中淋浴序列的照明就是这种共享代码的一个很好的例子。这样我们就有了第一个重叠集合系列。
Metz next turned, in Language and Cinema, to a thorough exposition of the system of codes that govern cinematic meaning. Within the syntagmas and paradigms of film theory, what determines how we acquire meaning from a film? Contemporary mathematical set theory plays an important part in his elaborate structure of codes. Making the differentiation between “film” and “cinema” that we noted earlier, Metz explained that the concept of codes transcends the limits of film. Many codes that operate in film come from other areas of culture. These are “nonspecific” codes. Our understanding of the murder in Psycho (1960), for example, does not depend on specifically cinematic codes. The way in which Hitchcock presents that murder, however, is an example of a “specific” cinematic code. Finally, there are those codes that cinema borrows from or shares with other media. The lighting of the shower sequence in Psycho is a good example of such a shared code. We thus have our first series of overlapping sets.
接下来的代码区分是合乎逻辑的。如果有些代码是电影专用的，而有些则不是，那么在这些特定代码中，有些代码是所有电影共享的，有些代码仅是少数电影共享的，而另一些则是某些个别电影所独有的。该图形象化了这个逻辑：
The next differentiation of codes follows logically. If some codes are specific to cinema and some are not, then of those specific codes, some are shared by all films and some by only a few, while others are unique to certain individual films. The diagram visualizes this logic:
图N. 代码集理论：代码的通用性。
DIAGRAM N. CODE SET THEORY: Generality of codes.
最后，代码（任何代码）都可以分解为子代码；代码有层次结构。该系统非常简单：电影是这些代码的所有可能集合；一部特定的电影是有限数量的代码和代码集。类型、职业、工作室、民族角色、技术以及以前的电影理论家、评论家、历史学家和学生提出的所有其他元素都可以分解为代码系统。
Finally, codes—any codes—can be broken down into subcodes; there is a hierarchy of codes. The system is elegantly simple: film is all the possible sets of these codes; a specific film is a limited number of codes and sets of codes. Genres, careers, studios, national characters, techniques, and every other element ever suggested by previous film theorists, critics, historians, and students can be broken down into code systems.
代码是我们在电影中读到的东西。
Codes are the things we read in films.
图表O. 代码集理论：代码和子代码。
DIAGRAM O. CODE SET THEORY: codes and subcodes.
七十年代末，梅茨与其他符号学家一起开始讨论电影感知的心理学，最成功的是他的长文《想象的能指》，该文于 1975 年同时以法语和英语出版。正如雅克·拉康所说，他不仅对电影体验进行了精神分析，还对电影本身进行了精神分析。由于弗洛伊德的巨大影响，弗洛伊德的理论现在在美国的地位远不如以前，电影符号学的这一趋势在英语符号学追随者中引起的兴趣远不如在更有经验的法国实践者中引起的兴趣。
Along with other semioticians, Metz in the late seventies moved on to a discussion of the psychology of filmic perception, most successfully in his long essay “The Imaginary Signifier,” which appeared simultaneously in both French and English in 1975. Drawing on basic Freudian theory as rephrased by Jacques Lacan, he psychoanalyzed not only the cinematic experience but also cinema itself. Because of its great debt to Freud, whose theories are now much less highly regarded in America than they once were, this trend in film semiotics elicited much less interest among English-speaking followers of semiotics than among its more experienced French practitioners.
虽然梅斯受到了最多的关注，但他绝不是唯一一个追求符号学的人。长期以来，这场运动一直是法国知识分子生活的核心。罗兰·巴特虽然主要是一位文学评论家，但在 1980 年去世之前对电影界的争论做出了重大贡献。他对希区柯克的《群鸟》和《西北偏北》中的序列进行的两项扩展研究特别令人感兴趣。在意大利，翁贝托·艾柯（Umberto Eco）和吉安弗兰科·贝蒂蒂尼（Gianfranco Bettetini）做出了重大贡献，皮尔·保罗·帕索里尼（Pier Paolo Pasolini）虽然用他自己的话来说是一位“业余”理论家，但在他英年早逝之前也做出了一些有趣的分析。
While Metz received the most attention, he was by no means alone in his semiotic pursuits. The movement has been central to French intellectual life for a long time. Roland Barthes, although mainly a literary critic, contributed significantly to the debate in cinema before his death in 1980. Raymond Bellour wrote widely; his two extended studies of sequences from Hitchcock’s The Birds and North by Northwest are of special interest. In Italy, Umberto Eco and Gianfranco Bettetini made significant contributions, and Pier Paolo Pasolini, although as he put it an “amateur” theorist, produced some interesting analyses before his untimely death.
在英国，符号学在《Screen》杂志上找到了早期的接受者，并导致了英国“电影结构主义”学派的建立。彼得·沃伦（Peter Wollen）的《电影中的符号和意义》（其主要论点在第三章中概述）是对符号学理论大纲的最重要的英语贡献。
In England, semiotics found an early and receptive home in the journal Screen and led to the establishment of the English school of “Ciné-structuralism.” Peter Wollen’s Signs and Meaning in the Cinema, the major argument of which is outlined in Chapter 3, was the most important English-language contribution to the broad outline of semiotic theory.
在美国，符号学除了作为七八十年代参与学院和大学电影学术发展的学者的工具外，几乎没有什么影响。高度知识化、抽象的电影理论在美国从未流行过。
In America, semiotics had little effect, except to serve as a tool for academics involved in the growth of film scholarship in colleges and universities in the seventies and eighties. Highly intellectualized, abstract theories of cinema have never been popular in America.
美国本土的传统是实用的批评，即使不完全是政治倾向，也常常带有社会倾向，从三十年代的哈里·艾伦·波塔姆金和奥蒂斯·弗格森，到四十年代的詹姆斯·阿吉和罗伯特·沃肖，再到德怀特·麦克唐纳、曼尼·法伯和波琳六七十年代的凯尔。安德鲁·萨里斯虽然不符合这种社会学传统，但他通过推广导演政策，对六七十年代美国电影批评的进程产生了显着影响。在《从尊敬到强奸》（1974）和她的新闻作品中，莫莉·哈斯克尔开始了对电影中性政治的讨论，这种讨论至今仍然是学术理论的一个主要分支。
The native tradition of the U.S. has been practical criticism, often with a social if not exactly political orientation, stretching from Harry Alan Potamkin and Otis Ferguson in the thirties through James Agee and Robert Warshow in the forties to Dwight Macdonald, Manny Farber, and Pauline Kael in the sixties and seventies. Andrew Sarris, although he doesn’t fit into this sociological tradition, had a marked effect on the course of film criticism in the U.S. in the sixties and seventies through his work in popularizing the auteur policy. In From Reverence to Rape (1974) and her journalism Molly Haskell began a discussion on sexual politics in film that continues to this day to be a major strain of academic theory.
现在还没有哪个年轻的批评家定期写作，他们已经建立了像萨里斯、凯尔、哈斯克尔，甚至六七十年代的约翰·西蒙那样强大的批评人物形象。自八十年代初电视节目批评兴起以来，拇指已经取代了理论。这并不是说当今没有很多聪明人撰写有关电影的文章；相反，只是没有人拥有有趣的理论斧头。在这方面，电影并不是唯一的：其他艺术都没有拥有批评明星。我们正处于一个巩固而非发明、接受而非反抗的时期。“交换是允许的，没有任何改变。” 对于九十年代或九十年代长大的人来说，这是非常正常的。但对于记得六七十年代的人来说，电影世界现在出奇的安静和安详。
There are no younger critics now writing regularly who have yet established critical personas as strong as Sarris’s, Kael’s, Haskell’s, or even John Simon’s in the sixties and seventies. Since the rise of television-show criticism in the early eighties, thumbs have replaced theories. That’s not to say there aren’t a lot of intelligent people writing about film today; there’s just no one with an interesting theoretical ax to grind. Film is not alone in this regard: none of the other arts boast critical stars. We are in a period of consolidation, not invention, of acceptance, not revolt. “Exchange is permitted, and nothing changes.” For someone who grew up in the nineties or oughts, this is perfectly normal. But for someone who remembers the sixties and seventies, the film world is now eerily quiet, and sedate.
罗杰·艾伯特（Roger Ebert）——唯一一位获得普利策奖的影评人——仍然是我们最著名的品味仲裁者。他的观点是有道理的、雄辩的，并且基于对媒体的深刻理解。但你很难描述埃伯式的世界观。（并不是说这是一件坏事。）
Roger Ebert—the only film critic ever to win a Pulitzer prize—remains our best known arbiter of taste. His opinions are reasoned, eloquent, and informed by a deep understanding of the medium. But you would be hard-pressed to describe an Ebertian worldview. (Not that that is a bad thing.)
对我来说，最有趣的“应该”媒体评论家的根源在于戏剧，而不是电影。弗兰克·里奇在担任《纽约时报》戏剧评论员十三年后，转而担任专栏作家。他作为戏剧评论家的背景将他对我们政治生活的分析与对媒体如何塑造政治生活的精确理解融为一体。可悲的是，他几乎是孤身一人在追求这一目标。通过阅读弗兰克·里奇（Frank Rich），我比阅读其他任何人都更了解媒体在我们国家话语中的功能（尽管娜奥米·克莱因（Naomi Klein）也有很多话要说）。请注意，我们已将范围从故事片扩展到普通媒体。这就是它应该的样子当“真理”——直觉上的“真理”——弥漫在我们的政治舞台上时，我们就应该这样做。
For me the most interesting media critic of the oughts had his roots in theater, not film. After serving as the New York Times theater reviewer for thirteen years Frank Rich moved to the Op-Ed page as a political columnist. His background as drama critic infuses his analysis of our political life with a precise understanding of how the media shape it. Sadly, he is almost alone in this pursuit. I learn more about the function of media in our national discourse from reading Frank Rich than from reading anyone else (although Naomi Klein has a lot to say, too). Notice that we’ve expanded our purview from feature film to general media. That’s as it should be in the oughts, when “truthiness”—intuited “truth”—pervades our political theater.
自从互联网兴起以来，电影评论本身已经演变成了一场人气竞赛。最成功的批评网站会根据电影观众的意见或对少数尚未被解除职务的报纸评论员的调查来报告统计收视率。如果你相信群众的智慧，也许这作为一个评级系统很有吸引力。但这不是过去的批评——或者仍然应该是批评家和电影制片人之间的热烈对话。
Since the rise of the internet, film criticism per se has devolved into a popularity contest. The most successful critical sites report statistical ratings based on filmgoers’ opinions or surveys of the few remaining newspaper reviewers who haven’t yet been relieved of their duties. If you believe in the wisdom of crowds perhaps this appeals as a ratings system. But that’s not what criticism used to be—or should still be—a lively conversation between critic and filmmaker.
美国批评的主要传统更倾向于将电影视为社会、文化和政治潮流的证据，而不是特定作者的产物。特别是在凯尔、莫莉·哈斯克尔和其他人的作品中，这种社会批评的风格被修改为包括强烈的个人关注。实际上，目前美国的批评与法国的理论传统相去甚远。两者都强烈关注感知问题。不同之处在于，欧洲人一如往常，更喜欢概括和发展复杂的理论，而美国人则秉承传统，对具体现象的日常经验更感兴趣。
The main tradition of American criticism has preferred to see films not so much as products of specific authors but as evidence of social, cultural, and political currents. Especially in the work of Kael, Molly Haskell, and others, this strain of social criticism was modified to include an intensely personal focus. Practically, American criticism is not so far removed from the French theoretical tradition at the moment. Both are strongly concerned with the problem of perception. The difference is that the Europeans, as has been their wont, prefer to generalize and to develop elaborate theories, while the Americans, true to tradition, are more interested in the everyday experience of specific phenomena.
与欧洲大陆符号学的发展同时发生的是马克思主义批评的复兴。法国杂志《电影手册》和《电影史》在七十年代末成功地将符号学和辩证法传统结合起来。在英国，符号学也常常带有明显的政治色彩。在美国，最近的许多理论都将电影视为一种政治现象，尽管是抽象的而不是实际的。
Concurrent with the growth of semiotics on the Continent was a revival of Marxist criticism. The French journals Cahiers du Cinéma and Cinéthique managed to combine the semiotic and the dialectic traditions in the late seventies. In England, too, semiotics often had a distinctly political cast. In America, much of recent theory sees film as a political phenomenon, albeit abstractly rather than practically.
七十年代，第三世界电影理论的发展也引起了人们的兴趣。这里的一个主要文件是费尔南多·索拉纳斯和奥克塔维奥·盖蒂诺撰写的《走向第三电影院》（Cineaste IV:3, 1970）。南美电影制片人的文章与其说是理论，不如说是宣言，他们认为“第一电影”——好莱坞及其模仿者——和“第二电影”——更个人化的新浪潮或“作者”电影风格——将屈服于“第三电影院”，一种解放电影院，由“体制无法同化且不符合其需求的电影组成，或者……直接而明确地与体制作斗争的电影”。也许这发生在某个地方——例如七十年代初在智利的几年——但事后看来，我们在这种说法中看到了很多一厢情愿的想法。世界发展得太快，三十年代的政治模式不再可行。
During the seventies, the developing theory of film in the Third World was also of interest. A major document here was “Toward a Third Cinema,” by Fernando Solanas and Octavio Getino (Cineaste IV:3, 1970). More a manifesto than a theory, the South American filmmakers’ essay suggested that the “first cinema”—Hollywood and its imitators—and the “second cinema”—the more personal style of the New Wave or “author’s” cinema—would yield to the “third cinema,” a cinema of liberation that would consist of “films that the System cannot assimilate and which are foreign to its needs, or … films that directly and explicitly set out to fight the System.” Perhaps that happened somewhere—in Chile for a few years in the early seventies, for example—but with the benefit of hindsight we see a lot of wishful thinking in that statement. The world was moving too fast, and the political models of the thirties were no longer viable.
在美国，随着电影理论对学者们越来越有吸引力，这些不同的思潮——符号学的、精神分析的、辩证的和政治规范的——在 20 世纪 70 年代和 80 年代各自获得了追随者。然而，我们自己的实际批评倾向也在继续发展。它的重点是对叙事性的研究——电影故事的讲述方式。
In the U.S. these various currents—semiotic, psychoanalytic, dialectical, and politically prescriptive—each gained their adherents in the 1970s and 1980s as film theory became attractive to academicians. Yet our own native strain of practical criticism continued to develop as well. It centered on a study of narrativity—the ways in which the stories of film are told.
矛盾的是，此类叙事理论的巨大价值在于它们转移了人们对电影特殊电影品质的注意力。如果电影首先被视为叙事，那么我们几乎立即推断出以下推论：电影只是几种不同的叙事模式之一。反过来，这种观察使我们在媒体连续体的背景下考虑电影。无论从实践还是理论上，这现在都是必要的。
The great value of such theories of narration is paradoxically that they deflect attention from the specially cinematic qualities of film. If film is seen first as narrative, then we almost immediately infer the corollary, that film is simply one of several different modes of narrative. And that observation, in turn, leads us to consider film in the context of the continuum of media. Both practically and theoretically, this is now a necessity.
在整个 20 世纪 80 年代和 1990 年代，电影批评——就像它的主题一样——重新诠释了 1960 年代和 1970 年代显露的“后现代主义”真理。随着法国阿尔都塞马克思主义和拉康弗洛伊德理论的浪潮开始退去，早年的符号学和辩证法发现分别产生了两个新的变体：认知电影理论和文化研究。
Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, film criticism—like its subject—reworked the “postmodernist” truths that had revealed themselves in the 1960s and 1970s. As the French tides of Althusserian Marxism and Lacanian Freudian theory began to recede, the semiotic and dialectic discoveries of earlier years gave rise, respectively, to two new variants: cognitive film theory and cultural studies.
认知电影理论扩展了符号学的认识论探索，试图解释观众理解电影的方式：我们如何阅读电影。文化研究扩展了法兰克福学派首先倡导的语境分析的辩证运动，旨在理解流行文化文本与其受众之间的关系：我们如何使用电影。
Extending the epistemological quest of semiotics, cognitive film theory has sought to explain the way in which a spectator understands a film: how we read films. Extending the dialectic sport of contextual analysis first pioneered by the Frankfurt school, cultural studies seeks to understand the relationships between the texts of popular culture and their audiences: how we use films.
这两种趋势都为女权主义研究的分析提供了丰富的材料。由于电影这一流行媒介鲜明地反映了其蓬勃发展的普遍文化，因此这并不奇怪。在第三个千年之初，随着西方文化逐渐融入世界文化，我们发现自己痴迷于我们开始这千年读写和知识理解之旅的同一主题。今天我们称之为性政治；在十一世纪，我们称之为浪漫。（我们还是不明白。它仍然神秘不是很好吗？）
Both trends have found fruitful material for analysis in feminist studies. Since the popular medium of film brightly reflects the general culture in which it thrives, this is no surprise. At the beginning of the third millennium as Western culture gradually merges into world culture, we find ourselves obsessed with the same topic with which we began this thousand-year journey into literacy and intellectual understanding. Today we call it sexual politics; in the eleventh century we called it Romance. (We still don’t understand it. Isn’t it nice that it is still mysterious?)
但这里可能还有更多的事情发生：从莱斯-欧文之吻到花花公子频道，从阳具镜头到火辣的圆形婴儿聚光灯，从跟踪镜头的做爱到变焦的偷窥奖励到有节奏的脉冲就蒙太奇而言，电影是性的。它们不仅涉及性政治，还涉及性政治。它们是性政治——主体与客体的统一。
But there may be something more going on here: from the Rice-Irwin Kiss to the Playboy Channel, from the phallic lens to hot, round baby spotlights, from the lovemaking of the tracking shot through the voyeuristic reward of the zoom to the rhythmic pulse of montage, movies are sexual. They are not only about sexual politics; they are sexual politics—subject and object united.
电影理论目前的进程正在远离规定，走向描述。思考电影的人不再有兴趣去构建他们并不认为自己的主要目标是寻找一种语言来描述电影现象。这些关键任务是由我们在本章中讨论过的批评家们早些时候沉着地完成的。
The present course of film theory is away from prescription, toward description. People who think about film are no longer interested to construct an ideal system of esthetics or political and social values, nor do they see their main aim as finding a language to describe the phenomenon of film. These critical tasks were accomplished earlier—with aplomb—by the critics we have discussed in this chapter.
图 5-17。在《昼夜》中，弗朗索瓦·特吕弗提出了一个简单的问题：“电影比生活更重要吗？” （他没有回答。）
Figure 5-17. In Day For Night François Truffaut asked a simple question: “Is film more important than life?” (He didn’t answer.)
如果电影理论中未来会出现一股“浪潮”，那么它很可能来自媒介之外：我们这些仍然坚持现实世界的人如何处理电影和电影中不断出现的、强大的、复杂的世界形象？媒体强加给我们？也许青少年影评人的工作就是保护我们免受（大多数）电影的影响！
If there is to be a future “wave” in film theory it is likely to come from outside the medium: how do those of us still clinging to the real world deal with the incessant, powerful, and sophisticated image of that world that film and the media impose upon us? Perhaps the job of the film critic of the teens will be to protect us from (most) films!
现在电影理论的工作是真正辩证的。作为一种完全成熟的艺术，电影不再是一个单独的事业，而是我们文化经纬中的一个综合模式。电影是一系列相互关联的对立：电影制片人和主题、电影和观察者、当权者和先锋派、保守目的和进步目的、心理学和政治、图像和声音、对话和音乐、蒙太奇和场景调度、流派之间和作者、文学感性和电影感性、符号和意义、文化和社会、形式和功能、设计和目的、语法和范式、图像和事件、现实主义和表现主义、语言和现象学、性和暴力、有意义和无意义、爱情婚姻……一套永无休止的代码和子代码，提出了关于生活与艺术、现实与语言之间关系的基本问题。
The job of film theory now is truly dialectical. As a fully matured art, film is no longer a separate enterprise but an integrated pattern in the warp and woof of our culture. Cinema is an expansive set of interrelating oppositions: between filmmaker and subject, film and observer, establishment and avant garde, conservative purposes and progressive purposes, psychology and politics, image and sound, dialogue and music, montage and mise-en-scène, genre and auteur, literary sensibility and cinematic sensibility, signs and meaning, culture and society, form and function, design and purpose, syntagmas and paradigms, image and event, Realism and Expressionism, language and phenomenology, sex and violence, sense and nonsense, love and marriage … a never-ending set of codes and subcodes that raises fundamental questions about the relationships of life to art, and reality to language.
6
媒体：处于事物的中间
6
Media: In the Middle of Things
THE TECHNOLOGY OF MECHANICAL AND ELECTRONIC MEDIA
“今天，任何人都可以制作书籍、电影、唱片、杂志或报纸……。。。但这些新获得权力的媒体制作人能否让他们的作品被大量人阅读、看到或听到呢？”
“Today, anyone can produce a book, film, record, magazine, or newspaper, . . . But can these newly empowered producers of media get their work read, seen, or heard by large numbers of people?”
社区
Community
尽管电子媒体在二十世纪后半叶肆虐，但电影这一十九世纪伟大的发明仍然占据主导地位。作为一个群体，好莱坞制片人将大部分时间和大部分收入都花在电视上。在欧洲，如果电视网络不提供资助，“电影”就不会存在。任何电影制作人或演员所能获得的最大的经济成功不是一部戏剧大片，而是一部长期播出的电视剧。即使在故事片行业本身，平均制作收入的一半以上现在也来自电视和视频发行，而不是来自影院。
Despite the rambunctious proliferation of electronic media during the last half of the twentieth century, film, that great nineteenth-century invention, still predominates. As a group, Hollywood producers spend most of their time and make most of their money doing television. In Europe, “film” wouldn’t exist if television networks didn’t help fund it. The greatest financial success any filmmaker or actor can have is not a theatrical blockbuster but a long-running television series. Even within the feature film business itself, considerably more than half the income from an average production now comes from television and video distribution, not from theaters.
电影是这种商业和技术组合的热点中心。显然，应该在更广泛的通信和娱乐行业（统称为“媒体”）的背景下看待它。我们自始至终都提到了这一背景；现在是时候更详细地检查它了。视频技术之所以重要，是因为它对电影艺术的影响持续且不断增长。电视和其他电子媒体的历史为电影的持续故事提供了背景……并不可避免地引领着电影的未来。
Film is at the hot center of this mix of businesses and technologies; clearly it should be seen in the context of the broader communications and entertainment industry known collectively as “the media.” We’ve alluded to this context throughout; now it’s time to examine it in more detail. Video technology is important because of its continuing, ever-growing impact on the art of movies. The history of television and the other electronic media provides the backdrop for the continuing story of film … and leads inexorably to its future.
塞缪尔·贝克特 (Samuel Beckett) 在 20 世纪 60 年代撰写的一系列文章中，对定义统称为“媒体”的各种传播技术的差异进行了更为简洁的分析。在戏剧、电影中， 《Eh Joe》、《Cascando》和《Words and Music》，这位剧作家/小说家/诗人/评论家，用法语和英语写作，抓住了每种形式的本质。
One of the more succinct analyses of the differences that define the various techniques of communication known collectively as “the media” lies in a series of pieces written by Samuel Beckett in the 1960s. In Play, Film, Eh Joe, Cascando, and Words and Music, the playwright/novelist/poet/critic, who wrote in both French and English, captured the essence of each form.
图 6-1。贝克特的《Eh Joe》中的乔治·罗斯（纽约电视剧院，1966 年 4 月 18 日。制片人：格伦·乔丹；导演：艾伦·施奈德）。（格罗夫出版社，显像管录制的帧放大。）
Figure 6-1. George Rose in Beckett’s Eh Joe (New York Television Theatre, April 18, 1966. Producer: Glenn Jordan; director: Alan Schneider). (Grove Press, Frame enlargement of kinescope recording.)
剧中三个角色被固定在舞台上的瓮里。当意识流对话从一个到另一个来回流动时，尖锐、精确的聚光灯会跟随“行动”——或者对它的评论。贝克特对舞台的抽象设计将我们的注意力集中在观察者在这种媒介中控制的选择元素上，同时强调身体动作是次要的。对于贝克特来说，舞台剧是深焦的场景调度，而不是受控的蒙太奇。
Play presents three characters immobilized on stage in urns. As the stream-of-consciousness dialogue flows back and forth from one to the other, a sharp, precise spotlight follows the “action”—or comments on it. Beckett’s abstract design of the stage focuses our attention on the element of choice that the observer controls in this medium while it emphasizes that physical action is minor. For Beckett, the stage play is deep-focus mise-en-scène, not controlled montage.
相反，电影发展了电影制片人和主题之间的辩证关系，贝克特认为这对这种媒介至关重要。由艾伦·施奈德执导、巴斯特·基顿主演的电影是戏剧的无声抽象表现，它不是发生在角色之间，而是发生在电影制片人和演员之间。影片的大部分时间里，他都独自出现在银幕上。尽管如此，基顿并不是唯一一个参与叙事的人，因为摄像机被设计成一个非常真实的存在，而基顿努力避开它的全视之眼是戏剧设计的主题。
Film, on the contrary, develops the dialectic between filmmaker and subject that Beckett sees as essential to that medium. As directed by Alan Schneider and acted by Buster Keaton, Film is the silent abstract representation of the drama that goes on not between characters, but between filmmaker and actor. Alone on the screen throughout most of the film. Keaton is nevertheless not alone in the narrative, for the camera is made to appear as a very real presence, and Keaton’s struggle to avoid its all-seeing eye is the theme of the dramatic design.
游戏强调角色之间的互动以及观察者塑造体验的相对自由。另一方面，电影则强调主体的孤独、主体与艺术家之间的戏剧性，以及观察者相对缺乏参与过程的参与。
Play emphasizes the interaction between and among characters and the relative freedom of the observer to mold the experience. Film, on the other hand, emphasizes the solitude of the subject, the drama between subject and artist, and the observer’s relative lack of involvement in the process.
电视剧《Eh Joe》对电视基本要素进行了同样富有洞察力的分析。这部作品持续约四十五分钟，对比鲜明电视体验的音频和视频组件。剧中的主题“乔”在屏幕上以单个序列镜头出现，该镜头在整个剧中从显示布景大部分房间的相对长镜头，到全景镜头，再到中景。镜头，最后是一个冗长、极其缓慢的跟踪特写镜头，逐渐地、不可阻挡地从全身头部镜头转变为眼睛、鼻子和嘴巴的极端特写镜头。在配乐中，一个女人的声音在对乔说话，吟诵着持续的意识流独白。
Eh Joe, a teleplay, is an equally insightful analysis of the essential elements of television. Lasting about forty-five minutes, the piece contrasts the audio and the video components of the television experience. “Joe,” the subject of the play, is seen on the screen in a single sequence shot that progresses over the course of the play from a relatively long shot showing most of the room that is the set, to full shot, to mid-shot, and finally to a lengthy, extremely slow tracking closeup that gradually and inexorably moves from a full head shot to an extreme closeup of eyes, nose, and mouth. On the soundtrack, a woman’s voice, speaking to Joe, intones a continuing stream-of-consciousness monologue.
《Eh Joe》的设计巧妙地强调了电视的两个基本要素，它们一方面区别于电影，另一方面区别于舞台剧：独立的、平行的独白，因为它创造了作品的基本氛围和基调，强化了我们的理解。声音在电视中具有更重要的意义，而从长镜头到极端特写镜头的非凡而激烈的序列镜头巧妙地强调了这种媒体不同寻常的心理亲密感。
The design of Eh Joe subtly emphasizes the two essential elements of television that separate it from film on the one hand and the stage play on the other: the separate, parallel monologue, as it creates the basic atmosphere and tone of the piece, reinforces our sense of the greater significance of sound in television, while the extraordinary, intense sequence shot from long shot to extreme closeup cannily emphasizes the unusual psychological intimacy of this medium.
《Cascando》和《Words and Music》都是广播剧。这种戏剧形式的结构比舞台剧、电影和电视的结构简单得多。贝克特分离出了广播艺术的基本要素——“文字和音乐”，即文明的背景噪音。它们之间动态的产物就是无线电体验的“下落”、“翻滚”、“cascando”。在每一篇分析作品中，贝克特都建立了一种戏剧性的张力，不是在人物之间，而是在各种艺术结构的元素之间：
Cascando and Words and Music are both radio plays. The structure of this dramatic form is much simpler than the structures of the stage play, film, and television. Beckett isolates the essential elements of radio art—“words and music,” the background noise of civilization. The product of the dynamic between them is the “falling,” “tumbling,” “cascando” of the radio experience. In each of these analytical pieces, Beckett sets up a dramatic tension, not between characters but between elements of the structures of the various arts:
对于舞台来说，观众的选择与对话的流程；
for the stage, audience choice versus the flow of dialogue;
对于电影来说，导演的控制力和主体的完整性；
for film, the director’s control and the subject’s integrity;
对于电视来说，音频的强烈本质与图像的心理亲密感相对；
for television, the intense nature of audio versus the psychological intimacy of the image;
对于广播来说，更简单地说，是文字和音乐、信息和背景。
and for radio, more simply, words and music, information and background.
贝克特的一系列分析戏剧对媒体之间的审美差异进行了优雅的总结。政治和技术也是媒体方程式中的重要因素。事实上，“媒体”一词的含义表明，我们认为这种现象具有比美学所暗示的更大的自由度。根据定义，媒体是通信手段：所有或多或少的技术系统都旨在传输信息，而不考虑空间和时间的自然限制。它们已经以多种方式被使用，既提供信息又娱乐。
Beckett’s series of analytical plays makes an elegant summary of the esthetic differences between and among media. Politics and technology are also important factors in the media equation. The connotations of the word “media,” in fact, suggest that we regard the phenomenon as having a greater latitude than the limits of esthetics would suggest. The media, by definition, are means of communication: all more or less technological systems designed to transmit information without regard to the natural limits of space and time. They have come to be used in a variety of ways that both inform and entertain.
此外，它们是现代生活的主要社交力量，正如“沟通”一词的词根强烈暗示的那样：“沟通”就是建立“社区”。
They are, moreover, the primary socializing forces of modern life, as the root of the word “communication” strongly suggests: to “communicate” is to forge a “community.”
印刷和电子媒体
Print and Electronic Media
书面语言是所有媒体的原型。七千年来，它提供了一种可行且灵活的方法来从一个人向另一个人获取信息。但直到十五世纪约翰·古腾堡发明了活字印刷术，“书面”信息才得以大规模生产，这样作者就可以同时与大量其他人进行交流。这种“多重再现性”是媒体的首要特征。1500 年至 1800 年间，书籍生产发展成为一项主要产业。报纸或期刊的概念，迅速产生并定期出版，暗示了媒体的第二个重要要素（第一个要素的必然结果）——开放的沟通渠道。书籍是大量生产的，但它们都是单一事件，仅限于其主题。报纸和杂志在时间和空间上都是开放的，可以继续进行各种用途。
Written language is the prototype for all media. For seven thousand years, it has provided a workable and flexible method for getting information from one person to another. But it was not until the invention of movable type by Johann Gutenberg in the fifteenth century that “written” messages could be mass-produced so the author could communicate with a large number of other individuals simultaneously. This “multiple reproducibility” is the prime characteristic of media. Between 1500 and 1800 the production of books developed into a major industry. It was the concept of the newspaper or journal, quickly produced and appearing on a regular schedule, that suggested the second vital element of the media (a corollary of the first)—the open channel of communication. Books are produced in quantity, but they are each singular events, limited to their subjects. Newspapers and magazines are open, in both time and space, to continuing and various uses.
尽管印刷术立即被认为是一种社会革命力量，但直到十九世纪和大量有文化的中产阶级的崛起，印刷术才充分发挥了其作为媒介的潜力。我们学习阅读印刷品花费的时间比学习阅读电影的时间要长得多。值得注意的是，二十世纪电子媒体的兴起要快得多，因为理解不需要特殊的技能。
Although print was immediately recognized as a socially revolutionary force, it was not until the nineteenth century and the rise of a massive literate middle class that printing realized its full potential as a medium. It took us collectively a lot longer to learn to read print than to learn to read films. Significantly, the rise of the electronic media in the twentieth century was much more rapid, since no particular skill was required for comprehension.
印刷媒体也受益于十九世纪下半叶的技术进步。蒸汽动力压机由弗里德里希·柯尼希 (Friedrich König) 于 1810 年开发；轮转印刷机连续运行而不是间歇运行，其历史可以追溯到 1840 年代到 1860 年代。Richard March Hoe 于 1846 年发明了第一台轮转印刷机。二十年后，刻版印刷板首次在英国获得专利。蒸汽动力、旋转设计和一体式定型板的结合大大提高了印刷机的速度和灵活性。打字机，由 CL Sholes 于 1867 年发明，最初由 Rem 生产1874 年的灵顿发明和奥特玛·梅根塔勒 (Ottmar Mergenthaler) 于 1884 年发明的 Linotype 排版机使准备过程变得更加高效。
Print media also benefited from technological advances in the latter half of the nineteenth century. The steam-powered press had been developed by Friedrich König in 1810; rotary presses, which operated continuously rather than intermittently, date from the 1840s through the 1860s. Richard March Hoe is credited with inventing the first rotary press in 1846. Twenty years later, the stereotype printing plate was first patented in England. The combination of steam power, rotary design, and one-piece stereotype plates greatly increased the speed and flexibility of presses. The typewriter, invented by C. L. Sholes in 1867 and first produced by Rem ington in 1874, and the Linotype typesetting machine, invented in 1884 by Ottmar Mergenthaler, made the preparatory processes much more efficient.
1880 年，《New York Graphic》印刷了第一张半色调照片，尽管这一重要技术在十多年后才获得报纸和杂志的广泛接受。早期的印刷技术发展是定量的：它们提高了过程的速度和灵活性，但并没有影响其基本性质。另一方面，半色调处理是一个质的进步，使照片的复制成为印刷技术不可或缺的一部分。正是在一百多年前的此时，印刷与图像之间的长期求爱开始了。现在，这种结合正在以“多媒体”的方式得以实现。
In 1880, the New York Graphic printed the first halftone photographs, although it was a decade and more before this important technique gained wide acceptance among newspapers and magazines. Earlier technological developments in printing had been quantitative: they increased the speed and flexibility of the process, but they did not affect its basic nature. The halftone process, on the other hand, was a qualitative advance, making the reproduction of photographs an integral part of the technique of printing. It was at this point, more than a hundred years ago, that the long courtship between print and image began. It is now being consummated in the marriage known as “multimedia.”
以印刷形式复制照片的基本问题是，照相过程会产生从白色到灰色到黑色的连续且可变的色调范围，而印刷过程本质上是“二元”的* — 打印页面上的任何给定空间都是白色或黑色；其间没有层次。半色调技术以一种巧妙的方式解决了这个问题：照片的连续空间被分解成离散的粒子——每英寸线性多达 200 个——这些粒子可以被翻译成印刷的二进制语言。如果实际打印了给定区域的 50%，则该区域将显示为中灰色；如果 100% 被打印，它将是黑色的，等等。
The basic problem with reproducing photographs in print was that the photographic process produces a continual and variable range of tones from white through gray to black, while the printing process is essentially “binary”* —any given space on a printed page is either white or black; there are no gradations in between. The technique of the halftone solved this problem in an ingenious manner: the continuous space of the photograph was broken up into discrete particles—as many as two hundred per linear inch—which could be translated into the binary language of print. If 50 percent of a given area was actually printed, then that area would appear a medium gray; if 100 percent was printed, it would be black, and so forth.
就其方式而言，半色调的概念在摄影中的重要性就像对电影发展中视觉暂留的理解一样重要：两者都以简单而有力的方式利用了感知的基本生理事实。此外，半色调处理的概念——将连续范围的值转换为离散的量化系统——将成为二十世纪最重要和最广泛有效的智能设备之一：电视、照相电报、遥测和——最重要的——计算机图形技术，都建立在这个基本的“辩证”概念之上。
In its way, the concept of the halftone was as important in photography as the understanding of persistence of vision was in the development of motion pictures: both utilized basic physiological facts of perception in simple yet powerful ways. Moreover, the concept that underlies the halftone process—the translation of a continuous range of values into a discrete quantified system—was to become one of the most significant and widely effective intellectual devices of the twentieth century: television, phototelegraphy, telemetry, and—most important—computer graphics technology, all rest on this basic “dialectical” concept.
电子革命的许多社会和符号学影响在报纸和杂志的伟大时代就已被预示。十九世纪。人们很快就清楚地认识到，媒体将提供新版本的现实、历史的记录——有时甚至是替代的现实——而且这种中介功能将对生命的组织产生深远的影响。作为经济实体，报纸和杂志最初是向读者出售信息和娱乐，然后逐渐发展到更复杂的模式，即它们还向其他想要与读者交流的经济实体出售广告空间。换句话说，杂志和报纸的出版商从销售物品转向销售服务；他们控制的媒体为广告商提供了接触公众的渠道。
Many of the social and semiotic effects of the electronic revolution were foreshadowed during the great age of newspapers and magazines in the nineteenth century. It became clear very quickly that the media would provide new versions of reality, a record of history—sometimes even an alternate reality—and that this mediating function would have a profound effect on the organization of life. As economic entities, newspapers and magazines began by selling information and entertainment to their readers, then gradually progressed to a more complex mode in which they also sold advertising space to other economic entities who wanted to communicate with the readership. In other words, publishers of magazines and newspapers moved from selling an object to selling a service; the medium that they controlled provided advertisers with a channel to the general public.
图 6-2。半色调屏幕。_ 每英寸 35 行和 55 Ipi 屏幕对于除了特殊效果之外的任何东西来说都太粗糙了。85 Ipi 屏幕是报纸的标准屏幕。133是最常见的书籍屏幕。（本书中的半色调使用 133。）最后一帧显示了由重叠屏幕引起的莫尔图案。
Figure 6-2. HALFTONE SCREENS. The 35 lines per inch and 55 Ipi screens are too coarse for anything except special effects. The 85 Ipi screen is standard for newspapers. 133 is the most common screen for books. (The halftones in this book use 133.) The last frame shows the moiré pattern caused by overlapping screens.
底部的阴影用于设计。例如，本书中的图表使用 20%、40% 和 60% 的屏幕。阴影不是通过改变屏幕频率来实现的，而是通过增加图案内每个点的大小来实现的。（另请参见图 2-2 F。）
The shadings at the bottom are used in design. The diagrams in this book, for example, use 20, 40, and 60 percent screens. The shading is accomplished not by changing screen frequency, but by increasing the size of each dot within the pattern. (See also Figure 2-2F.)
大约自 1930 年以来，这项服务已得到相当大的改进。营销调查技术使发布商能够向特定受众提供而不是简单地向广告商提供原始空间。广告商一直都知道他们所接触的受众群体的形状，但昔日“人口统计学”科学的兴起使出版商能够准确定位一般受众中特定的有价值的部分。现代大众杂志（例如《时代》杂志）将其读者分为多个地理、社会和阶级部分，然后出版单独的（如果几乎相同）版本，以便为广告商提供服务以最有效的“千人成本”吸引经过精心调整的受众。近年来，人口统计方法的复杂性意味着普通读者杂志，即使是那些发行量大的杂志，也已经让位于较小的、特殊兴趣的杂志，这些杂志可以为广告商提供规模较小但更容易受到其产品影响的受众。
Since about 1930, this service has been refined considerably. Marketing survey techniques enable the publisher to offer a particular audience rather than simply crude space to an advertiser. The advertisers had always been aware generally of the shape of the audience they were reaching, but the rise of the erstwhile science of “demographics” enabled the publisher to pinpoint specific valuable sectors of the general audience. A modern general-interest magazine—Time, for example—breaks its readership down into a number of geographic, social, and class sections and then publishes separate (if nearly identical) editions so that it can offer an advertiser a finely tuned audience for its message at the most efficient “cost per thousand.” In recent years, the sophistication of the demographic approach has meant that general audience magazines, even those with large circulations, have yielded to smaller, special-interest journals that can offer advertisers smaller but more susceptible audiences for their products.
随着网络的发展，人口统计分析已上升到难以想象的高度。现在，营销人员不仅可以针对群体，还可以针对个人。与所有电子营销商一样，亚马逊永远知道您从他们那里购买的所有商品。他们的算法使用这些信息来温和地建议其他购买。他们知道你喜欢什么——至少他们认为他们知道——并且他们可以通过将你的品味与其他类似的客户混合和匹配来进一步分析你的消费者身份。客户越来越被动。您迟早会摆脱决定自己读什么、看什么、吃什么或穿什么的负担，这只是时间问题：数据库会为您做这件事。*
As the web has grown demographic analysis has risen to unimagined heights. Now marketers can target not just groups, but individuals. Amazon, like all e-marketers, knows everything you’ve bought from them—ever. And their algorithms use this information to gently suggest other purchases. They know what you like—at least they think they do—and they can take the analysis a step further by mixing and matching your taste with other, similar, customers to further triangulate your consumer identity. The customer is increasingly passive. It’s only a matter of time before you will be freed of the burden of making decisions about what you read, watch, eat, or wear: the database will do it for you.*
广告对资本主义经济体系的运作至关重要，在过去 150 年里对人们的生活方式产生了深远的影响。由于社会的永久记录保存在媒体中，因此很快就发现，如果他们的想法要被大量人认真对待，不仅制造商而且政治家和公众人物都必须做广告。这导致了与广告密切相关的宣传和公共关系行业的发展。此外，广告本身已经成为一个如此复杂的行业，以至于现在经常尾巴摇狗：广告公司直接参与产品的创造，不仅发现机会，有时还通过建立一种新产品的意识，为以前不存在的新产品创造市场。消费者的需求。
Advertising—crucial to the operation of a capitalist economic system—has had a profound effect on life patterns during the past 150 years. Because the permanent record of the society is kept in the media, it quickly became evident that not only manufacturers but also politicians and public figures had to advertise if their ideas were to be taken seriously by large numbers of people. This led to the development of the publicity and public relations industries, which are closely allied with advertising. Moreover, advertising itself has become such a sophisticated industry that the tail now often wags the dog: ad agencies participate directly in the creation of products, not only identifying opportunities but also sometimes inventing markets for new products where none existed before by establishing a sense of need in consumers.
陷入这个经济网络的是媒体的次要非经济功能：新闻、娱乐和信息的传播。“新闻漏洞”（报纸或杂志中为实际新闻报道预留的空间）通常小至可用总空间的 25%。换句话说，美国印刷媒体的四分之三的传播能力通常都用于广告。
Caught up in this economic web are the secondary, noneconomic functions of the media: the distribution of news, entertainment, and information. The “news hole”—that space in a newspaper or magazine set aside for actual news reports—is often as small as 25 percent of the total space available. In other words, three-quarters of the communicating ability of a print medium in the U.S. is often devoted to advertising.
在商业电视领域，这个比例似乎更好：“新闻漏洞”通常超过 70%。（您可以跳过报纸上的广告；电视上的广告就更困难了。）但随着 DVR 的发展，时移技术也随之发展（Tivo 等）广告商已诉诸于节目中的产品植入。
In the world of commercial television the ratio may seem better: the “news hole” is often over 70 percent. (You can skip the ads in a newspaper;it’s more difficult with TV.) But as time-shifting has grown with DVRs (Tivo and the like) advertisers have resorted to product placement within the programming.
图 6-3。LED 、点阵及其他。_ 半色调是印刷和视觉技术合并的第一个历史实例。为今后的发展树立了榜样。例如，到了七十年代初，当计算机电子读数器被开发用于消费者和专业应用时，两个版本的简化字母数字表示法已经标准化。
Figure 6-3. LEDs, DOT MATRIXES, AND BEYOND. The halftone was the first historical instance of the merger of print and visual technology. It set a pattern for future development. By the early seventies, for example, when computer electronic readouts were developed for consumer and professional applications, two versions of simplified alphanumeric representations were standardized.
上面的七段 LED（“发光二极管”）使得仅由七个可切换元件组成的可读数字成为可能，这是相当大的简化，并且分析工作也很好。（请注意，在“增强型”LED 示例中，元素的设计已稍作修改，以提高数字的可读性。）然而，这样的系统不适用于更复杂的字母表，因此开发了点阵打印机以可读形式显示罗马字母。最常见的版本使用 35 个按 5 xi 7 排列的点来生成字母表中的所有字母。
Above, the seven-segment LED (“light-emitting diode”) made possible readable numbers composed of only seven switchable elements, a considerable simplification—and a nice job of analysis. (Notice that in the “enhanced” LED examples the design of the elements has been modified slightly to improve the readability of the numbers.) Such a system wouldn’t work for the more complex alphabet, however, so the dot matrix printer was developed to display Roman letters in readable form. The most common version used 35 dots arrayed 5 ξ 7 to produce all the letters of the alphabet.
1984 年推出的面向图形的 Macintosh 计算机及其随附的基于 Postscript 的 LaserWriter 打印机于 1985 年推出，为计算机屏幕和打印输出带来了一定的可读性，建立了每英寸 72 点的屏幕和每英寸 300 点的打印输出的标准。分辨率水平足以允许引入现代字体的简化版本。为了进行比较，本书的分辨率设置为每英寸2240点。
The introduction of the graphically oriented Macintosh computer in 1984 and its accompanying Postscript-based LaserWriter printer in 1985 brought a measure of readability to computer screens and printouts, establishing standards of 72 dots per inch for the screen and 300 dots per inch for the printout, levels of resolution just good enough to allow the introduction of simplified versions of modern type fonts. For purposes of comparison, this book was set at a resolution of 2240 dots per inch.
这种名副其实的洪流是决定当代社会共同价值体系的一个主要因素。过去的沟通主要发生在个人层面：一个人能够接触到的最多人数取决于会议地点的容量。但印刷媒体的兴起极大地增加了传播的潜力。不仅可以接触到更多的人，而这些人都不必同时出现在同一个地方，而且重要的是，传播在很大程度上变成了单向的：即“观众”的成员现在没有机会与“说话者”互动。
This veritable deluge is a major factor in determining shared systems of values in contemporary societies. Communication used to take place mainly on a personal level: the largest number of people one was able to reach was determined by the capacity of the meeting place. But the rise of the print media greatly increased the potential for communication. Not only could one reach a far greater number of people, none of whom had to be in the same place at the same time, but also—significantly—communication became for the most part unidirectional: that is, the members of the “audience” now had no chance to interact with the “speaker.”
机械和电子媒体的发展通常遵循过去 150 至 200 年印刷媒体发展所设定的模式。然而，也存在一些显着差异。与印刷媒体不同，电影、广播、电视和唱片不需要观众接受严格的训练来感知和理解他们的信息。至少从这个意义上说，一个人不必学会“阅读”一部电影，这是完全正确的。另一方面，机械和电子媒体的技术复杂程度显着提高。“识字”可能不是必要的，但设备却是必要的。电影发展成为公共体验而非私人体验，主要是因为投影图像所涉及的设备成本较高。值得注意的是，它是唯一保持公共性质的现代媒体。它可能无法为观众提供与表演者互动的机会（就像之前所有的公共会议和舞台表演所做的那样），但它至少仍然保持了体验的共同感。随着越来越多的人在家中通过光盘或网络观看电影，我们正在失去这种社区意识。
The development of the mechanical and electronic media generally followed the pattern set by the growth of the print media during the preceding 150 to 200 years. There were, however, some significant differences. Unlike the print media, film, radio, television, and records did not require that their audiences be highly trained to perceive and understand their messages. In this sense, at least, it is perfectly true that one does not have to learn to “read” a film. On the other hand, the mechanical and electronic media developed at a significantly higher level of technological sophistication. “Literacy” might not be necessary, but equipment is. Film developed as a public rather than a private experience mainly because of the cost of the equipment involved in projecting the image. Significantly, it is the only one of the modern media that has maintained a public nature. It may not offer its audiences a chance for interaction with performers (as all public meetings and stage performances had done before it), but it still maintains, at least, the communal sense of the experience. As more and more of us consume movies at home on disc or via the web we are losing this sense of community.
然而，出于一个有趣的原因，所有其他当代媒体都以私人“企业”的形式发展。在印刷媒体的历史中，从产品到服务的逐渐转变在电子和机械媒体中更为明显。除了电影之外，每一种当代媒体都是从一种产品开始的——具体来说，用经济学的语言来说，是一种“耐用消费品”。就像中央供暖、冰箱、燃气或电力照明，甚至室内管道和厕所一样，电话、相机、电唱机、收音机、电视机、录像机和计算机曾经代表着消费者的主要资本投资。
All the other contemporary media, however, developed as private “enterprises,” for an interesting reason. The gradual shift from product to service discernible in the history of the print media is even more pronounced with the electronic and mechanical media. Except for motion pictures, each of the contemporary media began as a product—specifically, in the language of economics, a “consumer durable.” Like central heating, refrigerators, gas or electric lighting, or even indoor plumbing and privies, telephones, cameras, record players, radios, television sets, VCRs, and computers once represented major capital investments for consumers.
为了销售这些设备，制造商必须让它们足够简单，几乎任何人都可以操作。然后，在大多数情况下，他们必须提供一些在设备上播放的东西——“软件”。在大多数情况下，机器（接球手或球员）被视为主要的利润来源；提供媒体是为了让您有充分的理由购买该机器。因为这些机器的制造相当简单和便宜，而且最初的利润在于“硬件”，因此将媒体体验私有化是有用的，这样可以出售最大数量的机器。
To sell the devices, manufacturers had to make them simple enough for almost anyone to operate. Then, in most cases, they had to provide some thing to play on the device—“software.” The machine—the receiver or player—was seen in most instances as the major source of profit; the media were provided so that you had a good reason to buy the machine. Because the machines could be made fairly simply and cheaply and because the initial profit lay in the “hardware,” it was thus useful to make the experience of media private so that the greatest number of machines could be sold.
图P.媒体的政治和经济关系_ _ _ _
DIAGRAM P. THE POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC RELATIONSHIPS OF MEDIA
然后，随着机器的广泛分布，硬件利润随着市场饱和而缩小，设备本身也变成了商品。（今天没有人认为电话甚至 DVD 是“重大资本投资”。）经济重心首先转移到分销商，然后转移到软件生产商。到了 20 世纪 80 年代，国际硬件巨头开始收购软件生产商和分销商，就像 GE 收购 NBC 一样；索尼收购了哥伦比亚广播公司唱片公司、哥伦比亚影业公司和三星公司；飞利浦赢得宝丽金；松下收购了MCA。1995 年，西屋电气收购了哥伦比亚广播公司 (CBS)，重新加入了他们 75 年前创立的电视行业。此后，其中几家媒体公司已被出售，但娱乐硬件和软件的结合是牢固的：想想苹果公司早期凭借 iPod（和 iTunes）所取得的成功。
Then, as the machines became widely distributed, hardware margins shrank as markets became saturated and the devices themselves became commodities. (No one today thinks of a telephone or even a DVD as a “major capital investment.”) The economic locus shifted first to distributors, then to producers of the software. By the 1980s, international hardware powers began buying up the software producers and distributors, as GE purchased NBC; Sony bought CBS Records, Columbia Pictures, and TriStar; Philips won Polygram; and Matsushita acquired MCA. In 1995, Westinghouse acquired CBS, rejoining the television industry they had helped to found 75 years earlier. Several of these media companies have been sold since but the marriage of entertainment hardware and software is solid: consider Apple’s success with the iPod (and iTunes) in the early oughts.
这种产品/服务市场发展曲线有一个有趣的推论：在每种情况下，媒介都是从需要高度专业知识的专业活动开始的，然后随着知识渊博的奉献者群体学习技术而转变为半专业活动。最后，随着简化的硬件进入家庭，它成为一种日常活动，任何人都可以通过最少的培训参与其中。
There’s an interesting corollary to this product/service market development curve: in each case, the medium begins as a professional activity for which a high degree of expertise is necessary, then shifts to a semiprofessional activity as groups of fairly knowledgeable devotees learn the techniques. Finally, it becomes an everyday activity in which anyone can engage with a minimum of training, as the simplified hardware moves into the home.
我们已经在第四章中看到了产品/服务模式如何在电影产业的发展中运作。爱迪生和其他电影创始人开发了这种机器，然后提供了在机器上播放的电影。逐渐地，电影的经济权力中心从机械制造商转移到放映商（“零售”层面），然后转移到制片发行商。此外，在每个阶段，电影商人，无论是制造商、放映商、制片商还是发行商，都自然地试图进行垄断控制——这一发展后来反映在网络广播和电视的历史上。
We have already seen in Chapter 4 how the product/service pattern operated in the development of the motion picture industry. Edison and the other originators of film developed the machinery, then provided films to be played on the machines. Gradually, the center of economic power in film shifted from the manufacturer of the machinery to the exhibitor (the level of “retail sales”), then to the producer-distributors. In addition, at each stage film businessmen, whether manufacturers, exhibitors, producers, or distributors, naturally attempted to exercise monopoly control—a development later mirrored in the history of network radio and television.
甚至在电影兴起之前，电话和业余相机的发明就预示了这种发展模式。两者的服务和机器都紧密相连。两者也提供个人服务而不是广泛的传播媒体，这在结构上将它们与广播、唱片和电视等媒体区分开来。有趣的是，长期以来，无线电被认为只是电话的一个附件——一种可以提供相互通信的设备，但仅限于一对一的水平。马可尼在 1899 年证明了他的发明的有效性，但直到 1920 年“广播”（将信号广泛传播到大量听众）才被认为是可行的。
Even before the rise of film, the inventions of the telephone and the amateur camera had foreshadowed this pattern of development. With both, the service and the machinery were intimately connected. Both also provided individual service rather than broad media of communication, which sets them apart structurally from such media as radio, records, and television. Interestingly, radio was considered for a long time simply an adjunct to the telephone—a device that could provide intercommunication, but only on a one-to-one level. Marconi demonstrated the effectiveness of his invention in 1899, but it wasn’t until 1920 that “broadcasting”—the widespread dissemination of the signal to reach large numbers of listeners—was seen to be practicable.
下图总结了媒体之间的主要结构差异。“联系”和“销售导向”这两个经济因素决定了媒体如何赚钱。正如我们所看到的，这种情况随着时间的推移而发生变化。其他因素，例如“访问”、“控制”和“互动”，描述了我们使用媒体的方式。
The main structural differences among the media are summarized in the chart below. The two economic factors—the “nexus” and the “sales orientation”—determine how media make money. As we have seen, this changes over time. Other factors, such as “access,” “control,” and “interaction,” describe the way we use the media.
就其本质而言，早期的大众媒体主要是单向的：大亨们创造了它；大众传播了它。我们吃了它。从奥尔德斯·赫胥黎、何塞·奥尔特加·伊·加塞特到玛丽·温和尼尔·波兹曼等社会批评家描述了这种力量，并雄辩地警告我们它的危险。然而，自 20 世纪 70 年代以来，技术口号一直是“交互性”。
By their nature, the early mass media were mainly unidirectional: the moguls made it; we consumed it. Social critics from Aldous Huxley and José Ortega y Gasset to Marie Winn and Neil Postman have described this power and warned us eloquently of its dangers. Since the 1970s, however, the technological watchword has been “interactivity.”
这种趋势始于六十年代末。1968 年，FCC 的 Carterfone 决定开放了电话系统的竞争。大约在同一时间，飞利浦推出了盒式录音机，首次为消费者带来了简单且经济实惠的录音技术。七十年代初，静电复印和胶印的普及为非专业人士打开了出版业的大门。七十年代末，盒式磁带录像机的推出将海量录制能力扩展到视频。
This trend began in the late sixties. In 1968, the FCC’s Carterfone decision opened up the telephone system to competition. About the same time, Philips’s audiocassette recorder was introduced, bringing simple and affordable audio recording techniques to consumers for the first time. In the early seventies, the spread of xerography and offset printing opened up publishing to nonprofessionals. In the late seventies, the introduction of the videocassette recorder extended mass recording capability to video.
但所有这一切只是为 20 世纪 80 年代意义深远的微型计算机革命做准备。从“桌面出版”开始，并迅速发展到“桌面演示”，到了九十年代初，机器将儿童媒体的制作能力交付给了儿童，这在几年前就连专业人士也只是梦想着。
But all of this was only preparation for the profound microcomputer revolution of the 1980s. Beginning with “desktop publishing” and moving on rapidly to “desktop presentations,” by the early nineties, the machine delivered into the hands of children media production power that even professionals had only dreamed about a few years earlier.
如今，任何人都可以制作书籍、电影、唱片、磁带、杂志或报纸，所需要的培训比修理漏水的水龙头所需的培训还要少。但这些新获得权力的媒体制作人能否让他们的作品被大量的人阅读、看到或听到呢？
Today, anyone can produce a book, film, record, tape, magazine, or newspaper with less training than it takes to fix a leaky faucet. But can these newly empowered producers of media get their work read, seen, or heard by large numbers of people?
自 20 世纪 90 年代末以来，任何人都可以花几分钱发布博客或网站。此外，早期宽带互联网的普及带来了根本性的变化。通过 YouTube，任何人都可以立即向全世界发布他或她的电影（或至少是高度压缩且时长不到 10 分钟的一个版本）。那么挑战就变成了如何让世界知道它的存在。在这里，企业被贴上“主流媒体”的标签，仍然拥有强大的优势。病毒式营销固然很好，但广告业不会很快消失。
Since the late 1990s anyone can publish a blog or a website for pennies. Moreover, the spread of broadband internet in the early oughts brought with it a radical change. With YouTube anyone can make his or her film (or at least a version of it, highly compressed and less than 10 minutes long) available to the world immediately. Then the challenge becomes how to let the world know it exists. Here, the “Mainstream Media,” as the corporations have been tagged, still have a powerful edge. Viral marketing is all well and good but the advertising industry isn’t going away anytime soon.
图 6-4。广播、窄播和点对点传输。_ 这些不同的传输系统遵循“一对多”、“一对多”和“一对一”的逻辑。那么“多对多”呢？在线博客和论坛符合这种逻辑。
Figure 6-4. BROADCASTING, NARROWCASTING, AND POINT-TO-POINT TRANSMISSION. These various systems of transmission follow the logic of “one to many,” “one to a few,” and “one to one.” What about “many to many”? Online blogs and forums fit that logic.
当媒体制作者获得更多自由时，消费者会受益吗？仔细研究“媒体关系”图表会得出一些有趣的结论。书籍、报纸、杂志、唱片和磁带等实体物品比广播媒体具有相当大的优势。它们是离散生产和分销的，因此消费者可以更容易地进行选择。这就是选择的“长尾”。消费者还可以控制这些媒体的体验：人们可以按照自己喜欢的速度随意听唱片、读书或观看视频光盘。
As the producers of media gain more freedom, do the consumers benefit? A close examination of the “Relationships of Media” chart leads to some interesting conclusions. Physical items such as books, newspapers, magazines, records, and tapes have considerable advantage over the broadcast media. They are produced and distributed discretely, so the consumer can exercise choice more easily. This is the “long tail” of choice. The consumer also controls the experience of these media: one can listen to a record, read a book, or watch a videodisc as frequently as one likes at whatever speed one prefers.
另一方面，与物理媒体相比，广播媒体的显着特征是其刚性。即使保证有限数量的公众访问的有线电视和鼓励听众打电话的“谈话”广播节目在一定程度上增加了机会，访问也受到严格限制。此外，消费者被锁定在广播媒体的时间表中，并且因为分发流是连续的而不是离散的，他几乎没有机会控制体验。尽管 VCR 和 DVR 的出现允许进行一些“时移”，但电视广播的连续流仍然主导着体验；选择何时观看与选择如何观看有很大不同。（尽管蓬勃发展的互联网视频频道的出现现在也让“如何”成为问题。）
On the other hand, the salient characteristic of the broadcast media—as opposed to the physical media—is their rigidity. Access is severely restricted, even if cable television, which guarantees a limited amount of public access, and “talk” radio shows, which encourage listeners to phone in, have somewhat expanded opportunities. Moreover, the consumer is locked into the time schedule of the broadcast media and, because the distribution flow is continuous rather than discrete, he has little opportunity to control the experience. Although the advent of VCRs and DVRs has allowed some “time-shifting,” the continuous flow of television broadcasts still dominates the experience; choosing when to watch is a far cry from choosing how to watch. (Although the advent of thriving internet video channels now calls the “how” into question, as well.)
图 6-5。蜂窝电话。_ _ 计算机化电话交换系统的日益复杂使得蜂窝电话在 1983 年得以商业化。无线电话已使用多年，但无线电频谱的有限带宽使其不经济。七十年代中期的公民乐队无线电热潮为这个问题提供了一个巧妙的解决方案，简洁而优雅。CB 让数百万人成为广播公司，因为它从根本上限制了他们的权力，从而限制了他们的范围：数千人可以共享每个频道，因为他们在地理上是分开的。同样，蜂窝电话通过将广播范围限制在几个城市街区，极大地增加了可用频道的数量。转折？当呼叫者移动时，复杂的交换系统将呼叫信号从一个发射器和通道传递到另一个发射器和通道。到了 20 世纪 90 年代初，汽车电话在美国已经很普遍，中产阶级的青少年也以拥有传呼机为荣。到 20 世纪 90 年代末，个人手机在美国已经普及，在欧洲更受欢迎。下一步？将号码从设备上取下并将其附加到该人身上，利用类似的智能网络将呼叫分流到手边最近的任何设备。
Figure 6-5. CELLULAR TELEPHONY. The increasing sophistication of computerized telephone switching systems allowed the commercial introduction of cellular telephony in 1983. Radiotelephones had been in use for many years, but the limited bandwidth of the radio spectrum made them uneconomical. The Citizen’s Band radio craze of the mid-seventies pointed to an ingenious solution to the problem, elegant in its simplicity. CB let millions become broadcasters because it radically limited their power, and therefore, their range: thousands could share each channel because they were separated geographically. Similarly, cellular telephony dramatically multiplied the number of channels available by limiting the broadcast range to a few city blocks. The twist? Sophisticated switching systems pass a call signal from one transmitter and channel to another as the caller moves. By the early 1990s in the United States car phones were common, and middle-class teenagers prided themselves on their beepers. By the late 1990s personal cellphones were pervasive in the United States and even more popular in Europe. The next step? Detach the number from the device and attach it to the person, utilizing similar intelligent networks to shunt a call to whatever device happens to be closest at hand.
直到九十年代，频道的数量也受到严格限制。每个人都知道关于新有线电视订户的笑话，他沮丧地发现，尽管他现在拥有八百个频道而不是八个，但“仍然没有任何节目”。当我们开始将计算机和电视技术结合起来时，有线电视系统最终成为双向街道，在架构上更接近电话网络而不是广播网络。当通过互联网分发高质量视频成为现实，并且观众可以按需订购传输时，有线电视就成为交互式分发系统，消费者可以拥有一些真正的控制措施。播客是一个开始，但还有很长的路要走。
Until the nineties, the number of channels, too, was strictly limited. Everyone knows the joke about the new cable subscriber who is discouraged to find out that even though he now has eight hundred channels instead of eight, “there’s still nothing on.” As we begin to marry computer and television technology, cable systems finally become two-way streets, closer in architecture to a telephone network than to a broadcast network. When quality video distribution via the internet becomes a reality, and viewers can order transmission on demand, cable becomes an interactive distribution system and the consumer may have some real measure of control. Podcasts are a start, but there’s still a long way to go.
报纸和杂志呈现了一个有趣的混合案例：它们不仅将广告空间和受众的销售与物品本身的销售结合起来，而且更重要的是，它们以读者可以理解的方式分发信息和娱乐的集合。真正的力量胜过体验。这些印刷媒体的马赛克排列使读者能够高效地享受计算机术语中所谓的“实时访问”。例如，报纸读者可以精确地选择他想阅读的内容，也可以决定他想阅读每一篇文章的时间，而观看电视新闻的人则被锁定在广播的时间安排中并准确地体验信息与其他观众一样。
Newspapers and magazines present an interesting hybrid case: not only do they combine the sale of ad space and audience with the sale of the object itself, but—more important—they distribute their collections of information and entertainment in such a way that the reader has real power over the experience. The mosaic arrangement of these print media allows the reader the efficient luxury of what in computer terminology is called “real-time access.” For instance, a newspaper reader can choose precisely which items he wants to read and can decide as well how long he wants to stay with each one, whereas someone watching television news is locked in to the time scheme of the broadcast and experiences the information precisely the same way as every other viewer.
这是印刷媒体和电子媒体之间最显着的区别。由于印刷品中的信息比媒体信息的编码更严格，因此印刷品仍然是传达抽象信息的最有效的媒介。部分原因是读者对体验有相当大的控制权，可以呈现更多的信息，而印刷媒体的结构使其能够以更有效的方式提供信息：您无法轻松翻阅光盘或浏览电影。（然而。）
This is the most significant difference between print and electronic media. Because information in print is coded more strictly than media information, print is still the most efficient medium for communicating abstract information. Partly because the reader has such considerable control over the experience, far more information can be presented, and the structure of the print media makes it available in a more efficient manner: you can’t easily thumb through a disc, or skim a film. (Yet.)
机械电子媒体技术
The Technology of Mechanical and Electronic Media
无论最终的传输形式是广播还是物理，所有机械和电子媒体都依赖于一个概念：波形的物理和技术。由于我们的两种主要感官——视觉和听觉——也依赖于波动物理学，所以这并不奇怪。然而，在爱迪生发明留声机之前，还没有找到任何方法来模仿或重新创造这些现象。
Whether the eventual form of transmission is broadcast or physical, all the mechanical and electronic media depend on a single concept: the physics and technology of wave forms. Since our two primary senses—sight and hearing—also depend on wave physics, this is not surprising. Yet until Edison’s phonograph, no way had ever been found to mimic or re-create these phenomena.
正如爱迪生所设想的，留声机并不依赖于任何先进的技术发展：它是一个简单的机械系统。基本部件是号角、振膜、触针和圆柱体或圆盘。与随后的所有电子媒体一样，这里的主导概念是将一种波形转换为另一种波形的技术。在这种情况下，以空气为介质的声波被转换为以蜡筒或蜡盘为介质的物理波。
The phonograph, as Edison conceived it, did not depend on any advanced developments in technology: it was a simple mechanical system. The essential components are the horn, the diaphragm, the stylus, and the cylinder or disk. The governing concept here, as with all the electronic media that followed, is the technique of translating one wave form into another. In this case sound waves, whose medium is air, are translated into physical waves, whose medium is the wax cylinder or disk.
图 6-6。机械唱片。_ _ _ _ 曲柄提供能量，主发条存储能量，齿轮传输能量。唱片的凹槽存储信号，唱针传输信号，隔膜将其从机械振动转换为声音，喇叭将其放大。（比较图 6-13。）
Figure 6-6. THE MECHANICAL PHONOGRAPH. The crank supplies the energy, the mainspring stores it, the gears transmit it. The grooves of the record store the signal, the stylus transmits it, the diaphragm translates it from mechanical vibration into sound, the horn amplifies it. (Compare Figure 6-13.)
尽管爱迪生早期的留声机非常巧妙，但它也是一种有限的乐器。信号从喇叭到振膜，再到触针，再到蜡筒，然后再通过触针、振膜和喇叭返回，过程中损失了很多质量。进一步的改进必须等待二十世纪初电子技术的发展。在这里，留声机的历史与无线电和电话的历史融为一体。
As ingenious as it was, Edison’s early phonograph was also a limited instrument. Much quality was lost in the progression of the signal from horn to diaphragm to stylus to wax cylinder, then back again through stylus, diaphragm, and horn. Further improvements had to wait for the development of electronic technology in the early years of the twentieth century. Here, the history of the phonograph merges with the history of radio and telephony.
无线电和电话都是建立在电学理论的基础上的，但它们之间存在显着的概念差异：电话通过有限的通道（电线）传输消息，而无线电则通过使用电磁辐射介质来执行基本相同的功能。由于电磁频谱的性质允许无线电信号轻松传播（无线电信号起源于单个点，但可以在广阔区域内的任何地方接收），因此无线电乍一看似乎是一种比电话更先进的系统，即“窄播”（电话信号从任何单点传输到任何其他单点）。
Both radio and telephony are founded in electrical theory, but there is a significant conceptual difference between them: the telephone transmits its message through a limited channel—the wire—whereas radio performs essentially the same function by using the medium of electromagnetic radiation. Because the nature of the electromagnetic spectrum allows radio signals to be broadcast easily (a radio signal originates at a single point but can be received anywhere within a broad area), radio seems at first to be a more advanced system than telephony, which is “narrowcast” (a telephone signal travels from any single point to any other single point).
然而，正如我们将看到的，有限信道电话系统的优点开始受到重视。尽管与无线电容易产生的电磁波相比，电话线的安装困难且昂贵，但它提供了双向交互通信的前景，而这对于无线电来说更为困难。有线电视正在朝这个方向迅速发展，因为更高容量的同轴电缆、压缩技术以及最重要的光纤电缆大大增加了这个竞争对手对电话网络的容量。
Yet, as we shall see, the advantages of the limited-channel telephone system are beginning to be appreciated. The wires of telephony, although difficult and expensive to install compared with radio’s easily generated electromagnetic waves, nevertheless offer the prospect of two-way interactive communication, which is more difficult with radio. Cable television is moving rapidly in this direction, as higher-capacity coaxial cable, compression techniques, and—most importantly—fiber-optic cable vastly increase the capacity of this competitor to the august telephone network.
电话公司也可以使用同样的技术，这些公司现在在有线电视的地盘上展开竞争。八十年代初，蜂窝“广播”的发展将电话从有线连接中解放出来。九十年代，电话公司和有线电视公司都扩大了业务范围，涵盖了所有形式的电子通信。有趣的是，尽管电子媒体越来越抽象，但过去一百年来花费巨大代价建立的物理网络仍然是无价的资产。*
The same technologies are available to telephone companies, who now compete on cable television’s turf. In the early eighties, the development of cellular “broadcasting” freed the telephone from its wired connection. In the nineties, phone companies and cable companies alike broadened their purview to include all forms of electronic communication. Interestingly, despite the increasing abstraction of the electronic media, the physical networks built at great cost during the past hundred years remain invaluable assets.*
塞缪尔·莫尔斯 (Samuel Morse) 于 1840 年获得了电报设备的专利。这是一种通过电能通过电线传输信号的简单设备。莫尔斯的点划码使有用的通信成为可能，但需要更灵活的系统。
Samuel Morse had patented a telegraph apparatus in 1840. It was a simple device for carrying a signal through wires via electrical energy. Morse’s dot-dash code made useful communication possible, but a more flexible system was needed.
贝尔的电话为电气技术增添了一个重要的维度：它是第一个将声波类似地转换为电波并再转换回声音的发明。贝尔从原理上与爱迪生相似的放大喇叭开始，但他想将声波转化为电介质而不是物理介质。这使得电话能够立即传输消息。
Bell’s telephone added a significant dimension to electrical technology: it was the first invention to translate sound waves analogously into electrical waves and back again to sound. Bell began with an amplifying horn similar in principle to Edison’s, but he thought to translate the sound waves into an electrical medium rather than a physical medium. This enabled the telephone to transmit its message immediately.
到了 1890 年代，电话得到广泛使用。尽管贝尔的麦克风-扬声器系统很重要，但如果没有同时开发巧妙的切换设备和放大器设备，它的用处就会有限。允许电话信号传播更远距离的放大概念直接催生了许多二十世纪的电子设备。从电话发展而来的理论交换系统允许系统中的任何一部电话与任何其他电话连接，直接预示了计算机技术和现代系统理论。
By the 1890s, the telephone was in wide use. As important as it was, Bell’s microphone-speaker system would have had limited usefulness without the concurrent development of both ingenious switching equipment and amplifying devices. The concept of amplification that allowed the telephone signal to travel greater distances led directly to a host of twentieth-century electronic devices. The theory that developed out of the telephone switching system, which allowed any one phone in the system to be connected with any other, directly foreshadowed computer technology and modern systems theory.
图 6-7。声音的电力传输。_ _ _ _ 电话是将声能转换为电能，然后再转换回来的最简单的设备，但这里描述的原理是所有声音传输的基础。关键概念是麦克风（或话筒）的碳颗粒结构（将声波转换为电波）、重复线圈（一个简单的变压器）（充当放大器）以及扬声器（或听筒）的电磁体-隔膜组合它将电信号转换回声音。
Figure 6-7. THE ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION OF SOUND. The telephone is the simplest device for translating sound energy into electrical energy, then back again, but the principle described here is the basis for all sound transmission. The key concepts are the carbon granule construction of the microphone (or mouthpiece) which translates sound waves into electric waves, the repeating coil—a simple transformer—which acts as an amplifier, and the electromagnet-diaphragm combination of the loudspeaker (or earpiece) which translates the electrical signal back into sound.
与此同时，海因里希·赫兹在进行实验证实詹姆斯·克拉克·麦克斯韦的电磁理论时，发现了一种随意产生电磁辐射的方法。关于电磁辐射有两个重要事实：首先，电磁波不需要预先存在的物理介质（如声波）——它们可以通过真空传播；其次，发射器和接收器可以“调谐”为仅发射或接收特定频率的电波。因此，无线电发射机或接收机可以被调谐以选择大量频道中的任何一个，这是对电报/电话系统的一大进步，电报/电话系统的频道受限于每个频道所连接的电线数量以及交换系统的复杂性。
Meanwhile, Heinrich Hertz, while conducting experiments that confirmed James Clerk Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory, had discovered a way to produce electromagnetic radiation at will. Two facts were significant about electromagnetic radiation: first, that electromagnetic waves needed no preexisting physical medium (like sound waves)—they could be transmitted through a vacuum; second, that transmitters and receivers could be “tuned” to transmit or receive only waves of a certain frequency. A radio transmitter or receiver could thus be tuned to select any one of a large number of channels, a great advance over the telegraphic/telephonic systems, whose channels were limited to the number of wires attached to each, and the sophistication of the switching system.
一位年轻的意大利人古列尔莫·马可尼 (Guglielmo Marconi) 是众多实验者中第一个完善可行的无线电报系统的人。1896 年和 1897 年，他在英国展示了他的“无线”电报机，很快，一些强大的公司就成立了，以利用这项发明的商业价值。与电报电缆不同，无线电信号不会受到破坏：这项发明的军事价值立即显现出来。
A young Italian, Guglielmo Marconi, was the first of a number of experimenters to perfect a workable system of radiotelegraphy. In 1896 and 1897 he demonstrated his “wireless” telegraph in England, and soon powerful corporations were formed to exploit the commercial value of the invention. Unlike telegraph cables, radio signals were not subject to sabotage: the military value of the invention was seen immediately.
然而，与莫尔斯的系统一样，马可尼的系统无法传输复杂的声音信号，只能传输“开关”代码。电话将声波转化为在电线介质中传播的电波，但“无线”已经依赖于波系统作为介质；介质的波系如何承载另一个波系（信号）？
Yet, like Morse’s system, Marconi’s could not carry complex sound signals, only “on-off” code. The telephone translated sound waves into electrical waves that were carried in the medium of the wire, but the “wireless” already depended on a wave system as the medium; how could another wave system (the signal) be carried by the wave system of the medium?
加拿大人雷金纳德·费森登 (Reginald Fessenden) 是最早解决这个问题的人之一。他的想法是将信号波叠加在载波上；换句话说，“调制”载波。这就是广播电视传输的基本概念。由于有两个与波相关的变量——“幅度”或强度，以及“频率”或“波长”——因此有两种调制的可能性：因此有当前的 AM（幅度调制）和 FM（频率调制）广播系统。
Reginald Fessenden, a Canadian, was one of the first to solve this problem. His idea was to superimpose the signal wave on the carrier wave; in other words, to “modulate” the carrier wave. This is the basic concept of radio and television transmission. Since there are two variables associated with a wave—“amplitude” or strength, and “frequency” or “wavelength”—there were two possibilities for modulation: hence the current AM (Amplitude Modulation) and FM (Frequency Modulation) systems of broadcasting.
起初，费森登的理论似乎不切实际。Lee De Forest 在 1906 年发明的“audion”电子管至关重要。它提供了一种调制载波频率的简单方法。它对于放大工作也非常有用。随着三极管的诞生，电子学诞生了。然而，该系统仍然相当粗糙。很明显，必须对载波频率及其调制信号进行哄骗、滤波、增强和其他辅助。埃德温·H·阿姆斯特朗的再生电路和超外差电路（1912、1918）是最早也是最重要的此类设备之一。
At first, Fessenden’s theory seemed impractical. Lee De Forest’s invention of the “audion” tube in 1906 was crucial. It provided a simple way to modulate the carrier frequency. It was also very useful for the job of amplification. With the audion tube, electronics was born. The system, however, was still fairly crude. It became evident that the carrier frequency and its modulated signal had to be coaxed, filtered, strengthened, and otherwise aided. Edwin H. Armstrong’s Regenerative Circuit and Superheterodyne Circuit (1912, 1918) were among the first and most important such devices.
电子信号可以通过电路修改的想法成为二十世纪的定义概念之一。DeForest 的三极管真空管一直是电路的主力，直到 1948 年 John Bardeen、WH Brattain 和 William Shockley 发明晶体管为止。晶体管比真空管更小、更可靠，而且生产成本更低，为电路开辟了许多新的可能性。
The idea that an electronic signal could be modified by circuitry became one of the defining concepts of the twentieth century. DeForest’s audion vacuum tube was the workhorse of circuitry until the invention of the transistor in 1948 by John Bardeen, W. H. Brattain, and William Shockley. Much smaller and more reliable than the vacuum tubes, as well as cheaper to produce, the transistors opened up numerous new possibilities in circuitry.
1959 年，随着集成电路的推出，该技术的复杂性再次飞跃。集成电路是通过化学而非机械方式生产的，它可以完成装满早期电子设备的盒子的工作。到 1971 年，这种抽象技术催生了硅基微芯片，可以在其上照相蚀刻数千个电路。英特尔先驱公司的创始人之一戈登·摩尔在该设备推出后不久就表示，芯片上可打印的电路数量每十八个月就会增加一倍。这一预测后来被称为摩尔定律在过去四十年中被证明异常准确。这种指数级的发展速度成为推动微型计算机革命和信息时代诞生的引擎。
The complexity of the technology took another quantum jump in 1959 with the introduction of the Integrated Circuit. Produced chemically rather than mechanically, the Integrated Circuit did the work of boxes full of earlier electronic equipment. By 1971 this abstract technology had given birth to the silicon-based microchip, on which thousands of circuits could be photographically etched. Gordon Moore, one of the founders of the pioneering Intel corporation, suggested soon after the introduction of the device that the number of circuits that could be printed on a chip would double every eighteen months. This prediction came to be known as Moore’s Law and has proved uncannily accurate over the past forty years. This exponential development rate has been the engine that has powered the microcomputer revolution and the birth of the Information Age.
图 6-8。电磁频谱。_ _ _ _ 由于电磁波的速度为每秒30万公里，因此大多数电磁波都具有极高的频率。即使是最长的无线电波（波长以公里为单位）的频率也约为每秒数百个周期（赫兹）。最短的电磁波——伽马射线——的波长以十亿分之一厘米为单位，频率以每秒六十亿个周期为单位。频谱中最重要的频段是可见光和无线电频谱占据的频段，这些频段进一步任意划分为许多分配给特殊用途的频段。
Figure 6-8. THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM. Since the speed of electromagnetic waves is 300,000 kilometers per second, most electromagnetic waves have extremely high frequencies. Even the longest radio waves—with wavelengths measured in kilometers—have frequencies on the order of hundreds of cycles per second (Hertz). The shortest electromagnetic waves—gamma rays—have wavelengths measured in billionths of a centimeter, frequencies measured in sextillion cycles per second. The most important bands in the spectrum are those occupied by visible light and the radio spectrum, which is further divided arbitrarily into a number of bands allocated for special uses.
正如电影摄影的开发者一直希望制作声音和图像一样，广播领域的早期实验者也希望广播图像和声音。困难在于，虽然声音和光都是波动现象，但我们集体感知声波，而我们在某种意义上离散感知光波。来自我们视野中任何一点的光波可能与我们“听觉领域”中的所有声波一样复杂。
Just as the developers of cinematography had always wanted to produce sound as well as image, so the early experimenters in radio wanted to broadcast images as well as sound. The difficulty was that, although both sound and light are wave phenomena, we perceive sound waves collectively while we perceive light waves in a sense discretely. The light waves coming from any one point in our field of vision might be as complex as all the sound waves in our “field of hearing.”
由于这种复杂性的增加，光波必须以某种方式进行分析才能由无线电波形式携带。解决这个问题的方法与印刷技术中采用的方法类似：将连续的图像分解成足够数量的离散粒子，使每个粒子能够按顺序传输。
Because of this added complexity, light waves would have to be analyzed somehow in order to be carried by radio wave forms. The solution to the problem was similar to the one adopted in printing technology: to break down the continuous image into a sufficient number of discrete particles so that each particle could be transmitted in sequence.
起初，尝试了机械装置。Paul Nipkow 的发明“Nipkow 盘”（1884 年）使用旋转盘上的螺旋形穿孔阵列来产生快速扫描运动。直到五十年代初，哥伦比亚广播公司的色彩系统才采用了这种机械技术。它非常适合20 世纪 60 年代和 1970 年代阿波罗登月计划中使用的彩色摄像机。
At first, mechanical devices were tried. Paul Nipkow’s invention, the “Nipkow disc” (1884), used a spiral array of perforations on a rotating disc to create a rapid scanning movement. As late as the early fifties, the CBS color system utilized this mechanical technology. It worked quite well for the color video cameras used in the Apollo moon program in the 1960s and 1970s.
图 6-9。波力学和信号调制。_ _ _ 任何波，无论是声音、光还是无线电波，都可以从三个维度进行测量：振幅、波长和频率。振幅是波的强度。波长和频率是相互关联的。频率以每秒的周期（或波长）来测量，称为“赫兹”。因此，长度为 11 英尺的声波的频率为 100 cps；同样，5 1/2 英尺长的声波的频率为 200 cps。
Figure 6-9. WAVE MECHANICS AND SIGNAL MODULATION. Any wave, whether sound, light, or radio, is measured in three dimensions: amplitude, wavelength, and frequency. The amplitude is the strength of the wave. Wavelength and frequency are interconnected. Frequencies are measured in cycles (or wavelengths) per second, known as “Hertz.” Therefore, a sound wave with a length of 11 feet will have a frequency of 100 cps; likewise a sound wave 5 1/2 feet long will have a frequency of 200 cps.
“调制”一个信号意味着向其施加另一个信号。逻辑上有两种方法可以做到这一点：要么调制幅度，要么调制频率（这与调制波长相同）。AM 如 B 所示：载波由阴影带状带表示。节目信号被强加于其上。FM 在 C 中可视化。
To “modulate” a signal means to impose another signal upon it. It’s logical that there are two ways to do this: either modulate the amplitude, or modulate the frequency (which is the same thing as modulating the wavelength). AM is illustrated in B: the carrier wave is indicated by the shaded ribbon band. The program signal is imposed upon it. FM is visualized in C.
然而，最终的解决方案是电子的而不是机械的。移居美国的俄罗斯移民弗拉基米尔·K·兹沃里金 (Vladimir K. Zworykin) 的工作至关重要。*他开发了“Iconscope”，一种用于接收图像的设备图像并将其转换为电子信号，大多数当代电视摄像机都从电子信号中诞生，而“显像管”或阴极射线管则是一种将电子信号转换回图像的设备。为了生成足够质量的图像，有必要将图片分解为至少 100,000 个“粒子”。这些粒子称为图像元素或“像素”。就像半色调网屏打印照片时产生的点一样，这些图片元素虽然是独立的和离散的，但在心理上被理解为组成了一幅连续的图片。在美国和日本的模拟电视中，它们以 525 行模式排列。在欧洲电视中，标准是 625 行。（因此，欧洲的形象更加清晰。）
The eventual solution was, however, electronic rather than mechanical. The work of a Russian immigrant to the U.S., Vladimir K. Zworykin, was essential. * He developed both the “Iconoscope,” a device for receiving an image and translating it into an electronic signal, from which most contemporary television cameras descend, and the “Kinescope,” or Cathode Ray Tube, a device for translating the electronic signal back into an image. To produce an image of sufficient quality, it is necessary to break the picture down into at least 100,000 “particles.” These particles are called picture elements, or “pixels.” Like the dots produced in the printing of photographs by the halftone screen, these picture elements, although separate and discrete, are psychologically understood as composing a continuous picture. In American and Japanese analog television they were arrayed in a 525-line pattern. In European television, the standard was 625 lines. (As a result, the European image was sharper.)
图 6-10。电子“阀门”：集成电路的典范。_ _ 德福雷斯特的发明既巧妙又有价值。三极管放大信号，因为栅极充当不断变化的电子门。无论栅极承载什么信号，都会对阴极和阳极之间流动的更强电流产生影响。三极管是所有真空管（或“电子管”）的模型。
Figure 6-10. ELECTRONIC “VALVES”: AUDION TO INTEGRATED CIRCUIT. De Forest’s invention was as valuable as it was ingenious. The audion tube amplifies a signal because the grid acts as a continually varying electronic gate. Whatever signal the grid carries is impressed upon the stronger current flowing between cathode and anode. The audion tube was the model for all vacuum tubes—or “valves.”
从 20 世纪 50 年代开始，晶体管（左）开始取代真空管。工作原理基本相同，但它更多的是化学性而不是物理性，因此晶体管更小且更可靠，这都是很大的优点。集成了无数晶体管电路的集成电路甚至更小。
Beginning in the 1950s the transistor (left), drawn here lifesize, began to replace the vacuum tube. The principle of operation is basically the same, but it is more chemical than physical, and hence the transistor is much smaller and more reliable, both great advantages. The integrated circuit, which combines numerous transistor circuits, is even smaller.
美国向数字电视的转变最初计划于 2006 年完成，后来推迟到 2009 年，这为显着提高图像分辨率提供了机会。当前的美国数字广播标准包括供广播公司选择的多种不同分辨率，包括所谓的 720 和 1080 线高清速率，但也包括 480 线（旧模拟分辨率的数字等效值）。信号是数字的并不意味着它是高清的。还有数字带来了一系列全新的问题，因此仅仅因为它是数字的并不意味着它比模拟更好。
The shift to digital television in the U.S., first scheduled to be completed in 2006, then delayed to 2009, offered the opportunity to increase the resolution of the image significantly. The current U.S. standard for digital broadcast comprises a number of different resolution choices for broadcasters including so-called High Definition rates of 720 and 1080 lines, but also including 480 lines—the digital equivalent of the old analog resolution. Just because the signal is digital doesn’t mean it is HD. And digital brings with it a whole new set of problems, so just because it’s digital doesn’t mean it is better than analog.
半色调系统和电视像素系统之间存在两个显着的相互关联的差异。首先，半色调中的网点大小不同；像素大小均相同。其次，半色调点要么是黑色，要么是白色，而像素具有一定的亮度范围。此外，与印刷照片不同，电视图像是移动的。因此，视觉暂留现象和 Phi 现象开始发挥作用，就像电影中那样。欧洲和美国标准之间也存在细微差别。欧洲电视的运行速度为每秒二十五“帧”，美国电视为三十。（在数字世界中这基本上仍然是正确的。）
There are two significant interrelated differences between the halftone system and the television pixel system. First, the dots in a halftone are of different sizes; pixels are all the same size. Second, the halftone dots are either black or white, while pixels have a range of brightnesses. Moreover, unlike the printed photograph, the televised image moves. Therefore, the phenomena of persistence of vision and the Phi phenomenon come into play, as they do in film. Again there is a slight difference between European and American standards. European television operates at twenty-five “frames” per second, American at thirty. (This is still basically true in the digital world.)
在图像镜、图像正交镜和摄像机显像管中，所有这些设备的操作都类似，图像被光学投影到管内的表面或屏幕上，该表面或屏幕上覆盖有适当阵列中的必要数量的图像元素，每个图像元素可以容纳一个图像元素。电荷。这些电荷由电子束读取，由电磁透镜聚焦和控制，每秒扫描整个阵列二十五或三十次。产生的信号至少 200,000 个像素中的每个像素都携带不同的亮度值，每秒二十五或三十次。每秒至少有六百万个值被记录和传输。电视信号显然比广播信号复杂得多。
In the iconoscope, image orthicon, and vidicon camera tubes, all of which operated similarly, the image was projected optically onto a surface or screen within the tube covered with the necessary number of picture elements in the proper array, each of which could hold an electrical charge. These charges were read by an electron beam, focused and controlled by an electromagnetic lens, which scanned the entire array twenty-five or thirty times each second. The signal that resulted carried a different value of brightness for each of at least 200,000 pixels, twenty-five or thirty times each second. At least six million values were recorded and transmitted every second. The television signal is obviously much more complex than the radio signal.
为了在屏幕上产生图像，系统的另一个重要组成部分阴极射线管（CRT）基本上颠倒了这个过程。CRT 的屏幕上覆盖着磷光涂层，任何磷光涂层的粒子在受到高能电子束撞击时都会产生光。管子另一端的“枪”产生这种光束，根据信号的亮度值改变其强度。光束由磁透镜控制，就像相机管中的磁透镜一样，每秒扫过 525（或 625）条线三十（或二十五）次。事实上，该系统更为复杂。正如电影放映机快门不仅在帧之间而且在每帧中间分割光束以减少闪烁效果一样，CRT 电子枪实际上将每次扫描分为两个部分：它首先扫描偶数行，然后返回到图片的顶部来扫描奇数行，以便屏幕表面的荧光粉在这些扫描或“场”之间从上到下更加均匀地褪色。*
To produce an image on its screen, the Cathode Ray Tube (CRT), the other essential component of the system, essentially reversed the process. The screen of the CRT was covered with a phosphorescent coating, any particle of which produced light when struck by a high energy beam of electrons. A “gun” at the opposite end of the tube produced this beam, varying its intensity according to the brightness value of the signal. The beam was controlled by a magnetic lens like the one in the camera tube that swept across 525 (or 625) lines thirty (or twenty-five) times each second. In reality, the system was more complex. Just as a film projector shutter splits the light beam not only between frames but also in the middle of each frame to decrease the flicker effect, so the CRT electron gun actually divided each sweep into two components: it first swept the even-numbered lines, then returned to the top of the picture to sweep the odd-numbered lines, so that the phosphors of the screen surface fade more evenly from top to bottom between these sweeps, or “fields.”*
图 6-11。微芯片的艺术。_ _ 由于电路是印刷的，尽管是微观的，微芯片揭示了其电子逻辑固有的美感，就像九十年代中期摩托罗拉芯片的放大版一样。始于 1977 年的微型计算机革命的历史可以通过芯片设计的飞跃来衡量，单个芯片可以模拟的晶体管数量从 1,000 个跃升至数十亿个。具有讽刺意味的是，微芯片是我们这个时代最强大的发明，它毕竟依赖于旧的摄影和印刷技术。这款 1995 年基于 RISC 的 PowerPC 620 是与 IBM 和 Apple 合作设计的，拥有 700 万个晶体管。现在它已经是古董了。显微照片极大地放大了这个不到一平方英寸的芯片。（由摩托罗拉提供。）
Figure 6-11. THE ART OF THE MICROCHIP. Because the circuits are printed, albeit microscopically, microchips reveal the esthetics inherent in their electronic logic, as in this enlargement of a Motorola chip from the mid-nineties. The history of the microcomputer revolution which began in 1977 has been measured in the quantum jumps of chip design, as the number of transistors that a single chip could emulate jumped from 1,000 to billions. It’s a fine irony that the microchip, the most powerful invention of our time, depends after all on the old technologies of photography and printing. This 1995 RISC-based PowerPC 620, designed in collaboration with IBM and Apple, had seven million transistors. It is now an antique. The photomicrograph greatly enlarges the chip, which is less than an inch square. (Courtesy Motorola.)
彩色电视类似，只是复杂三倍。与彩色印刷一样，它将色彩心理学应用于半色调技术，通过元素颜色值的各种组合创建整个色谱。对于电视来说，这些元素是红色、绿色和蓝色。彩色相机最初由三个图像正交管组成，通过镜子和滤光片系统，每个管读取一种基本颜色，或者由单个管组成，其屏幕板被遮盖，图像元素排列成三个单独的集合。同样，显像管可以由三个独立的电子枪组成，每个电子枪扫描不同的颜色，或者由一个电子枪组成，连续扫描每种颜色。（颜色于 1953 年在美国商业化，在欧洲则普遍于 20 世纪 60 年代末期。）
Color television is similar, only three times more complex. Like color printing, it applies color psychology to halftone technology, creating the entire spectrum of color through various combinations of elemental color values. For television these elements are red, green, and blue. Color cameras originally consisted either of three image orthicon tubes that, through a system of mirrors and filters, each read one of the basic colors, or of a single tube whose screen plate was masked in such a way that the picture elements were arranged in three separate sets. Likewise, the picture tube could consist of three separate electron guns, each scanning a different color, or one gun, which scanned each color consecutively. (Color was introduced commercially in the U.S. in 1953 and in Europe generally in the late sixties.)
虽然在我撰写本文时仍然可以购买模拟 CRT 电视机，但我怀疑当您阅读本文时是否可能实现。巧妙的模拟摄像机早已被电荷耦合器件摄像机所取代，如图6-12所示，它彻底改变了视频技术，使更高的灵敏度成为可能。平板 LCD 屏幕（及其竞争对手等离子屏幕）已经取代了古老的 CRT。架构基本相同，视频图像鉴赏家可能会对伽玛、黑电平和色谱等内容争论不休，但荧光粉已被 CCD 和 LCD 取代。没有回头路了。
While it is still possible to buy an analog CRT television set as I write, I doubt it will be possible by the time you read this. The ingenious analog video cameras have been replaced long ago by the charge-coupled device camera, described in Figure 6-12, which has revolutionized video technology, making possible far greater sensitivity. Flat-panel LCD screens (and their competitors, plasma screens) have replaced the venerable CRT. The architecture is basically the same, and connoisseurs of the video image may argue about such things as gamma, black level, and color spectrum, but the phosphors have been replaced by CCDs and LCDs. There’s no turning back.
有趣的是，图像（电影）和声音（广播）技术的发展在 1928 年有交叉，当时有声电影和电视都被引入。但是，虽然有声电影立即被接受，但商业电视却推迟了近二十年。这种延迟部分是由技术原因造成的；主要是首先是经济问题的结果，然后是第二次世界大战中断的结果。电影制片人和发行商需要声音来抵消广播作为娱乐和信息媒体的威胁并重振摇摇欲坠的市场，而广播业的同行则涉足广播这一相对年轻的媒体，该媒体尚未充分发挥其经济潜力。因此，没有理由急于进行电视制作。由于担心额外费用，哥伦比亚广播公司（CBS）老板威廉·S·佩利（William S. Paley）积极反对电视的引入。
Interestingly, the developing technologies of image (film) and sound (radio) crossed paths in 1928, when both sound film and television were introduced. But while the sound film was immediately accepted, commercial television was delayed nearly twenty years. Partly this delay was caused by technical reasons; mainly, it was the result first of economic problems, then of the interruption of World War II. Whereas film producers and distributors needed sound to counteract the threat of radio as an entertainment and information medium and revive a faltering market, their counterparts in broadcasting were involved with a relatively young medium, radio, which had not yet reached its full economic potential. As a result, there was no reason to rush into television production. Afraid of the additional expense, William S. Paley, owner of CBS, actively campaigned against the introduction of television.
从 1925 年开始，留声机技术开始借鉴不断发展的无线电电子技术。录音和重放中的放大和细化电路极大地提高了留声机的宽容度。长播放唱片（1948）和立体声的推出再现（1958）是基于无线电技术的进步，尤其是 20 世纪 60 年代更复杂的“高保真”电路的发展。然而，磁盘记录作为记录介质有一个基本缺点：它无法编辑。
Beginning in 1925, phonograph technology began borrowing from the developing electronics of radio. Amplification and refinement circuitry both in recording and reproducing greatly enhanced the latitude of the phonograph. The introduction of the long-playing record (1948) and stereophonic reproduction (1958) were advances based on radio technology, as was, especially, the development of more sophisticated “high-fidelity” circuitry during the 1960s. Yet the disk record had one basic drawback as a recording medium: it could not be edited.
图 6-12。电荷耦合器件。_ _ _ _ 电荷耦合器件相机的灵敏度比其前身高出很多倍。它通过简单而巧妙的架构实现了其优势。二极管现在耦合到存储信息的半导体电容器，直到读取一行或整个帧。二极管不再需要立即将读数传送给扫描光束，因此有更多的时间来收集有关图像的信息。此外，扫描光束已被消除，整个帧的电荷模式在每个场中同时并行传输，进一步释放电容器耦合二极管来完成其工作。在显示方面，液晶显示屏采用了相同的想法，但那里的需求远没有那么重要。
Figure 6-12. THE CHARGE-COUPLED DEVICE. The Charge-Coupled Device camera is many times more sensitive than its predecessors. It achieves its edge through a simple yet ingenious architecture. The diodes now are coupled to semiconductor capacitors which store the information until either a line or a whole frame is read. Relieved of their responsibility to communicate their readings instantaneously to the scanning beam, the diodes have far more time to collect information about the image. Moreover, the scanning beam has been eliminated and the charge pattern for an entire frame is transferred simultaneously in parallel for every field, further freeing the capacitor-coupled diodes to do their work. On the display side, the LCD screen uses the same ideas, but the need is far less critical there.
20 世纪 40 年代末和 50 年代初，磁带作为记录介质的发展改变了这一情况。除了是一种更精确和灵活的介质（因为它将电声音信号转换为磁性表示而不是物理波）之外，它还是线性的，因此可以编辑。此外，它还提供了同时在多个独立的并行轨道上录制表演的可能性，这使音响工程师可以通过“混合”技术（一种新的编辑形式）进一步控制信号。最后，由于录制磁带几乎和回放一样容易，录制技术向大量个人开放，大大增加了对媒体的访问。事实上，录音带（就像几年后的录像带一样）最初是作为一种DIY媒体而销售的，而不是作为留声机唱片的替代品。
In the late 1940s and early 1950s, the development of magnetic tape as a recording medium changed this. Besides being a more precise and flexible medium (because it translated the electrical sound signal not into physical waves but into magnetic representations), it was also linear and therefore could be edited. Moreover, it presented the possibility of recording a performance on a number of separate, parallel tracks at the same time, which gave the sound engineer further control over the signal via the technique of “mixing,” which was a new form of editing. Finally, because it was nearly as easy to record tape as to play it back, the technique of recording was opened up to wide numbers of individuals, greatly increasing access to the medium. In fact, audiotape (like videotape years later) was marketed first as a do-it-yourself medium rather than as an alternative to the phonograph record.
作为一种播放介质，光盘于 1982 年首次推出，除了值得商榷的耐用性之外，对声音的技术和体验几乎没有增加什么的介质。然而，从 20 世纪 90 年代中期开始，CD 作为一种记录介质，代表了音频技术的另一个飞跃：由于 CD 上记录的信号是数字信号而不是模拟信号，因此可以通过多种方式进行操作 — 轻松且廉价。到了世纪之交，拥有计算机的音响发烧友享受到了虚拟混音和编辑套件，当 CD 介质在八十年代初诞生时，这套套件需要花费数百万美元才能建造，而互联网使他们能够访问数以百万计的录音，以及廉价的音频。自己自制产品的分销方式。
As a playback medium, compact discs, first introduced in 1982, added little to the technique and experience of sound except the arguable durability of the medium. However, as a recording medium, beginning in the mid-1990s, CDs represented another quantum jump for audio technology: Because the signal recorded on a CD is digital rather than analog it can be manipulated in a great variety of ways—easily, and cheaply. By the turn of the century audiophiles with computers enjoyed a virtual mixing and editing suite that would have cost millions to build when the CD medium was born in the early eighties, and the internet gave them access to millions of recordings—as well as a cheap means of distribution for their own homemade products.
由于电视信号比简单的音频信号复杂得多，因此磁带技术花了十年的时间才成熟到足以容纳视频。然而，录像带在 20 世纪 60 年代问世后，不仅改变了商业电视的形态（商业电视仅限于现场演示或电影的选择），而且最终开启了电视的大门——至少作为一种记录媒体，如果不是一种记录媒体的话。广播媒体——向广大人群传播。
Because the television signal is much more complicated than a simple audio signal, it was a good ten years before tape technology was sophisticated enough to accommodate video. Once videotape was introduced in the 1960s, however, it not only changed the shape of commercial television, which had been limited to the choices of either live presentation or film, but also eventually opened up television—at least as a recording medium if not a broadcast medium—to wide numbers of people.
整个七十年代，日本、欧洲和美国的电子公司竞相开发成功的视盘技术并将其推向市场。在经历了多次失败之后，第一批可行的视频光盘系统于 1978 年上市。但视频光盘的首次亮相被推迟了很长时间，以至于索尼的竞争性录像带技术有足够的时间成熟起来。在市场上，激光光盘从未赶上 VHS 磁带。十五年内，两者都被数字 DVD（一种增强型 CD）所取代。
Throughout the seventies, Japanese, European, and American electronics companies competed to develop a successful videodisc technology and bring it to market. After many false starts, the first viable videodisc systems went on sale in 1978. But the debut of the videodisc had been delayed for so long that Sony’s competing videocassette technology had had enough time to become well established. The laserdisc never did catch up with VHS tapes in the marketplace. And within fifteen years both were replaced by the digital DVD (a CD on steroids).
视盘录音的商业引入令人惊讶的不是它们做得很好，而是它们根本做到了。其中两个竞争系统——RCA 和德国 TeD 系统——使用的唱片由物理凹槽中携带的电子代码组成，回放手写笔必须遵循留声机唱片的模型。最终赢得市场的竞争性 MCA/飞利浦激光视频光盘代表了一项有趣的混合技术：其光盘带有视觉编码的电磁信号。实际上，它结合了磁带和光盘、模拟和数字的一些最佳功能。此外，通过将激光技术引入记录介质，大大提高了效率，因为光波的频率比无线电波高得多，因此可以在更小的空间内携带更多的信息。
What was surprising about the commercial introduction of videodisc recordings was not that they did the job well, but that they did it at all. Two of the competing systems—the RCA and German TeD systems—used records that consisted of electrical codes carried in a physical groove, which a playback stylus had to follow, on the model of the phonograph record. The competing MCA/Philips laser videodisc, which eventually won the market, represented an interesting hybrid technology: its disc carries a visually encoded electromagnetic signal. In effect, it combines some of the best features of tape and disc, analog and digital. Moreover, by introducing laser technology to recording media, it greatly increased efficiency, since light waves are of far higher frequencies than radio waves and thus can carry more information in less space.
具有讽刺意味的是，尽管音频 CD 是在激光视盘四年后才推出的，但激光刻录技术首先在音频市场上实现了盈利。尽管分辨率更高、灵活性更大对于激光唱片来说，磁带的领先地位几乎是不可逾越的。1991 年，激光光盘才成为一项可行的消费业务，即使在那时，市场也仅限于电影爱好者和视频爱好者。*在八十年代中期的一段时间里，尽管人们狂热地购买激光影碟机，但还是买不到。该媒体大约有 500,000 名客户的忠诚度。在此期间，MCA 和飞利浦的美国/欧洲合作伙伴将技术出售给日本贸易公司 Japan Victor Corporation。
Ironically, the laser recording technology first became profitable in the audio market even though audio CDs weren’t introduced until four years after laser videodiscs. Despite the far higher resolution and greater flexibility of the laserdisc, tape’s lead was almost insurmountable. It was 1991 before laserdiscs became a viable consumer business—and even then the market was limited to film buffs and videophiles.* For a while in the mid-eighties it wasn’t even possible to buy a laserdisc player, despite the fanatical devotion of the medium’s 500,000 or so customers. During this period, the American/European partnership of MCA and Philips sold out the technology to the Japanese trading company Japan Victor Corporation.
图 6-13。光盘技术。_ _ _ _ CD、DVD和蓝光光盘也采用相同的技术。唯一的区别是激光的波长：波长越短，凹坑的间距就越近，存储的信息就越多。（CD=780 nm；DVD=650 nm；蓝光=405 nm。）激光读取压入光盘介质的凹坑，检索二进制信息。这里的插图被大大放大了。CD 上有数十亿个凹坑，相邻两行凹坑之间的距离小于 2 微米（或约 1/15,000 英寸）。正是激光能够聚焦在小于一微米的区域，才使得如此巨大的数据容量成为可能。即使二进制容量以千兆字节为单位，音频和视频光盘也必须很大程度上依赖于软件压缩技术。
Figure 6-13. OPTICAL DISC TECHNOLOGY. The same technology is employed for CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray. The only difference is the wavelength of the laser: the shorter the wavelength, the closer the pits can be spaced, storing more information. (CD=780 nm; DVD=650 nm; Blu-ray=405 nm.) The laser reads the pits pressed into the disc medium retrieving the binary information. The illustration here is greatly enlarged. There are billions of pits on a CD and the distance between two adjacent lines of pits is less than 2 micrometers (or about I/15,000 of an inch). It is the ability of the laser to focus on an area smaller than one micrometer that makes this huge data capacity possible. Even with binary capacities measured in gigabytes both audio and video discs must depend greatly on software compression techniques.
20 世纪 70 年代，视频光盘技术之间的竞争早已被预示过多次：RCA 和 CBS 都在 40 年代末推出了不同版本的长期播放唱片。CBS 的 33 1/3 rpm 12 英寸磁盘（由 Peter Goldmark 开发）和 RCA 的 45 rpm 7 英寸磁盘最终都得到了应用，尽管 33 1/3 rpm 磁盘对介质产生了更具革命性的影响。几年后，广播寡头垄断的两个竞争巨头再次就色彩系统问题展开对峙。RCA 的全电子系统很快击败了 CBS 的部分机械系统（同样由 Goldmark 开发）。在每种情况下，就像视频光盘一样，越激进的技术就越成功。
The battle of the 1970s between the rival videodisc technologies had been foreshadowed several times before: RCA and CBS both introduced differing versions of the long-playing record in the late forties. Both CBS’s 33 1/3 rpm twelve-inch disk (developed by Peter Goldmark) and RCA’s 45 rpm seven-inch disk eventually found applications, although the 33 1/3 rpm disk had a more revolutionary effect on the medium. Several years later the two competing giants of the broadcasting oligopoly faced each other again over the question of a color system. RCA’s all-electronic system quickly beat out CBS’s partially mechanical system (also developed by Goldmark). In each case, just as with videodiscs, the more radical technology was the more successful.
当 20 世纪 90 年代初打高清电视 (HDTV) 之战时，美国和欧洲公司采取了更为谨慎的态度。索尼是 60 年代以来消费电子产品创新的主导力量，早在 20 世纪 70 年代末就与日本 NHK 网络合作，率先推出了 HDTV，展示了宽屏 1, 125 线型号，尽管该系统距离正式推出已经有十多年了。在日本首次亮相，其套装价格超出了大多数人的承受范围，而且播出时间也有限。当日本人向前迈进时，他们的美国和欧洲竞争对手却在等待，因为他们知道广播电视标准需要政府批准。七十年代录像机的发展情况并非如此，索尼开创了这个市场，日本电子工业很快就垄断了这一市场。
When it came time in the early 1990s to fight the battle of High-Definition Television (HDTV), American and European companies took a more cautious approach. Sony, the dominant innovative force in consumer electronics since the sixties, had pioneered HDTV, demonstrating a widescreen 1, 125-line model in conjunction with the Japanese network NHK as early as late 1970s, although it was more than ten years before the system officially debuted in Japan, with sets priced out of reach of most people and with a limited broadcasting schedule. While the Japanese moved ahead, their American and European competitors waited, secure in the knowledge that broadcast television standards required government approval. That had not been the case with the development of the VCR in the seventies, a market that Sony pioneered and the Japanese electronics industry quickly cornered.
尽管日本的系统运行良好，但HDTV标准成为贸易战的主要战场。美国及其欧洲盟友并不急于将利润丰厚的许可费交给日本公司。美国联邦通信委员会 (FCC) 于 1992 年决定，他们批准的广播高清电视标准必须是数字化的。由于 NHK 的设计是模拟的（可以追溯到 20 世纪 70 年代），因此它被排除在外。在 FCC 的压力下，四名决赛入围者（都不是日本人）合并了各自的技术，并于 1993 年 5 月就许可费分成达成了一致。
Although the Japanese system worked well, the HDTV standard became a major battleground in the trade wars. The Americans and their European allies were not eager to hand over lucrative licensing fees to Japan, Inc. The FCC decided in 1992 that the broadcast HDTV standard they would approve would have to be digital. Since the NHK design was analog (it dated from the 1970s), it was out of the running. Under pressure from the FCC, the four competing finalists—none of them Japanese—merged their technologies and agreed on license fee splits in May 1993.
贸易政治可能是联邦通信委员会决定走向数字化的根源，但这也具有技术意义。时代变了；美国高清电视标准将是数字化的，这意味着电视机可以轻松适应其他互动用途，这似乎迫在眉睫。到 1996 年经过漫长而复杂的讨论，联邦通信委员会最终发布了美国高清电视游戏的规则手册，日本公司已经准备好在数字领域展开竞争。HDTV 广播于 1998 年 11 月在美国正式开始，但当时这套标准为广播公司和电视机制造商提供了很大的灵活性，以至于没有人能够就单一的发展路径达成一致。此外，当时主导美国电视的有线电视公司还没有准备好将数字信号从有线电视调谐器传送到电视监视器的“最后一步”。
Trade politics may have been at the root of the FCC’s decision to go digital, but it made technical sense as well. Times had changed; that the American HDTV standard would be digital meant that sets could be easily adapted to the other interactive uses, which seemed imminent. By 1996 when, after lengthy and involved discussions, the FCC finally issued the rule book for the HDTV game in the U.S., the Japanese companies were ready to compete on the digital front. HDTV broadcasting began formally in the U.S. in November 1998, but by that time the set of standards gave broadcasters and set manufacturers so much flexibility that none could agree on a single development path. In addition, the cable companies, who by that time dominated American television, weren’t ready to carry the digital signal the “last foot” from the cable tuner to the television monitor.
图 6-14。数字与模拟。_ 数字化背后的理论是一切都可以量化。声音或图像的模拟记录（右）在连续且连续可变的物理或电子介质（例如留声机凹槽或电磁信号）中镜像声音或光波。数字记录是通过每秒多次采样音频或视频波形，将样本转换为整数，并以数字形式记录这些值来完成的。数字记录是不连续的（间歇性的）并且不是连续可变的：它受到两个因素的限制：用于识别或“量化”每个值的位数（或小数位数，如果您愿意的话），以及每个值收集的样本数。第二。
Figure 6-14. DIGITAL VERSUS ANALOG. The theory behind digitization is that everything can be quantified. An analog record of sounds or images (right) mirrors sound or light waves in a continuous—and continuously variable—physical or electronic medium, such as a phonograph groove or electromagnetic signal. A digital record is made by sampling the audio or video waveform many times each second, converting the sample into whole numbers, and recording those values in numerical form. A digital record is discontinuous (intermittent) and not continuously variable: it is limited by two factors: the number of digits (or decimal places, if you like) used to identify or “quantize” each value, and the number of samples collected per second.
虽然模拟记录可能看起来很完美——在曲线上的任何点您都可以辨别一个值，并且可以根据需要使其尽可能精确——但实际上，模拟记录会受到其介质固有的劣化的影响。虽然数字记录不易损坏，但实际上它受到采样频率及其精度的限制。
While the analog record may appear to be perfect—at any point on the curve you can discern a value, and you can make it as precise as you like—in reality, analog records are subject to deterioration inherent in their media. While the digital record is less susceptible to deterioration, in practice it is limited by both the frequency of the sampling and its precision.
这并不是说市场还没有准备好转向数字化：恰恰相反。从 1997 年到世纪之交，消费者迅速接受了其他新的数字视频产品。20 世纪 90 年代末，数码相机在家庭摄影市场开辟了新的市场，很快数码摄像机也随之出现。DVD 视频（一种旨在取代 VHS 磁带的光盘格式）于 1997 年 4 月推出，并迅速推出被视为上等。（事实证明，激光光盘是该格式制作的绝佳模式。）十八个月内，全国各地的音像店都开设了 DVD 专区，与磁带租赁竞争。到 2003 年，DVD 销量和租赁量超过了 VHS 销量。到 2007 年，VHS 已经消亡。
It wasn’t that the market wasn’t ready to switch to digital: quite the reverse. Between 1997 and the turn of the century consumers embraced other new digital video products rapidly. In the late 1990s digital still cameras opened a new niche in the home photography market and were soon accompanied by digital video cameras. DVD-Video—a disc format designed to replace VHS tape—was introduced in April 1997 and quickly accepted as superior. (The laserdisc proved an excellent model for productions in the format.) Within eighteen months video stores across the nation were opening DVD sections to compete with tape rentals. By 2003, DVD sales and rentals surpassed VHS sales. By 2007 VHS was dead.
还有其他有趣的格式战争故事。当高清电视之战成为头条新闻时，另外两个消费电子联盟正在争夺 CD 后继者的标准。索尼和飞利浦自光盘技术早期以来一直是盟友，并且确实在每张售出的 CD 上分享版税。由时代华纳和东芝领导的团队希望从中分一杯羹。两个团体最终在 DVD 标准上达成妥协。结果：所有人——尤其是好莱坞——都获得了巨大的经济成功。1999年，比赛重赛。这一次的战斗是关于古老的音频CD的继承者。索尼/飞利浦坚持推出基于索尼逆向DSD技术的SACD；时代华纳/东芝支持 DVD 音频。冲突没有得到解决。结果：巨大的财务失败。如果冲突得到解决，音乐产业将会增加数百亿美元，并愉快地重新销售所有旧目录（就像八九十年代的 CD 那样）。这场企业之战在上世纪中期再次重演：这次是关于DVD的高清继任者——索尼的蓝光与东芝的HD-DVD。尽管这两种格式都进入了市场，就像 SACD 和 DVD-Audio 一样，但这一次达到了一个转折点。2008年1月，华纳宣布将不再发行HD-DVD光盘。2月份，东芝放弃了战斗。对于电影行业来说是个好消息，他们现在可以在接下来的十年里向饱和的 DVD 市场销售升级光盘（在下一次格式战争开始之前）。如果愚昧的音乐产业如此幸运就好了。音响发烧友仍然坚持 1980 年设计的数字格式。（您还在使用其他哪些已有 30 年历史的计算机技术？）因此，许多音响发烧友正在回归黑胶唱片。
There are other interesting format war stories. While the HDTV battle was being fought in the headlines, two other consumer-electronics alliances were going head to head over the standard for the successor to CD. Sony and Philips had been allies since the early days of optical disc technology and indeed shared royalties on every CD sold. The group led by Time Warner and Toshiba wanted a piece of the action. The two groups eventually compromised on the DVD standard. Result: huge financial success for all—especially Hollywood. In 1999 the contest was replayed. This time the battle was about the successor to the venerable audio CD. Sony/Philips held out for SACD, based on Sony’s contrarian DSD technology; Time Warner/Toshiba supported DVD-Audio. The conflict was not resolved. Result: huge financial failure. If the conflict had been resolved the music industry would have been tens of billions richer, happily re-selling all the old catalogue anew (as they had on CD in the eighties and nineties). This corporate battle was replayed once again in the mid-oughts: this time it was about the high-definition successor to DVD—Sony’s Blu-ray vs. Toshiba’s HD-DVD. Although both formats entered the market, as with SACD and DVD-Audio, this time a tipping point was reached. In January, 2008, Warners announced they would no longer release HD-DVD discs. In February, Toshiba gave up the battle. Great news for the film industry who could now spend the next ten years selling upgraded discs to a saturated DVD market (before the next format war begins). Would that the benighted music industry had been so lucky. Audiophiles are still stuck with the digital format devised in 1980. (What other thirty-year-old computer technology do you still use?) As a result, many audiophiles are returning to vinyl.
您可以看到，记录介质的历史是由一个首要目标决定的：如何在更小的空间内更详细地捕获更多信息。一种方法是缩短所使用的波长（电视与广播、激光光盘与磁带）；另一个是改进媒体（33 1/3 rpm 乙烯基与 78 rpm 蜡，HDTV 与标准电视）。二十世纪下半叶，音像记录技术日趋成熟的同时，另一种形式的信息技术正在单独发展。
You can see that the history of recording media has been informed by a single overriding aim: how to capture more information in more detail in less space. One way is to shorten the wavelengths used (television versus radio, laserdiscs versus magnetic tape); another is to refine the medium (33 1/3 rpm vinyl versus 78 rpm wax, HDTV versus standard television). While audio-video recording technology was maturing during the latter half of the twentieth century, another form of information technology was developing separately.
图 6-15。复用。波形广播仅受想象力的限制。正如载波提供信号施加的基础（见上文）一样，信号本身也可以用作第二个信号的载波，就像立体声“复用”中一样。该信号又可以用作第三信号（第四波形）的载波。一些窄播音乐系统以这种方式运行，它们的信号承载在调频立体声信号上。数据通常以这种方式传输。多路复用很难想象，但它确实有效。
Figure 6-15. MULTIPLEXING. Wave form broadcasting is limited only by the imagination. Just as the carrier wave supplies the base on which the signal is imposed (see above) so the signal itself can be used as a carrier for a second signal, as it is in stereo “multiplexing.” That signal, in turn, can be used as the carrier for a third signal (a fourth waveform). Some narrowcast music systems have operated this way, their signal carried piggyback on an FM stereo signal. Data are often transmitted this way. Multiplexing is hard to visualize, but it works.
计算机内存和信息存储始于 20 世纪 40 年代，使用古老的真空管，该真空管在无线电行业中投入使用。在接下来的三十年里，计算机技术人员尝试了各种各样的媒体，以寻求更高的效率和容量。由于计算机不是消费产品，因此引入了许多专有信息存储技术，使用了一段时间，然后被丢弃（尽管最古老的穿孔卡可能仍在某处使用）。从 20 世纪 60 年代开始，磁带被证明是信息交换的有用标准，尽管磁带的线性特性被证明是令人畏惧的访问障碍。IBM 推出磁盘1956年解决了访问问题。随着 1971 年“软盘”的推出，微型计算机革命的基石之一已经奠定。
Computer memory and information storage began in the 1940s using the venerable vacuum tube, pressed into service from the radio industry. During the next thirty years, computer technicians experimented with a wide variety of media in search of ever greater efficiency and capacity. Because computers were not a consumer product, a number of proprietary information storage technologies were introduced, used for a while, then discarded (although the oldest, the punched card, may still be in use somewhere). Beginning in the 1960s, magnetic tape proved to be a useful standard for information interchange, although the linear characteristic of tape proved a daunting access barrier. IBM’s introduction of the magnetic disk in 1956 solved that access problem. With the introduction of the “floppy” disk in 1971 one of the cornerstones of the microcomputer revolution had been laid.
图 6-16。视频分辨率。_ _ 顶行将图像的分辨率等同于比较区域。底行试图描述像素化方面的差异。旧的 NTSC 规范被用作“标准”(1.00)。这些数字表示与“标准”相比增加或减少的百分比。比较图 2-43 和 2-44，以充分了解电影和电视分辨率之间的差异。
Figure 6-16. VIDEO RESOLUTION. The top row equates the resolution of the image to a comparative area. The bottom row attempts to describe the differences in terms of pixelization. The old NTSC specification is used as the “standard” (1.00). The numbers indicate the percentage increase or decrease from the “standard.” Compare Figures 2-43 and 2-44 for a full understanding of the differences between film and television resolution.
计算机人员很快就看到了新激光记录技术的信息存储能力。在激光光盘推出后的几年内，该技术已适应于比特和字节以及图像和音乐的记录和存储。CD-ROM（只读光盘存储器）由飞利浦和索尼于 1985 年推出，预示着计算机和媒体、信息技术和记录技术即将结合。
Computer folks were quick to see the information storage capabilities of the new laser recording technology. Within a few years of the introduction of the laserdisc, the technology had been adapted to the recording and storage of bits and bytes as well as images and music. The CD-ROM (for Compact Disc-Read Only Memory), introduced in 1985 by Philips and Sony, heralded the impending union of computers and media, information technology and recording technology.
就音频和视频人员而言，他们开始意识到计算机人员的哲学可以为他们提供一些东西：总而言之，数字化。计算机技术人员很久以前就放弃了模拟模型。该行业的成功基于数字化现实。通过将世界简化为最基本的符号（二进制数字系统的 Is 和 Os），他们正在使这个世界变得可以无限操纵。为什么？编码系统越简单，就越容易处理。八十年代初，音频和视频技术专家掀起了热潮。
For their part, audio and video people were beginning to realize that the philosophy of the computer folks had something to offer them: in a word, digitization. Computer technologists had long ago given up on the analog model. The success of the industry had been based on the digital approach to reality. By reducing the world to its most elemental symbols—the Is and Os of the binary number system—they were on their way to making that world infinitely manipulable. Why? The simpler the coding system, the easier it is to process. In the early eighties, the audio and video technologists caught the fever.
口无心无，
心闻鬼猜……
【《春秋》】
Nor mouth had, no nor mind, expressed
What heart heard of, ghost guessed …
[“Spring and Fall”]
杰拉德·曼利·霍普金斯多年前写下了这些台词，当时电影艺术刚刚起步。现在，音频和视频技术人员和艺术家可以享受他们的祖先梦想的东西：完全控制他们的现实版本。一旦图像和声音被数字化，它们在屏幕上和通过扬声器的表现就仅受到描述它们的计算机程序的复杂性的限制。布莱斯·帕兰 (Brice Parain) 观察到：
Gerard Manley Hopkins wrote these lines years ago, just as the art of film was beginning. Now audio and video techies and artists could enjoy what their forebears had only dreamed of: complete control of their versions of reality. Once images and sounds were digitized, their representations on screen and through the speaker were limited only by the sophistication of the computer programs that described them. Brice Parain had observed:
这个标志迫使我们通过其意义来看待一个物体。
THE SIGN FORCES US TO SEE AN OBJECT THROUGH ITS SIGNIFICANCE.
但如果符号是量化的，我们可以添加一个推论：
But if the sign is quantified, we can add a corollary:
符号的意义仅受签名者的想象力的限制。
The significance of the sign is limited only by the imagination of the signer.
当我们从最早的照片和留声机中追溯其历史的图像和声音与文学的文字（和数字）以相同的媒介呈现时，一种结合就成为可能。这是第 7 章的主题。
And when the images and sounds, whose history we have traced from the earliest photographs and phonographs, are represented in the same medium as the words (and numbers) of literature, a union is possible. This is the subject of Chapter 7.
广播和唱片
Radio and Records
有趣的是，广播和电视在结构上并没有太大区别。1948 年以来美国电视的审美和形式历史与 1922 年至 1948 年间广播的历史是一致的（尽管自从网络电视出现以来，广播被迫在形式上专业化）。从某种意义上说，谈论包括两者在内的“广播”比对两者进行过分区分更有用。两者都发挥着调解我们周围世界的基本社交功能。以前孤立的个人和社区与中心来源建立了相对密切的联系（如果彼此之间没有联系的话）。这是文化模式的根本转变。问题在于这些媒体是单向的。
Interestingly, there is not all that much difference structurally between radio and television. The esthetic and formal history of television since 1948 in the U.S. is consistent with the history of radio between 1922 and 1948 (although, since the advent of network television, radio has been forced to specialize formally). In a sense, it is more useful to speak of “broadcasting,” which includes both, than to differentiate too strongly between the two. Both serve the essential socializing function of mediating the world around us. Formerly isolated individuals and communities are brought into relatively intimate contact with a central source (if not with each other). This was a radical shift in cultural patterns. The problem is that these media are unidirectional.
任何曾经通过电视作为代孕母亲看着婴儿成长为孩子的人都可以证明电子媒体的非凡力量。帮助创造新的需求（一方面是芭比娃娃或授权的早餐麦片，另一方面是持续的虚构刺激或无处不在的人声），灌输共同的价值观，以及定义文化的总体形态，电视和广播无可比拟。印刷媒体，因为它们没有人的存在他们自己的力量，因为读者控制着体验，并且因为必须主动解码或阅读，所以他们的力量不及电子媒体的十分之一；电影也不是，虽然它确实存在并且严格来说不需要被解码，但它仍然是一种独立的体验：它发生在电影院，而不是在家里。
Anyone who has ever watched an infant grow into a child with television as a surrogate mother can testify to the remarkable power of the electronic media. In helping to create new needs (for Barbie Dolls or licensed breakfast cereal on the one hand, or continual fictional stimulation or the omnipresence of a human voice on the other), in inculcating shared values, and in defining the general shape of the culture, television and radio have no equals. The print media, because they do not have a human presence of their own, because the reader controls the experience, and because they must be actively decoded or read, have not a tenth the power of the electronic media; nor does film, which, although it does have a presence and need not, strictly speaking, be decoded, nevertheless stands as a separate experience: it takes place in the movie house, not in the home.
这种基本力量在当代广播中可能比在电视中更清楚地看到，因为广播更容易被理解（也就是说，实际上没有必要看它）。在这方面，广播仍然是电视的典范，与电影相比，电视媒体更注重声音而不是图像。
This elemental force may be more clearly seen in contemporary radio than in television, since radio can be apprehended so much more easily (that is, it is not necessary actually to look at it). In this respect, radio still serves as a model for television, a medium which, in contrast to film, puts more emphasis on the sound component than on the image.
广播的根本目的不仅是讲故事和传达信息，而且是创造一个普遍的听觉环境。最终的产品是穆扎克，一种精心设计和编程的音乐的连续流，旨在创造一种特定的情绪：声音作为建筑而不是意义。许多当代广播，无论是谈话还是音乐，都倾向于这个方向。死寂的空间是令人憎恶的；正如任何磁盘骑师都知道的那样，重要的是持续的流动。从心理上来说，广播具有“抚摸”的功能：它是人造的，但却是非常需要的陪伴。同样，许多电视节目都是为了配合当天的潮流而设计的。矛盾的是，视觉信息虽然常常有用，但却不是必需的。没有特别需要观看脱口秀或电视新闻，并且大多数电视剧通常无需视觉输入即可理解。因此，人们同时“读”报纸和“看”电视的情况并不少见。
The essential purpose of radio is not only to tell stories and convey information but also to create a pervasive aural environment. The ultimate product of this is Muzak, a continuous stream of carefully designed and programmed music constructed to create a specific mood: sound as architecture rather than meaning. Much of contemporary radio, whether talk or music, tends in this direction. Dead space is to be abhorred; what is important, as any disk jockey knows, is the continuous flow. Psychologically, radio serves a “stroking” function: it is artificial but very much needed company. Likewise, much of television is designed to accompany the flow of the day. Visual information, paradoxically, although often useful, is not necessary. There is no particular need to watch a talk show or television news, and most television drama is generally comprehensible without visual input. As a result, it is not uncommon for people to “read” a newspaper and “watch” television simultaneously.
在商业广播历史的早期，很明显个性的概念将主导媒体。广播比电影更能增强名人的影响力，因为“综艺”节目让明星摆脱了虚构的、人为的角色，可以扮演“他们自己”。广播节目往往与其明星没有什么区别。其基本形式是从歌舞杂耍中继承来的，但现在司仪主导了整个过程。杰克·本尼、乔治·伯恩斯和格雷西·艾伦、弗雷德·艾伦、宾·克罗斯比、埃德加·伯根和查理·麦卡锡以及《Easy Aces》都遵循了明确的形式——其基本特征是虚构和真实元素的无缝编织。
It became clear early in the history of commercial radio that the concept of personality would dominate the medium. Even more than film, radio heightened the effect of celebrity because the “variety” program allowed stars to be free of fictional, artificial roles and to play “themselves.” Radio shows were often indistinguishable from their stars. The basic form had been taken over from vaudeville, but the master of ceremonies now dominated the proceedings. Jack Benny, George Burns and Gracie Allen, Fred Allen, Bing Crosby, Edgar Bergen and Charlie McCarthy, and Easy Aces all followed a well-defined form—the basic characteristic of which was a seamless weave of fictional and real elements.
明星们的角色简单易辨：本尼的吝啬、格莱德奇特的逻辑、弗雷德·艾伦朴素的讽刺——这些特征构成了节目的骨架。在每一个例子中，明星都是他自己，也是情节中的演员。广播节目本身是皮兰德尔式的转折常常是情节的一个元素，至今仍引起广播鉴赏家的兴趣。
The personas of the stars were simple and easily identified: Benny’s stinginess, Grade’s peculiar logic, Fred Allen’s homespun sarcasm—and these characteristics formed the skeletons of the shows. In each case, the star was himself, as well as an actor in a plot. The radio show itself was quite often an element of the plot, a Pirandellian twist that still intrigues connoisseurs of radio.
一个常见的情节——可能是因为这是每个作家的噩梦——开始的前提是，距离播出仅“x”分钟，这位明星突然发现本周的节目没有剧本。半个小时后，就已经不重要了。艾伯特·布鲁克斯对广播喜剧形式的精彩模仿《艾伯特·布鲁克斯秀》就使用了这个情节。在通常非常薄弱的情节中，介绍了一群配角，客串明星，歌手，轮流与明星一起表演，然后继续前进。弗雷德·艾伦（Fred Allen）的“艾伦巷”可能是这种基本技术最明显的例子。
A common plot—possibly because it was every writer’s nightmare—began with the premise that with just “x” minutes to airtime the star suddenly discovers there is no script for this week’s program. Half an hour later, it doesn’t matter anymore. Albert Brooks’s brilliant parody of the radio comedy form, The Albert Brooks Show, uses this plot. During the course of the usually very thin plot, a parade of supporting players, a guest star, a singer, were introduced, did their turn with the star, then moved on. Fred Allen’s “Allen’s Alley” was probably the most blatant example of this basic technique.
由于没有视觉现实来分散对故事情节的注意力，广播具有压缩叙事时间和空间的特殊能力。电影术语“蒙太奇”不适用，因为关节是无法检测到的。音乐术语“segue”更合适：广播片段连续而轻松地不间断地相互跟随。至少在喜剧和综艺节目中，这位明星可以通过与另一位演员的“角色”简短场景，从对观众的欢迎词转变为商业广告，然后毫不犹豫地再次回到剧情中。尽管在电视中实现起来要困难得多，但这种转场技术对于新媒体来说是一个重要的模型，其中“导入”是一种重要的手段。
Because there was no visual reality to distract from the story line, radio had a peculiar ability to compress narrative time and space. The cinematic term “montage” isn’t applicable because the joints were undetectable. The musical term “segue” is more appropriate: radio segments followed each other continually and easily without a break. On the comedy and variety programs, at least, the star could move from a word of welcome to the audience through a brief scene “in character” with another actor into a commercial announcement and back out into the plot again without skipping a beat. Although it was much less easily accomplished in television, this segue technique was an important model for the newer medium, in which “lead-ins” are an essential device.
虽然戏剧节目与广播喜剧具有相同的自由度，但他们在使用它时更加谨慎。人们认为必须保持某种现实主义的外观来支持戏剧性的气氛。广播剧有两种：“严肃”戏剧，例如可以在勒克斯广播剧院、《内殿》、《悬疑》以及最重要的奥森·威尔斯公司的水星剧院听到的戏剧；和“连续剧”是迄今为止占主导地位的戏剧形式，也是广播对戏剧叙事技术最重要的贡献。连续剧（既可以是喜剧，也可以是戏剧）可以追溯到1929 年《阿莫斯与安迪》的首映。连续剧将注意力集中在连续的角色上，并允许戏剧节目与喜剧节目一样挖掘出丰富的个性。《影子》、《独行侠》、《吹口哨》和《大侦探福尔摩斯》等连续剧以无穷无尽的情节展现了引人注目的虚构人物。在日间广播中，肥皂剧的类型进一步完善了该连续剧的概念。与晚上的电视剧不同，这些白天的家庭剧讲述着永无休止的故事。部分原因是他们无休无止的，由于情节令人上瘾，广播肥皂剧一直延续到电视时代，直到五十年代末才消失。
While dramatic programs had much the same freedom as radio comedies, they were more circumspect in using it. It was felt that some semblance of realism had to be maintained to support the dramatic mood. Radio dramas were of two kinds: “serious” plays, such as could be heard on Lux Radio Theatre, Inner Sanctum, Suspense, and—most important—The Mercury Theatre, Orson Welles’s company; and “serials,” by far the dominant dramatic form and radio’s most important contribution to dramatic narrative technique. Serials (which could as easily be comic as dramatic) dated from the premiere of Amos ’n’ Andy in 1929. Serials focused attention on continuing characters and allowed dramatic programs to tap the same rich vein of personality as the comedy shows. Such serials as The Shadow, The Lone Ranger, The Whistler, and Sherlock Holmes presented striking fictional personalities couched in an endless variety of plots. On daytime radio, the genre of the Soap Opera further refined the concept of the serial. Unlike their evening counterparts, these daytime domestic dramas told never-ending stories. Partly as a consequence of their endless, addictive plots, radio Soap Operas lasted well into the television age, not disappearing until the late fifties.
当电视采用这两种形式时，词汇变得更加具体。更狭义地定义，电视“连续剧”在连续的故事中呈现连续的个性，就像广播肥皂剧一样，而电视“连续剧”在不同的故事中呈现相同的角色，每个故事本身都是完整的，遵循晚间的形式广播连续剧。
When television adopted the two forms, the vocabulary became more specific. More narrowly defined, the television “serial” presents a continuing personality in a continuing story, as the radio Soap Operas did, whereas the television “series” presents the same characters in different stories, each complete in itself, following the form of the evening radio serials.
到了三十年代初期，广播娱乐的范围已经很完整了。在接下来的十五年里，情况几乎没有变化。喜剧和音乐综艺节目占据了电视节目表的主导地位；新闻和体育赛事占用了相当长的时间；游戏节目和偶尔的脱口秀，以及肥皂剧、连续剧和偶尔的严肃戏剧，占据了剩余的空域。
By the early thirties, the spectrum of radio entertainment was complete; it changed little during the next fifteen years. Comedy and musical variety programs dominated the network schedules; news and sports events took up considerable time; game shows and occasional talk shows, together with soap operas, serials, and occasional serious drama, filled the remainder of the airspace.
然而，在 20 世纪 50 年代，电视网将注意力转向了利润更高的电视媒体，而广播则做出了回应，退到了防御地位。自从 KDKA 于 1920 年建立第一批观众以来，非网络独立地方电台的大部分节目表一直以音乐和谈话为主。随着网络对广播失去兴趣，这种节目模式重新出现。
In the 1950s, however, the networks turned their attention to the even more profitable medium of television, and radio responded by retreating to a defensible position. Ever since KDKA found the first audience in 1920, the major part of the schedules of non-network, independent local stations had always been dominated by music and talk. As the networks lost interest in radio, this programming pattern re-emerged.
此外，随着现代营销技术开始要求特定受众投放广告，广播电台开始专业化，而不是提供各种娱乐服务的混合。相对大量的潜在无线电频道促进了这一发展。现在，无论规模大小，美国城市的十五或二十个广播电台中至少有一个致力于以下主要专业：所有新闻、谈话和电话、说唱、历史摇滚、中庸之道、乡村音乐和西部音乐以及灵魂音乐。较大的城市通常也有播放古典音乐和爵士乐的电台。尽管这些电视台服务于少数族裔，但它们的观众通常是“高档”的——也就是说，在较高收入阶层中占很大比重，因此对广告商很有吸引力。
In addition, as modern marketing techniques began to demand specific audiences for advertisements, radio stations began to specialize instead of offering a mix of various entertainment services. This development was facilitated by the relatively large number of potential radio channels. An American city of any size now counts among its fifteen or twenty radio stations at least one devoted to each of the following major specialties: all-news, talk and call-in, rap, historical rock, middle-of-the-road, country-and-western, and soul music. Larger cities often have stations that play classical music and jazz as well. Although these stations serve small minorities, their audiences are usually “upscale”—that is, heavily weighted in the higher income brackets, and therefore attractive to advertisers.
作为一种媒介，光盘有可能像广播一样呈现多种多样的节目。但实际上，唱片业本质上是音乐产业的仆人。由于广播喜剧和戏剧基本上已经消亡，因此记录此类表演的市场很小。然而，自从广播消亡以来，偶尔会有一些作品脱颖而出——利用了广播在其鼎盛时期无法使用的复杂的混音和编辑技术。火象乐队的专辑戏剧、迈克·尼科尔斯和伊莱恩·梅、彼得·塞勒斯、阿尔伯特·布鲁克斯、乔治·卡林和史蒂夫·马丁就是例子。
As a medium, discs have the potential to present as much variety of programming as radio. In actuality, however, the recording industry is essentially a servant of the music industry. Because radio comedy and drama have largely died out, the market for such performances on record is small. Nevertheless, since the death of radio, there have been occasional productions—utilizing the elaborate techniques of mixing and editing that were unavailable to radio in its heyday—that stand out. The albums of the Firesign Theatre, Mike Nichols and Elaine May, Peter Sellers, Albert Brooks, George Carlin, and Steve Martin are examples.
对于音乐而言，现代录音技术的影响与灵活电子乐器的发展相结合产生了深远的影响。从美学和经济角度来看，音乐现在更像是一种录音艺术，而不是一种表演艺术，这一发展以晚期迪斯科/早期说唱技术为代表，其中包括将“播放”唱片作为表演的一部分。
As for music, the influence of modern recording techniques combined with the development of flexible electronic instrumentation has had a profound effect. Both esthetically and economically, music is now more a recording art than a performance art, a development emblematized by the late-Disco/early-Rap technique which involved “playing” records as part of the performance.
唱片和收音机提供了包装音乐商品的手段，以便更有效地销售它们，并且随着录音技术随着磁带和高保真电路的出现而迅速发展，很明显唱片为音乐家提供了意想不到的灵活性。
The record and radio provided means to package musical commodities so they could be sold more efficiently and, as the technology of recording developed rapidly with the advent of tape and high-fidelity circuitry, it became clear that the record offered musicians an undreamed-of flexibility.
起初，这种新的自由度只是带来了 20 世纪 50 年代流行音乐的双轨花招。莱斯·保罗和玛丽·福特的唱片在这方面具有里程碑意义。然后多轨录音系统开始产生更复杂的结果。1967 年，披头士乐队的佩珀军士的孤独之心俱乐部乐队专辑取得的巨大成功标志着一个转折点。该专辑中的大部分剪辑都经过了高度“加工”，以至于无法现场表演。从那时起，音乐被“创作”的次数和“演奏”的次数一样多。让-吕克·戈达尔在他 1968 年的滚石乐队电影《一加一》中研究了这一现象。
At first, this new latitude resulted only in the gimmickry of double-tracking that characterized much popular music in the 1950s. The records of Les Paul and Mary Ford were landmarks in this respect. Then multiple-track recording systems began to yield more sophisticated results. The remarkable success of The Beatles’ Sergeant Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band album in 1967 marked a turning point. Most of the cuts on that album were so highly “worked” that they couldn’t be performed live. From that point on, music has been “built” as often as it has been “played.” Jean-Luc Godard investigated this phenomenon in his 1968 film of the Rolling Stones, One Plus One.
唱片中的进步流行音乐的发展与 20 世纪 60 年代广播的发展密切相关。FM 收音机的声音再现效果明显优于 AM，最初由埃德温·H·阿姆斯特朗 (Edwin H. Armstrong) 于 1933 年开发。他预见到收音机将向新的、更加忠实的系统进行重大转变，但该公司负责人 David Sarnoff近乎垄断的美国广播公司却另有决定。萨尔诺夫对电视营销更感兴趣，他认为调频会与电视争夺急需的资金，并竭尽全力阻止人们接受新的广播技术。他一度获得了成功。
The development of progressive popular music on record was closely linked with the evolution of radio in the 1960s. FM radio, which provides sound reproduction notably superior to that of AM, had first been developed by Edwin H. Armstrong in 1933. He had foreseen a major conversion of radio to the new, much more faithful system, but David Sarnoff, head of the near-monopoly Radio Corporation of America, decided otherwise. Sarnoff, who was more interested in the marketing of television, felt that FM would compete with television for badly needed capital, and did his best to block the acceptance of the new radio technology. He was successful for a time.
阿姆斯特朗在三十年代末成功地开始了自己的实验性调频广播，但电视和调频不仅在资本方面展开竞争，而且还在争夺相同的高水平频率。最初，VHF 频率的通道 1 已预留给 FM。战后，联邦通信委员会将调频频率进一步提高到频谱上，要求进行彻底的重组，并迫使调频重新开始。经过长期的法律斗争后，阿姆斯特朗自杀了。
Armstrong managed to start his own experimental FM broadcasts in the late thirties, but television and FM were in competition not only for capital but also for the same high-level frequencies. Originally, channel 1 of the VHF frequencies had been set aside for FM. After the war, the Federal Communications Commission shifted the FM frequencies further up the spectrum, requiring a complete retooling and forcing FM to begin all over again. After long legal battles, Armstrong committed suicide.
多年来，调频实际上由调幅网络和独立电台主导。几乎所有的调频节目都是调幅广播的重复。然而，1966 年，FCC 做出了一项决定，要求 FM 电台所有者（大多数情况下是 AM 企业家）将 FM 与 AM 分开编程。第一次，FM 的潜力得以充分发挥。更忠实的广播媒体很快在新的前卫摇滚音乐中找到了合适的主题，此后两者迅速共生发展。尽管最初它的受众群体比 AM 少，但 FM 吸引了更多成熟的听众，并为广告商提供了一个有吸引力的市场。
For years, FM was effectively dominated by AM networks and independent stations. Almost all FM programming was a duplication of AM transmission. In 1966, however, the FCC handed down a decision requiring owners of FM stations (who in most cases were AM entrepreneurs) to program FM separately from AM. For the first time, the full potential of FM could be realized. The more faithful radio medium soon found its proper subject matter in the new progressive rock music, and the two developed rapidly and symbiotically thereafter. Although at first it served smaller audiences than AM, FM attracted more sophisticated listeners and provided an attractive market for advertisers.
到七十年代末，调频已经超越调幅，成为领先的广告广播媒体，这是在不到十五年的时间里取得的非凡成就。自 1980 年以来，这两种格式几乎根据其功能划分了广播工作：AM 专注于谈话和新闻，FM 专注于音乐。1980 年，FCC 批准了期待已久的 AM 立体声系统，采取了不同寻常的步骤，规定了几种竞争技术系统之一。其目的是纠正调频和调幅之间的平衡，但新技术从未流行起来。又一项失败的技术。听众没有投资 AM 立体声，因为它只是复制了他们已有的 FM 立体声。
By the late seventies, FM had surpassed AM as the leading radio medium for advertising, a remarkable feat in fewer than fifteen years. Since 1980 the two formats have divided the work of radio pretty much according to their capabilities: AM concentrates on talk and news, FM on music. In 1980 the FCC approved a long-awaited system of AM stereo, taking the unusual step of prescribing one of several competing technological systems. The aim was to redress the balance between FM and AM, but the new technology never took off. One more failed technology. Listeners didn’t invest in AM stereo, since it simply duplicated the FM stereo they already had.
到了世纪之交，由于美国联邦通信委员会放宽了所有权规定，美国绝大多数广播电台都由少数公司拥有，节目由中央地点控制。广播的“本地”价值已被大幅削弱。
By the turn of the century, thanks to the FCC’s relaxation of ownership regulations, the vast majority of broadcast radio stations in the U.S. were owned by just a handful of companies, with the programming controlled from central locations. The “local” value of radio had been decimated.
近来，美国推出了一种名为“HD Radio”的系统。“HD”是这十年来的流行词，但 HD Radio 与卓越的高清音频无关。它只是 iBiquity Digital 公司开发的多路复用系统的商标品牌名称，FCC 于 2002 年将其采纳为美国标准。它允许传统广播公司在其当前分配的带宽上承载额外的数字频道（经过严重压缩）。当然，你必须买一台新收音机。也许您已经厌倦了五年前购买的卫星收音机。它总是与销售硬件有关。
In the late oughts a system called “HD Radio” was introduced in the U.S. “HD” is the buzzword of the decade but HD Radio has nothing to do with superior high-definition audio. It is simply the trademarked brand name for a multiplexing system developed by the iBiquity Digital company, which the FCC adopted as a U.S. standard in 2002. It allows traditional broadcasters to carry additional digital channels—heavily compressed—on their currently allotted bandwidth. Of course, you have to buy a new radio. Maybe you are already bored with the satellite radio you bought five years ago. It’s always about selling hardware.
电视和视频
Television and Video
电视更像是广播，而不是不同之处。与广播一样，流量的概念至关重要。两种媒体的产品在较小的节目单元和较大的日间或晚间节目单元中都是连续不断的。此外，由于电视图像的质量相对较差（与戏剧电影相比），电视严重依赖于其音频组件。低分辨率、平淡的对比度、广播（或有线）接收的困难都会降低电视图像的有效性。视觉信息的密度较低，但编程密度、压缩排序和持续、繁忙的音频在一定程度上弥补了这一点：必须不惜一切代价避免死区和死区；流动必须继续。
Television is more like radio than it is different from it. As with radio, the concept of flow is all-important; the product of both media is continuous and continuing, within both the smaller unit of the show and the larger unit of a day’s or evening’s programming. Moreover, because of the relatively poor quality of the televised image (as compared with theatrical film), television depends heavily on its audio component. The low resolution, the flat contrast, the difficulties of broadcast (or cable) reception all work to reduce the effectiveness of the television image. The density of visual information is low, which is made up for in part by a density of programming, compressed sequencing, and insistent, busy audio: dead space and dead time are to be avoided at all costs; the flow must continue.
1961年，时任联邦通信委员会主席的牛顿·米诺因指责美国电视是“一片巨大的荒地”而声名狼藉。这句话卡住了。即使在电视发展了四代之后的今天，“荒原”仍然是大多数对这种处于美国生活中心的娱乐和信息媒体的批评者选择的隐喻。也许我们将坏消息归咎于信使。如果电视从未被发明，广播将继续发挥其作为将我们社会凝聚在一起的粘合剂的作用，牛顿·米诺很可能会在 1961 年发表同样的演讲——只不过是关于广播的。
In 1961, Newton Minow, then Chairman of the Federal Communications Commission, gained a certain notoriety when he indicted American television as “a vast wasteland.” The phrase stuck. Even now, four television generations later, the “wasteland” is the metaphor of choice for most critics of this entertainment and information medium that is at the center of American life. Perhaps we are blaming the messenger for the bad news. If television had never been invented, radio would have continued its role as the glue that holds our society together, and Newton Minow very likely would have made the same speech in 1961—but about radio.
然而，这两种媒体之间存在着显着的符号差异：半个多世纪以来主导我们生活的“插图广播”需要与它的纯音频表弟不同的注意力。电视既具有图像轨道又具有音轨，这一事实迫使制片人选择具有视觉成分的材料，并引诱观众进入可怕的整夜瘫痪状态，“沙发土豆”一词生动地反映了这一点。吊诡的是，正是因为电视的影像轨迹如此薄弱，媒体才要求我们对它着迷。我们需要努力去理解它。这就是马歇尔·麦克卢汉称电视为“酷媒体”时所要表达的意思。
There is, however, a significant semiotic difference between the two media: the “illustrated radio” which has dominated our lives for more than half a century demands a different kind of our attention from its pure audio cousin. The very fact that television has an image track as well as a sound track forces producers to choose material with a visual component and lures viewers into a scary evening-long paralysis which is vividly reflected by the phrase “couch potato.” Paradoxically, just because the image track of television is so weak, the medium demands our obsession with it. We need to work hard to comprehend it. This is what Marshall McLuhan was getting at when he called television a “cool medium.”
“这个标志迫使我们通过它的意义来看待一个物体。”
“THE SIGN FORCES US TO SEE AN OBJECT THROUGH ITS SIGNIFICANCE.”
在数字转换之前，美国每个市场区域都有 82 个广播电视频道。然而，由于技术原因，其中可用的还不到一半，而且实际上，很少有城市拥有超过 12 个可用的无线站。而且，仅八十二个中的十二个是强大的甚高频电台；另外七十个在 UHF 频段上运行。12 个 VHF 频道中只有 7 个在任何一个地区运营（在主要城市中心以外的大多数地区运营的频道要少得多），这一事实使得商业广播网络——NBC、CBS、ABC 和 FOX——在经济上和经济上都占据了广播电视的主导地位。自 1946 年电视商业化诞生以来，它们的影响力已有所减弱，但它们仍然明显主导着媒体，因为它们还控制着许多有线频道。尽管现在的数字广播系统使任何电台可以承载的频道数量成倍增加，但控制权仍然掌握在这些电台的所有者手中。
Until the digital switchover, there were eighty-two broadcast television channels available in each market area of the United States. For technical reasons, however, fewer than half of these were usable, and in practice, few cities had more than twelve over-the-air stations available. Moreover, only twelve of the eighty-two were powerful VHF stations; the other seventy, operating on the UHF frequency band. Only seven of the twelve VHF channels operated in any one area (and far fewer in most areas outside the major urban centers), a fact that allowed the commercial broadcast networks—NBC, CBS, ABC, and FOX—to dominate the airwaves both economically and esthetically since the commercial birth of television in 1946. Although their power has lessened since the cable revolution of the 1980s, they still clearly dominate the medium, as they also control many of the cable channels. Although the digital broadcast system now in place multiplies the number of channels that can be carried by any station, control remains with the owners of those stations.
有线电视已经顺理成章地发展成为一种特殊兴趣的媒介——体育、电影、儿童节目、艺术——因此我们文化社会化的工作仍然主要由广播网络承担。在有线电视网络中，只有 MTV、CNN 及其竞争对手像广播网络一样影响着我们的文化。自 20 世纪 90 年代以来，FCC 的裁决只会增加所有权的集中度。
Cable television has logically developed as a medium of special interests—sports, movies, children’s programming, the arts—so the job of socializing our culture still rests mainly with the broadcast networks. Among the cable networks, only MTV, CNN, and their competitors affect our culture in the way that the broadcast networks still do. FCC rulings since the 1990s have only increased the concentration of ownership.
广播电视的本质有两个基本限制，并使得网络占据主导地位：一是可用频道数量有限，二是时间限制。电视节目导演每周只有 168 个小时可以自由支配，而且他的节目必须与其他电视网的节目直接竞争。报纸读者可以购买几份报纸并按顺序仔细阅读。然而，电视观众一次只能观看一个网络新闻节目，并且当他观看该节目时，他很可能会错过其他节目。（当然，真正的新闻迷会记录他们没有看到的内容。）
Two basic limitations govern the nature of broadcast television and allow networks to dominate: one is the limited number of channels available, the other the limit of time. A television program director has only 168 hours at his disposal each week and his programs, moreover, must be in direct competition with those of the other networks. A newspaper reader can buy several papers and read them all carefully in sequence. A television viewer, however, can watch only one network news program at a time, and while he is watching it he is likely to be missing the others. (Of course, true news junkies record what they’re not watching.)
由于时间和渠道的固有限制，商业网络仍然对电波具有有效的控制权。网络节目每天早上 7 点开始，一直持续到第二天至少凌晨 2 点，间或有本地节目的休息。
Because of the inherent limitations of time and channels, the commercial networks still have effective control over the airwaves. Network programming begins at 7 am each day and lasts, with occasional breaks for local shows, until at least 2 am the next day.
在 1996 年《电信法》颁布之前，各网络不得直接拥有超过少数几个本地电台。在此之前，联邦通信委员会的几项裁决旨在增强当地附属机构对网络的独立性（例如七十年代初的黄金时段访问规则，为非网络节目留出一定的时间），但附属机构与网络的连接却受到限制。利润丰厚，而且他们不会经常忽视网络的意愿。
Until the Telecommunications Act of 1996, the networks were not allowed to own outright more than a handful of local stations. Before then, several FCC rulings were directed to increasing the local affiliates’ independence from networks (such as the Prime Time Access rule of the early seventies, which set aside certain hours for non-network programming), but the affiliates’ connections with networks are lucrative and they do not disregard the wishes of the networks very often.
20 世纪 50 年代初，电视网自己制作了大部分节目，通常与广告公司（以及赞助商）他们已经把整个时间块直接卖给了他们。*一般来说，他们不再向广告商出售大段的时间或整个节目，因为他们发现每小时 15% 到 23% 的时间以 10 到 120 秒的小片段进行广告营销更有利可图；20 秒和 30 秒的广告占据主导地位。现在最受欢迎的节目的这一时间的价格超过每分钟 100 万美元，因此一个电视网晚上黄金时段的总收入可能会接近 4000 万美元。
At the beginning in the 1950s, the networks themselves produced most of their programming, often in conjunction with advertising agencies (and sponsors) to whom they had sold an entire time block outright. * As a rule, they no longer sell blocks of time or whole shows to advertisers, having found it more profitable to market the 15 to 23 percent of each hour reserved for advertising in small pieces ranging from 10 to 120 seconds; 20- and 30-second spots dominate. The price of this time is now more than $1 million per minute on the most popular shows, so a network’s gross revenue for one primetime evening schedule could conceivably approach $40 million.
网络可以获得的广告时间价格取决于节目的受欢迎程度（以收视率衡量），尼尔森收视率是最重要的。因此，网络就像当代杂志一样，与其说是在兜售时间，不如说是在兜售特定的受众。结果是，节目从 20 世纪 60 年代初专门针对“美国中产阶级”（大城市和农村地区的中年、中产阶级观众）的节目转变为针对更年轻、更城市、“高档”观众的节目。可支配收入，就像杂志所经历的同样的转变。这一策略使得 ABC 在 20 世纪 70 年代中期能够与 CBS 和 NBC 平起平坐。
The price the network can get for advertising time depends on the show’s popularity as measured by ratings, the Nielsen rating being the most important. The networks, like contemporary magazines, are not therefore selling time so much as they are selling a particular audience. The result has been a shift from programming in the early 1960s devoted to “Middle America”—middle-aged, middle-class viewers in large towns and rural areas—to programming directed at a younger, more urban, “upscale” audience with more disposable income, just the same sort of shift the magazines had undergone. This strategy allowed ABC to gain parity with CBS and NBC in the mid-1970s.
十年后，巴里·迪勒（Barry Diller）用同样的策略将新贵福克斯网络打造成一个盈利的企业；传统网络让他们的人口结构向中年倾斜；迪勒通过吸引他在故事片行业多年熟悉的年轻观众，能够削弱他们的竞争力。在 20 世纪 90 年代，华纳和派拉蒙能够在网络业务中分得一杯羹，他们的网络运营商 WB 和 UPN 几乎专门针对青少年和青春期前的儿童制作节目，他们合并后的继任者 CW 也是如此。
Ten years later, Barry Diller built the upstart FOX network into a profitable business with the same tactics; the traditional networks had allowed their demographics to skew to middle age; Diller was able to undercut them by appealing to the youthful audience he knew so well from his years in the feature film business. In the 1990s Warner and Paramount were able to carve out profitable slivers of the network pie when their network operations, The WB and UPN, geared their programming almost exclusively to teens and preteens, as does their merged successor, CW.
报纸也通过收视率（以发行量来衡量）来确定其广告费，但重要的是，报纸的发行量数字，无论如何按人口统计方式细分，仍然反映在整个报纸上。在电视领域，每个节目都会被评级，因此报纸出版商有能力刊登不受欢迎的内容，而电视节目制作人则必须判断每个节目的经济潜力。
Newspapers determine their advertising rates by ratings, too (as measured in circulation) but, significantly, a newspaper’s circulation figures, no matter how they are broken down demographically, still reflect on the paper as a whole. In television, each show is rated, so that whereas a newspaper publisher can afford to carry unpopular material, a television programmer must judge the economic potential of each individual program.
时间上的微妙变化可以带来收入的巨大增加，这使得电视节目成为一种有趣的观察游戏，而与作为其原材料的节目的内容或价值无关。例如，早在 1974-75 赛季，NBC 就总收视率（连续第 19 年）输给了 CBS，差距还不到尼尔森一个百分点，但这一微小的差距却为获胜者带来了 1750 万美元的价值。1976 年，美国广播公司 (ABC) 聘请了名人芭芭拉·沃尔特斯 (Barbara Walters)，其年薪为当时创纪录的 100 万美元。沃尔特斯所要做的就是将美国广播公司新闻频道的收视率提高一个百分点，以证明这笔钱的合理性。如果她将尼尔森指数提高两个点，ABC 将从这笔交易中获得 100% 的利润。
Subtle shifts in timing can produce huge increases in revenue, which makes television programming an interesting game to observe, quite apart from the content or value of the shows that are its raw material. As long ago as the 1974–75 season, for example, NBC lost out to CBS in total ratings (for the nineteenth year in a row) by less than a single Nielsen point, yet that slight difference was worth $17.5 million to the winner. In 1976 ABC, with thirty fewer affiliates a perennial also-ran until that time, hired personality Barbara Walters at a then record salary of $1 million per year. All Walters had to do to justify this sum was boost the ratings of ABC News by a single point. If she had increased the Nielsen by two points, ABC would have made a 100 percent profit on the deal.
这些电视网制作自己的新闻和公共事务节目主要是为了获得声誉（尽管许多新闻节目获得了可观的收入）。新闻在战略思维中占据重要地位，因为它是网络脱颖而出的主要方式。毕竟娱乐节目是别人制作的。哥伦比亚广播公司（CBS）首先通过其二战新闻报道确立了自己作为全国广播公司（NBC）令人尊敬的挑战者的地位。美国广播公司 (ABC) 获得同等收视率地位的同时，其新闻业务的声望也不断提高。所有电视网也制作自己有利可图的体育节目（以及深夜和清晨的脱口秀节目），但它们的大部分黄金时段娱乐产品都依赖外部制片人。
The networks produce their own news and public affairs programs mainly for the prestige it affords them (even though many news programs draw considerable revenue). News looms large in strategic thinking, since it is the main way that networks differentiate themselves. After all, entertainment programming is produced by others. CBS first established itself as a respectable challenger of NBC through its news coverage of World War II. The rise of ABC to equal ratings status paralleled the increasing prestige of its news operation. All networks produce their own profitable sports programming as well (and late evening and early-morning talk shows), but they rely on outside producers for the bulk of their primetime entertainment product.
新闻业的浪漫继续吸引着网络高管和制片人。随着电视在五六十年代的成熟，它对美国的两个既定机构提出了挑战：电影和报纸。回顾过去，我们可以看到第一代广播公司将其娱乐节目的大部分控制权拱手让给了好莱坞。然而，在新闻方面，他们保持了与报纸业务分离的经济身份，并发展了一种截然不同的新闻业。到 1974 年，电视已经超越报纸这一最古老的大众媒体，成为大多数美国人了解当今事件的主要途径。
The romance of journalism continues to seduce network executives and producers. As television came to maturity in the fifties and sixties, it challenged two established American institutions: the movies and the newspapers. Looking back, we can see that the first generation of broadcasters ceded a large measure of control over their entertainment back to Hollywood. On the news front, however, they maintained economic identities separate from the newspaper business, as well as developing a radically different kind of journalism. By 1974 television had surpassed newspapers, the oldest of the mass media, as the primary means by which most Americans learned of the events of the day.
重要的不是每部节目的总受欢迎程度，而是在该时段或“时段”观看电视的观众所占的比例。例如，如果 ABC 和 CBS 都安排在周三晚上 8 点播放喜剧，那么 NBC 可能会通过动作秀的“反节目”赢得这一时段。此外，由于电视调谐器仍然倾向于遵循尼尔森定律，因此，精彩的节目可以作为需要提升的节目的引入（或较少作为引出）。尽管焦躁不安的观众的现代武器：遥控器无处不在，但惯性却无处不在。
It is not the gross popularity of each show that matters so much as its share of the audience watching television during its time period, or “slot.” If, for example, both ABC and CBS have scheduled comedies for 8 pm Wednesday, NBC might just squeak through to win the period by “counter-programming” with an action show. In addition, a strong show has value as a lead-in (or less frequently as a lead-out) to a program that needs a boost, since television tuners still tend to follow Nielsen’s laws of inertia, despite the ubiquity of restless audiences’ modern weapon: the remote.
网络并不像好莱坞电影公司那样出售娱乐；而是出售娱乐。他们出售观众，观众的规模和质量几乎既取决于节目的内在价值，也取决于节目主管有效安排节目的才能和运气。程序员希望节目能够适应他试图创造的“声音”或“外观”。我们不像“看电视”那么频繁地看节目。结果之一是节目的某些部分比整个节目更重要。通过在整个时段内串接广告而不是像其他一些国家那样将广告集中在节目之间的做法，将节目特殊地分解为离散的片段，强调了这一特征。
Networks don’t sell entertainment, as the Hollywood studios did; they sell audiences, whose size and quality depend almost as much on the talent and luck of the programming executive in placing shows effectively as they do on the inherent value of the shows. The programmer wants a show to fit the “sound” or “look” he is trying to create. We don’t watch a show so often as we “watch television.” One result is that parts of a show are more significant than the show as a whole. This characteristic is emphasized by the peculiar breakdown of shows into discrete segments by the practice of threading advertisements throughout the time slot rather than bunching them between programs, as is done in some other countries.
因此，批评关注的焦点是节目系列，每个节目组都以特定的风格或节奏、对角色的态度、特定的潜台词或回报类型来识别。这些特征根源于电影和广播。在三十年代，电影类型融入了一个类似的系统，然而，尽管采用了双重特征，每部电影都是独立的——既可以单独识别，也可以普遍识别。类型的概念对于电视来说更为重要。
The focus of critical attention, then, is the family of programs, each group identified by a particular style or rhythm, an attitude to character, a specific subtext or type of payoff. These characteristics have their roots in film and radio. In the thirties, film genres fit into a similar system yet, despite the practice of the double feature, each film was separate—individually as well as generically identifiable. The concept of genre is much more important to television.
随着 20 世纪 80 年代有线电视的成熟，这些规则被重新确认而不是修订。特德·特纳 (Ted Turner) 最初从事有线体育节目制作，但在 CNN 取得了最大的成功，CNN 是一家全职新闻网络，迅速发展壮大，挑战广播网络的新闻寡头垄断。频道的多样性使得有线网络运营商能够将每个频道集中在个人的特殊兴趣上，但类型并没有改变。任何有线或卫星频道的节目都源于广播网络电视。（甚至 C-SPAN 对国会和公共政策的报道也与广播公司对 70 年代水门事件以及 50 年代麦卡锡和凯福弗听证会的特别事件报道相呼应。） 剩下的少数有线电视网络仍然回避广告业务，但仅限于PBS 于 20 世纪 70 年代流行的英国连续剧。
As cable television matured in the 1980s, the rules were reconfirmed rather than revised. Ted Turner started with cable sports programming but had his greatest success with CNN, a fulltime news network that very quickly grew to challenge the broadcast networks’ news oligopoly. The multiplicity of channels allowed cable network operators to focus each on an individual special interest, but the genres didn’t change. There is no cable—or satellite—channel whose programming doesn’t have roots in broadcast network television. (Even C-SPAN’s coverage of Congress and public policy echoes the broadcasters’ special-event coverage of Watergate in the seventies and the McCarthy and Kefauver hearings of the fifties.) And the few remaining cable networks that still eschew advertising venture only so far as the British dramatic serial popularized in the 1970s by PBS.
稍后我们将更多地讨论电视在当代生活中的独特地位。同时，让我们回顾一下这种非凡媒介的历史。
We’ll have more to say later about the unique position television holds in contemporary life. Meanwhile, let’s review the history of this remarkable medium.
“广播”：商业
“Broadcasting”: The Business
具有讽刺意味的是，广播的商业潜力几乎是意外地得到了展现。与许多其他业余无线电操作员一样，匹兹堡居民、西屋电气研究员弗兰克·康拉德（Frank Conrad）习惯于传输节目材料（音乐、新闻等）以及与其他“业余无线电爱好者”交谈。
Ironically, the commercial potential of broadcasting was demonstrated almost accidentally. Like many other amateur radio operators, Frank Conrad, a resident of Pittsburgh and a researcher for Westinghouse, was in the habit of transmitting program material—music, news, and so forth—as well as conversing with other “hams.”
1920 年 9 月下旬，匹兹堡的 Joseph Home 百货商店在《匹兹堡太阳报》上刊登了一则广告，呼吁人们关注康拉德的业余广播，并出售可以接收这些广播的“业余无线电设备”。立即得到了回应。西屋公司的官员们知道康拉德的爱好，但从未认真考虑过，现在他们意识到了广播的商业价值。正如埃里克·巴努 (Erik Barnouw) 在其宝贵的广播历史《丰盛之管》( Tube of Plenty , 1975)中所说：
Late in September 1920, the Joseph Home department store in Pittsburgh ran an advertisement in the Pittsburgh Sun that called attention to Conrad’s amateur broadcasts and offered for sale an “Amateur Wireless Set” that could receive them. The response was immediate. Westinghouse officials, who had known of Conrad’s hobby but had never given it much thought, now perceived the commercial value of broadcasting. As Erik Barnouw put it in his invaluable history of broadcasting, Tube of Plenty (1975):
曾经看似一种古怪的爱好，或者一种暴露狂，或者充其量是有远见的人所追求的堂吉诃德式的事业……突然被视为一种合理的商业概念，可以通过销售接收器获得丰厚的利润。
What had seemed an eccentric hobby, or a form of exhibitionism, or at best a quixotic enterprise pursued by visionaries … was suddenly seen as a sound business concept that could yield rich profits through the sale of receivers.
康拉德立即投入工作，建造第一台商用发射机，并于 1920 年 10 月 27 日分配了呼叫字母 KDKA。那个车站仍在运营。
Conrad was immediately put to work building the first commercial transmitter, which on October 27, 1920, was assigned the call letters KDKA. That station still operates.
起初，尽管广播立即取得了成功，但广播仍然被视为刺激购买接收器所需的最低限度的服务，而接收器正是利润所在。美国无线电公司（马可尼原公司的后裔）与 AT&T、西屋电气、通用电气和联合水果公司（该公司很早就发现无线电对于与其广阔的种植园帝国进行通信非常有用）联手，形成RCA集团垄断。
At first, despite the immediate success of radio, broadcasting was still regarded as simply a minimal service necessary to instigate the purchase of receivers, where the profit was. The Radio Corporation of America (the descendant of Marconi’s original company) joined together with AT&T, Westinghouse, General Electric, and the United Fruit Company (who had discovered early on that radio was useful for communicating with their wide-ranging empire of plantations) to form the RCA group monopoly.
就像媒体本身一样，在广播上出售商业时间的做法几乎是偶然发展起来的。AT&T 被分配到市场的“无线电话”领域。为了在不违反垄断协议的情况下参与商业制作，AT&T 在 1922 年发明了他们所谓的“收费广播”。他们不再播放自己的节目，而是简单地将工作室出租给任何希望播放的人：工作室被比喻为“收费广播”。到电话亭，消息的发送者在那里支付账单。纽约的 WEAF 是第一个此类收费站，后来成为国家广播公司的基石。起初反应很小，但最终变得清晰人们不仅会听，还会对广告做出反应，商业广播的成功就得到了保证。
Like the medium itself, the practice of selling commercial time on radio developed almost accidentally. AT&T had been assigned the “radio telephony” sector of the market. In order to become involved in commercial production without breaking their monopoly agreement, AT&T invented what they called “toll radio” in 1922. Instead of broadcasting their own programs, they would simply rent out their studio to whoever wished to broadcast: the studio was likened to a telephone booth, in which the sender of the message pays the bill. WEAF in New York, which later became the cornerstone of the National Broadcasting Company, was the first such toll station. The response was minimal at first, but eventually it became clear that people not only were listening but also would respond to advertising, and the success of commercial broadcasting was assured.
在整个三、四十和五十年代，这种收费系统主导了广播结构，首先是广播，然后是电视。尽管电视网和电视台确实制作了自己的大部分节目，但它们本质上是在向广告商出售时间。这些广告商经常购买大量的时间，由他们的代理机构制作节目——因此，就有了伊帕纳游吟诗人、A&P 吉普赛人、勒克斯广播剧院、科尔盖特喜剧时间等等。
Throughout the thirties, forties, and fifties, this toll system dominated the structure of broadcasting, first in radio, then in television. Although networks and stations did produce much of their own programming, they were essentially in the business of selling time to advertisers. Quite often these advertisers bought large blocks of time and their agencies produced the shows—hence, the Ipana Troubadours, The A&P Gypsies, The Lux Radio Theatre, The Colgate Comedy Hour, and so forth.
渐渐地人们发现，生产只是束缚了资本，而留给独立企业家可以更有利可图。在 20 世纪 60 年代，电视网络开始专注于发行，自己只制作新闻和体育节目，这需要持续的组织，并将大部分黄金时段娱乐产品留给“独立”制作人，讽刺的是，其中许多人是该运动的子公司图片工作室。
Gradually it became clear that production simply tied up capital and could more profitably be left to independent entrepreneurs. During the 1960s, the television networks began to concentrate on distribution, themselves producing only news and sports, which required ongoing organizations, and leaving most of the primetime entertainment product to “independent” producers, many of whom, ironically, were subsidiaries of the motion picture studios.
电视网不仅不必在制作中占用大量资金，而且还可以向节目制作人支付低于成本的费用。这种奇怪的情况之所以成为可能，是因为一个成功的电视节目的总实际价值远远大于其一次性制作成本。制片人希望在节目获得网络认可后，通过向独立电视台重播的联合销售和出口销售来赚取利润。
The networks not only did not have to tie up large amounts of capital in production, but they also got away with paying the producers of the shows less than they cost. This strange state of affairs was made possible because the total real value of a successful television program is significantly greater than its one-time production cost. Producers hope to make their profit margin on syndication sales of reruns to independent stations and export sales after the program has received the network imprimatur.
大约在 1960 年，当这种依赖独立制片人的体系盛行时，网络电视的经济关系也发生了变化。网络仍然向广告商出售时间，但它是以广告播放的实际分钟和秒数来衡量的，而不是节目的小时数。因此，1952 年的广告商可能会在接下来的 9 个月内购买周二晚上黄金时段的一个小时，然后播放他想要赞助的任何节目，以围绕他的商业信息并吸引观众，但到了 1960 年，他不得不购买由独立人士制作并由网络本身控制的特定节目中的三十秒广告时间。这个新系统更加关注收视率。
In about 1960, when this system of relying on independent producers had gained currency, the economic nexus of network television also changed. The networks still sold time to advertisers, but it was measured in terms of actual minutes and seconds of commercials broadcast, not hours of programming. Thus, whereas an advertiser in 1952 might buy an hour of primetime on Tuesday evening for the next nine months and then put whatever programming he felt like sponsoring on the air to surround his commercial messages and attract an audience, by 1960 he was reduced to buying thirty seconds of ad time in a specific show produced by independents and controlled by the networks themselves. This new system focused much more attention on the ratings.
在电视发展的早期，赞助商很可能会资助观众相对较少的节目。他的目标不一定是总收视率，而是声望和影响力。因此，电视的“黄金时代”以诸如霍尔马克名人堂、美国钢铁时刻和阿姆斯特朗圆形剧院等相对不受欢迎的节目为标志。
In the early days of television, a sponsor might very well finance a show that had a relatively small audience. His aim wasn’t necessarily gross ratings points but prestige and influence. Thus, the “Golden Age” of television was marked by such relatively unpopular shows as Hallmark Hall of Fame, The U.S. Steel Hour, and Armstrong Circle Theater.
但现在电视网控制了节目，收视率游戏变得至关重要。不仅各个节目经过仔细排名（排名靠前的节目的广告时间成本可能比排名靠后的节目的广告时间还要高），而且每个电视网的年平均值也成为“成功”或“失败”的指标。 ” 自 1960 年以来的大多数年份中，第一和第二（有时是第三）网络之间的平均收视率差异非常小，在统计上微不足道，但收视心理如此强烈，以至于这种毫无意义的点差仍然可以使广告收入相差数千万美元。
But now that networks were controlling programming, the ratings game became all-important. Not only were individual shows carefully ranked (the cost of advertising time within the top-ranked shows could be sold for more than the time in poorly ranked shows), but also each network’s yearly average became the index of “success” or “failure.” In most years since 1960, the difference in ratings averages between the first and second (and sometimes the third) network has been so small as to be statistically insignificant, but the psychology of ratings has been so obsessive that such meaningless point differences can still make tens of millions of dollars of difference in advertising revenues.
大多数观察家都认为，在收视率制度被废除或垂死之前，网络电视的质量不会发生重大变化。联邦通信委员会或国会都不太可能挑战网络所熟悉的系统。然而，技术的发展现在正在使评级游戏变得过时。首先，如果即使是极少数 DVR 用户也使用他们的机器进行所谓的“时移”，自行决定何时观看任何特定节目，那么收视率竞赛就会变得阴云密布。每个节目都与其他节目（以及预先录制的磁带和光盘）竞争，并且没有总收视率可以向广告商保证该节目甚至被观看：它只是证明有人录制了它，也许会稍后播放，也许不会。此外，当今的 DVR 技术允许观众像阅读杂志或报纸一样跳过广告。
Most observers agree that the quality of network television will not change significantly until the ratings system is either abolished or becomes moribund. It is unlikely that either the FCC or Congress will challenge a system the networks are comfortable with. Yet technological developments are now making the ratings game obsolete. First, if even a significant minority of DVR owners use their machines for what is called “time-shifting,” deciding for themselves when they want to watch any particular program, the ratings race becomes clouded. Each show is in competition with every other show (as well as prerecorded tapes and discs), and no gross rating assures an advertiser that the show is even watched: it simply proves that someone recorded it, maybe to play it back later, maybe not. Moreover, the technology of DVRs today permits viewers to skip advertisements much as they might when reading a magazine or newspaper.
最后，20 世纪 80 年代的有线电视革命不可逆转地改变了美国电视业的架构。（它的姐妹卫星电视对欧洲电视产生了更大的影响。） 20 世纪 80 年代初，《电视指南》列出了三个国家电视网：20世纪80年代末，它列出了三十多个。（在接下来的十年里，这个数字再次翻了一番。）此外，这些新的有线网络都是专业化的。作为一种媒介，电视看起来越来越像杂志，出版商试图吸引特殊利益群体，希望找到有利可图的利基市场。
Finally, the cable revolution of the 1980s irrevocably altered the architecture of the American television industry. (Its sister, satellite television, had an even greater effect on European television.) At the beginning of the 1980s, TV Guide listed three national networks; at the end of the 1980s, it listed more than thirty. (In the next ten years that number doubled yet again.) Moreover, these new cable networks were all specialized. As a medium, television looked more and more like magazines, where publishers try to attract a special-interest group in hopes of finding a profitable niche market.
随着美国有线网络数量的持续增长以及提供更多可能性的卫星系统的加入，网络经济实力已经下降。然而，由于几乎所有有线/卫星频道都是针对特殊利益的，因此广播网络仍然充当我们的公共论坛——将政治体凝聚在一起的粘合剂。*
As the number of cable networks has continued to grow and been joined in the U.S. by satellite systems that offer even more possibilities, network economic power has declined. However, since nearly all the cable/satellite channels are targeted at special interests it is still the broadcast networks that serve as our public forums—the glue that holds the body politic together. *
图 6-17。卫星放置。_ _ 一颗在高度 22,300 英里的轨道上运行的卫星是地球同步卫星；也就是说，它似乎静止地悬挂在头顶上，因为它以与地球表面相同的速度移动。这使得与其通信的工作变得更加简单，因为地球站天线不需要移动来跟踪它。尽管该轨道仅在赤道处的周长就超过 165,000 英里，而且 VSAT（甚小孔径技术）大大缩小了必要的分离角，但轨道已经过度拥挤，各国争夺卫星位置就像争夺电磁位置一样。频谱频率。超过 300 颗通信卫星在该轨道上运行。（注：卫星位置图未按比例绘制。）
Figure 6-17. SATELLITE PLACEMENT. A satellite in orbit at a height of 22,300 miles is geosynchronous; that is, it seems to hang stationary overhead since it is moving at the same speed as the surface of the earth. This makes the job of communicating with it much simpler since the earth station antennas needn’t move to track it. Although the circumference of this orbit at the equator alone is more than 165,000 miles and VSAT (Very Small Aperture Technology) considerably narrows the necessary angle of separation, the track is already over-crowded, and nations contend for satellite locations as they do for electromagnetic spectrum frequencies. More than 300 communications satellites operate in this orbit. (Note: the map of satellite placement is not drawn to scale.)
低地球轨道（“LEO”）卫星还具有许多通信功能。尽管它们仅在短暂停留在地球表面的任何特定位置上空时才有用，但几颗低地球轨道卫星可以组合起来提供扩展服务，因为软件允许它们将信号无缝地从一颗卫星传递到另一颗卫星。这与蜂窝电话相反：天线在移动，但呼叫者保持静止。
Low Earth Orbit (“LEO”) satellites also serve many communications functions. Although they are useful at any particular location on the surface of the planet only during the brief time they are overhead, several LEO satellites can combine to provide extended service, as software allows them to hand off signals seamlessly from one to another to another. This is rather the reverse of cellular telephony: the antennas are moving, but the caller remains stationary.
由于前苏联的大部分领土位于北纬地区，赤道地球同步卫星的用处不大，因此苏联工程师设计了巧妙的莫尼亚轨道。这些卫星在一个非常偏心的椭圆上摆动，在其远地点时在相当长的一段时间内相对静止。（该图未按比例绘制。）
Because much of the territory of the former Soviet Union lies in northern latitudes where equatorial geosynchronous satellites are of little use, Soviet engineers devised the ingenious Molniya orbit. Swinging in a very eccentric ellipse, these satellites are relatively stationary for a useful amount of time while they are at their apogee. (The diagram is not drawn to scale.)
NBC 成立于 1926 年，是 RCA 的子公司，而 RCA 本身是通用电气、西屋电气、AT&T 和联合水果公司的垄断庇护公司。最初 NBC 运营着两个广播网络——NBC Red 和 NBC Blue——但 1941 年 FCC 的一项裁决要求 NBC 剥离这两个网络之一。NBC Blue 以 800 万美元的价格卖给了 Life Savers 糖果制造商，并更名为 ABC。哥伦比亚广播公司 (CBS) 于 1927 年由哥伦比亚留声机唱片公司 (Columbia Phonograph Record Company) 创立，但很快被出售给雪茄制造商萨姆·佩利 (Sam Paley)，山姆·佩利又将其交给了他的儿子威廉 (William)。到 1950 年，佩利将哥伦比亚广播公司 (CBS) 打造成最著名的电视网，并多年来主导着电视收视率。
NBC was formed in 1926 as a subsidiary of RCA, which itself had been erected as a monopolistic shelter corporation for General Electric, Westinghouse, AT&T, and United Fruit. Originally NBC operated two radio networks—NBC Red and NBC Blue—but in 1941 an FCC ruling required NBC to divest itself of one of the two networks. NBC Blue was sold to the manufacturer of Life Savers candies for $8 million and became ABC. CBS was founded in 1927 by the Columbia Phonograph Record Company but was soon sold to a cigar manufacturer, Sam Paley, who turned it over to his son William. By 1950 Paley had built CBS into the most prominent network, and it dominated television ratings for many years.
但事实证明，美国全国广播公司 (NBC) 在电视行业早期的节目主管小西尔维斯特·L·“帕特”·韦弗（女演员西格妮的父亲）是众多节目沙皇中最具创造力的一位。韦弗意识到“酷媒介”就是成为这个家庭的一员。从 1953 年开始，在担任 NBC 总裁的短暂时期内，他设计了谈话/新闻/采访/聊天格式，至今仍是该媒体的标志。他的《今日秀》和《今夜秀》继续成为历史上播出时间最长的电视节目。（他的第三部作品《Home》虽然没能持续多久，但却为日间节目的成功奠定了基础。）在六十年代初期，韦弗早在时代之前就拥护付费电视，然后在广告行业找到了一个安全的职位。 。
But it was NBC’s programming executive during the early years of television—Sylvester L. “Pat” Weaver Jr (father of the actress Sigourney)—who proved the most inventive of the long line of programming czars to follow. Weaver realized that the “cool medium” was to become a member of the family. During a brief period as president of NBC beginning in 1953, he devised the talk/news/interview/chat format that is still emblematic of the medium. His Today and Tonight shows continue as the longest-running television shows in history. (His third entry, Home, didn’t last but set the pattern for the successful daytime shows to follow.) In the early sixties, Weaver championed pay television, long before its time, then took refuge in a safe post in the advertising industry.
20 世纪 60 年代初，哥伦比亚广播公司 (CBS) 总裁詹姆斯·奥布里 (James Aubrey) 冷酷地降低了“蒂芙尼”电视网的收视率，而韦弗 (Weaver) 的前助理迈克尔·丹恩 (Michael Dann) 制定了至今仍在运作的节目游戏规则。整个五六十年代，哥伦比亚广播公司（CBS）在收视率大战中占据主导地位，全国广播公司（NBC）通常紧随其后。
In the early 1960s, CBS president James Aubrey coldly took the “Tiffany” network downscale in search of ratings while Michael Dann, former assistant to Weaver, devised the rules of the programming game that still operate today. Throughout the fifties and sixties, CBS dominated the ratings wars, with NBC usually a close second.
一直落选的美国广播公司 (ABC) 于 1976 年在哥伦比亚广播公司 (CBS) 前高管弗雷德·西尔弗曼 (Fred Silverman) 的领导下首次获得收视率胜利，其时间表旨在占领不断增长的青年市场。西尔弗曼是七十年代的顶尖程序员，负责制作《拉弗恩》、《雪莉和查理的天使》等作品。
ABC, the perennial also-ran, gained its first ratings victory in 1976 under the leadership of former CBS executive Fred Silverman, with a schedule designed to capture the growing youth market. Silverman was the leading programmer of the seventies, responsible for the likes of Laverne and Shirley and Charlie’s Angels.
然而，当 NBC 于 1978 年将他从 ABC 手中夺走时，西尔弗曼的运气就到头了。在他担任总裁的三年任期中，最古老的网络进一步跌至第三位。Grant Tinker，MTM 前负责人事实证明，这是 NBC 的救赎。凭借《科斯比秀》和《希尔街蓝调》等节目， NBC 跃居第一，直到 20 世纪 90 年代哥伦比亚广播公司重新崛起为止。多亏了《宋飞正传》，以及后来的《老友记》和《急诊室》， NBC 很快重新夺回了领先地位。
When NBC won him away from ABC in 1978, however, Silverman’s luck ran out. His three-year tenure as president saw the oldest of the networks sink further into third place. Grant Tinker, former head of MTM productions, proved to be NBC’s salvation. With programs like The Cosby Show and Hill Street Blues, NBC moved into first place where it remained until CBS’s resurgence in the 1990s. Thanks to Seinfeld, and later Friends and ER, NBC quickly regained the lead.
当地方电视台改变网络隶属关系以寻找获胜者时，领先尼尔森排行榜的经济效益会成倍增加，就像他们在 ABC 和 NBC 统治期间所做的那样。毫无疑问，三十年的收视率战争对于电视网的财务至关重要，但当它们相互较量时，行业的结构正在发生不可阻挡的巨大变化。
The financial benefit of leading the Nielsen charts is multiplied when local stations change network affiliation in search of a winner, as they did during both the ABC and NBC reigns. The thirty-year ratings wars were crucial to the networks financially, no doubt, but while they were jousting with each other, the structure of the industry was changing, inexorably and dramatically.
同轴电缆技术可以追溯到五十年代初。它的发明是为了在广播接收较差的地方传送电视信号。六十年代，随着有线电视逐渐进入主要城市，有线电视运营商开始寻找更多的节目来源。城市观众需要的不仅仅是更好的信号，还有更多的价值。增长缓慢且昂贵。电缆行业分散为 4,000 多家小公司，铺设电缆的资本成本显然是巨大的。1960 年至 1990 年间，刚刚起步的有线电视行业必须建立一个与电话网络相当的物理网络。
Coaxial cable technology dates from the early fifties. It was invented to deliver television signals where broadcast reception was poor. As cable moved gradually into major cities in the sixties, cable operators searched for additional sources of programming; urban viewers required more value than just a better signal. Growth was slow, and expensive. The cable industry was fragmented into more than 4,000 small companies, and the capital cost of laying cable was, obviously, enormous. Between 1960 and 1990 the fledgling cable industry had to build a physical network comparable to the telephone network.
然后，在 1975 年，一家名为 Home Box Office 的区域分销商有先见之明，通过卫星向全国各地的有线电视系统运营商提供优质服务。一个即时的全国网络诞生了，这在很大程度上要归功于新卫星提供的“网络网络”。HBO 专注于故事片，对 20 世纪 70 年代末的电影业和电视业产生了深远的影响，商业经济发生了根本性的改变。
Then, in 1975, a regional distributor named Home Box Office had the foresight to offer its premium service to cable system operators across the country via satellite. An instant national network was born, thanks in large part to the “network of networks” the new satellites provided. Focused on feature films, HBO had a profound effect on the film industry as well as the television industry in the late 1970s, as the economics of the business were radically altered.
许多其他有线电视网络紧随其后，每个都专注于一个利基市场。尽管消费者需要为 HBO 等优质网络支付额外费用，但他们认为获得好莱坞品牌产品的额外费用是值得的。有线电视在 80 年代蓬勃发展，普及率从 1981 年的不到 30% 增长到 1991 年的 60% 以上。（与此同时，VCR 的普及率从不到 8% 增长到 70% 以上。）
Many other cable networks followed, each devoted to a niche. Although consumers were required to pay additional fees for premium networks like HBO, they deemed the access to brand-name product from Hollywood worth the extra cost. Cable boomed in the eighties, as penetration grew from less than 30 percent in 1981 to more than 60 percent in 1991. (At the same time, VCR penetration was zooming from less than 8 percent to more than 70 percent.)
1980 年，全国新闻网络 CNN 和专门报道流行音乐的 MTV 的成立，标志着有线电视“特殊兴趣”电视方式快速发展的又一个里程碑。十年之内，两者都已成为广泛的国际范围，成为新世界文化（如果不是新世界秩序）发展的主要力量。正如广播网络电视使多元化的美国同质化一样在 20 世纪 60 年代和 1970 年代，CNN、MTV 和其他有线频道的卫星传播超越了国家文化障碍，无论好坏。
The founding of CNN, a national news network, and MTV, devoted to popular music, both in 1980, marked another milestone in the rapid development of cable’s “special interest” approach to television. Within ten years both had become broadly international in scope, primary forces in the development of the New World Culture (if not the New World Order). Just as broadcast network television had homogenized a diverse America in the 1960s and 1970s, so satellite distribution of CNN, MTV, and other cable channels transcended national cultural barriers, for better or worse.
在此期间，欧洲电视也经历了彻底的变革，政府控制的、有限的电视系统向自由市场开放。一些欧洲国家（例如比利时）的电缆普及率很高，但在其他国家则几乎不存在。从 20 世纪 80 年代末开始，直接到户卫星广播为繁杂但资本密集型的有线电视系统提供了更便宜、更快捷的替代方案。在 20 世纪 80 年代末和 90 年代初，鲁珀特·默多克 (Rupert Murdoch) 的天空电视台 (Sky Television)（后来的 B-Sky-B）为英国完成了许多独立有线电视运营商在美国花了 30 年才完成的任务。文化，欧洲国家现在感到自己受到卫星分布的轰炸，任何星球大战防御措施都无法有效抵御。然而许多观察家认为全球电视发行加速了冷战的结束。
During this period, European television was also undergoing a radical sea-change as government-controlled, limited television systems were opened to a free-market approach. Cable penetration in some European countries—Belgium, for example—was significant, but in others practically nonexistent. Beginning in the late 1980s, direct-to-home satellite broadcasting offered a cheaper, quicker alternative to multifarious but capital-intensive cable systems. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, Rupert Murdoch’s Sky Television (later B-Sky-B) accomplished for the U.K. what took numerous independent cable operators thirty years to do in the U.S. Having struggled since World War II against the irresistible power of American popular culture, European nations now felt themselves under bombardment from satellite distribution that no Star Wars defense could be effective against. Yet many observers credited global television distribution with hastening the end of the Cold War.
在整个 20 世纪 80 年代和 90 年代，广播网络持续失去市场份额。所有三个传统网络都至少易手一次。1985 年春，ABC 被当地电视台所有者首都城市广播公司 (Capital Cities Broadcasting) 收购；几个月后，劳伦斯·蒂什从年迈的威廉·佩利手中夺取了哥伦比亚广播公司的控制权。同年年底，GE 宣布将收购 NBC 及其母公司 RCA。鲁珀特·默多克 (Rupert Murdoch) 利用广播电视重组的机会，于 1986 年创立了福克斯广播公司 (Fox Broadcasting)。1995 年，现有的四个商业网络中的两个再次易手：首都城市/ABC 与迪士尼合并，西屋电气收购了哥伦比亚广播公司 (CBS)。（2000 年，哥伦比亚广播公司 (CBS) 被萨姆纳·雷石东 (Sumner Redstone) 的维亚康姆 (Viacom) 收购。）
Throughout the 1980s and 1990s the broadcast networks continued to lose market share. All three of the traditional networks changed hands at least once. ABC was acquired by Capital Cities Broadcasting, an owner of local stations, in the spring of 1985; Lawrence Tisch wrested control of CBS from an aging William Paley several months later; and at the end of the year GE announced that it would purchase NBC and its parent RCA. Taking advantage of the broadcast shakeup Rupert Murdoch founded Fox Broadcasting in 1986. In 1995 two of the now four commercial networks changed hands again: Capital Cities/ABC merged with Disney, and Westinghouse purchased CBS. (In 2000 CBS was sold to Sumner Redstone’s Viacom.)
1992年，美国广播公司（ABC）、哥伦比亚广播公司（CBS）和全国广播公司（NBC）都因未能及时适应不断变化的现实而首次遭受亏损。与此同时，占有 1% 份额的有线网络可能会盈利，因为它们还有来自有线系统运营商的许可费（传统上每个订户每月 30 美分到 3 美元）的额外收入来源。
In 1992 ABC, CBS, and NBC all suffered losses for the first time, as they failed to adjust in time to the changing reality. Meanwhile, cable networks with a one percent share could be profitable, as they had the additional source of income from license fees from the cable system operators (which traditionally range between 30 cents and 3 dollars per month per subscriber).
系统运营商掌管着有限的频道，受到新网络的围攻，可以自由选择播放哪些频道，越来越多地开始挑战传统网络的权力和影响力。到 1991 年，TCI（电信公司）负责人 John Malone 作为领先的有线电视系统运营商控制了超过 900 万个美国电视家庭的访问。1992年底，马龙宣布他将重新连接他的系统以容纳多达五百个通道。马龙的宣布，加上好莱坞大亨巴里·迪勒(Barry Diller)同时收购了购物频道QVC（由马龙支持），标志着人们对“互动”电视产生了新的兴趣。*马龙从未让他的 500 通道系统运行起来。几年之内，他对行业的影响力就消失了。
The system operators, presiding over a limited number of channels, besieged by new networks, and free to choose which to broadcast, increasingly began to challenge the traditional networks for power and influence. By 1991 John Malone, head of TCI (Tele-Communications, Inc.), controlled access to more than nine million American television households as the leading cable system operator. In late 1992 Malone announced he would rewire his systems to accommodate as many as five hundred channels. Malone’s announcement, coupled with Hollywood mogul Barry Diller’s coincident takeover of the shopping channel QVC (backed by Malone), marked a new interest in “interactive” television. * Malone never did get his 500-channel system running. Within a few years his influence on the industry had faded.
图 6-18。连续剧和连续剧在电影中的重要性不如在广播和电视中重要。图中是 20 世纪 30 年代末流行的环球电影连续剧《闪电侠戈登》中的闪电侠戈登（巴斯特克拉布饰）和他的团队。电影连续剧是电视早期的主要节目，因此也成为第二代神话记忆的一部分。在七十年代和八十年代，通过乔治·卢卡斯和史蒂文·斯皮尔伯格等导演的电影致敬，它们在第三代观众中得以复兴。
Figure 6-18. The serial and series were less important in film than in radio and television. Here, Flash Gordon (Buster Crabbe) and his crew from the popular Universal film serial ol the late 1930s, Flash Gordon. Film serials were a programming staple in the early days of television and thus became part of the mythic memories of a second generation, as well. In the seventies and eighties they were revived for still a third generation of viewers through the movie homages of directors like George Lucas and Steven Spielberg.
看到电视和电信融合即将到来，马龙于 1993 年试图将 TCI 与贝尔大西洋公司合并。这次交易失败了，但马龙的第二次尝试取得了成功，合并1998 年与 AT&T 合并。电话和电视行业的最终合并似乎是不可避免的，特别是在长期争论的 1996 年《电信法案》赋予有线电视和电信公司几乎全权进行并购之后。该法案表现为对现有法律的自由化，旨在增加竞争，但几乎立即产生了相反的效果，七个婴儿贝尔公司中有五个宣布合并，大公司（现在基本上摆脱了所有权限制）吞并了数百家当地电视台和广播电台，许多较小的连锁店。与此同时，随着有线电视行业的注意力转向互联网服务和电话领域的机会，马龙承诺的电视带宽如此之大以至于无法冲浪，但这一承诺却落空了。2002 年，马龙的前竞争对手布莱恩·罗伯茨 (Brian Roberts) 收购了 AT&T Broadband。他的康卡斯特公司因此成为美国最大的有线电视提供商，拥有超过 2200 万客户。
Seeing the convergence of television and telecommunications that was approaching, Malone tried to merge TCI with Bell Atlantic in 1993. The deal fell through, but Malone was successful in his second attempt, merging with AT&T in 1998. The eventual combination of the telephone and television industries seemed inevitable, especially after the long-debated Telecommunications Act of 1996 gave both cable and telco interests virtual carte blanche to proceed with mergers and acquisitions. Presented as a liberalization of existing laws intended to increase competition, the Act almost immediately had the opposite effect as five of the seven Baby Bells announced mergers and major companies—now largely freed from ownership constraints—gobbled up hundreds of local television and radio stations and scores of smaller chains. Meanwhile, Malone’s promise of television bandwidth so wide it would be unsurfable languished, as the cable industry’s attention turned to opportunities in internet service and telephony. In 2002 former Malone rival Brian Roberts acquired AT&T Broadband. His Comcast Corporation thus became the largest American cable provider with more than 22 million customers.
随着电视创始人逐渐淡出舞台，取而代之的是马龙和默多克等商人以及时代华纳和迪士尼等大型企业集团，一位新来者让创业火花保持活力。
As the founders of television faded from the scene to be replaced by businessmen like Malone and Murdoch and massive conglomerates like Time Warner and Disney, one newcomer kept the entrepreneurial spark alive.
泰德·特纳 (Ted Turner) 于 1970 年购买了亚特兰大当地的一个 UHF 电台，并以电影和体育的混合形式维持该电台的运营（他拥有两支当地球队的股份）。HBO“上鸟”后不久，特纳开始通过卫星在全国范围内发行 WTBS（当时称为 WTCG），成为第一个“超级电视台”——通过卫星在全国范围内发行的地方电视台。
Ted Turner had bought a local Atlanta UHF station in 1970 and kept it going with a mixture of movies and sports (he owned interests in two local teams). Shortly after HBO went “on the bird,” Turner began national distribution of WTBS (then called WTCG) via satellite, becoming the first of the “superstations”—local stations distributed nationally via satellite.
他立即成为有线电视网的掌权者。1977 年，他驾驶游艇Courageous 赢得了美洲杯帆船赛，为个人神话增添了色彩。他不顾行业智慧，于 1980 年创立了 CNN——仅次于 MTV 的 20 世纪 80 年代最具影响力的广播公司。1982 年，他克隆了第二个新闻频道 HNN，以避开竞争。1985 年，当他宣布可能竞购哥伦比亚广播公司时，他受到了重视。（佩利将蒂施视为“白衣骑士”，以抵御特纳和其他人。）
He became an immediate cable power. He added to the personal myth by winning the America’s Cup in 1977 with his yacht Courageous. Disregarding industry wisdom, in 1980 he founded CNN—next to MTV the most influential broadcasting operation of the 1980s. He cloned a second news channel, HNN, in 1982 to ward off competition. By 1985 he was taken seriously when he announced he might bid for CBS. (Paley turned to Tisch as a “white knight” to fend off Turner and others.)
一年后，特纳在收购米高梅方面取得了更大的成功。他于 1986 年 3 月买下了这家备受尊敬的电影制片厂，保留了它的图书馆，并卖掉了其余的东西（他的公司几乎破产，并失去了对有线电视系统运营商的一定程度的控制权，其中包括无所不在的约翰·马龙）。到 1988 年，特纳的战略变得清晰起来：他的第四个有线电视网络 TNT 开始利用米高梅丰富的资料库进行广播。特纳为电视转播制作了新版画，向整整一代人介绍了旧彩色电影和 35 毫米黑白电影摄影的奇迹。但他并没有就此止步：他利用不断发展的计算机技术为许多三四十年代的黑白经典作品“着色”，据称使它们更容易被电视观众接受。随着电影制片人联合起来保护他们的遗产，彩色化成为好莱坞的一项热门事业。1991 年，特德·特纳 (Ted Turner) 与好莱坞皇室成员联姻，继续其作为媒体大亨的崛起。当代没有人能像特纳那样延续好莱坞魅力、创业精神和气派的古老传统……他在亚特兰大做到了这一点。
A year later Turner was more successful in his bid for MGM. He bought the venerable film studio in March 1986, kept its library, and sold the rest (nearly bankrupting his company and losing a measure of control to cable system operators, including the ubiquitous John Malone). By 1988 Turner’s strategy became clear: TNT, his fourth cable network, began broadcasting, drawing on the extensive MGM library. Turner had new prints struck for the telecasts, introducing an entire generation to the wonders of old Technicolor and 35-mm black-and-white cinematography. But he didn’t stop there: He used developing computer technology to “colorize” many black-and-white classics from the thirties and forties, supposedly to make them more palatable for television audiences. Colorization became a cause célèbre in Hollywood as filmmakers banded together to protect their heritage. Ted Turner continued his rise as a media mogul by marrying into Hollywood royalty in 1991. No one in contemporary times has continued the old traditions of Hollywood glamor, entrepreneurship, and panache so well as Turner … and he did it in Atlanta.
图 6-19。九十年代的象征。_ 1992 年世界职业棒球大赛期间，特纳和新娘简·方达（与吉米·卡特）观看他的球队亚特兰大勇士队的比赛。想一想引起的共鸣：新南方的崛起、体育冠军、八十年代企业家、芭芭拉、女权活动家、健身录像带、越南和反战运动、地方政治、12米游艇、西方英雄、卫星电视、魅力和55 岁时的浪漫史、好莱坞王朝现已进入第三代、第一个全球电视网络、第一个电视电影资料馆、客厅里的海湾战争直播、生态行动主义、色彩化、亲善运动会、健身沙龙、米高梅、棒球和篮球。。。。（亚特兰大勇士队提供。）
Figure 6-19. EMBLEM FOR THE NINETIES. Turner and bride Jane Fonda (with Jimmy Carter) watching his team, the Atlanta Braves, during the 1992 World Series. Think of the resonances: the rise of the new South, sports champion, eighties entrepreneur, Barbarella, feminist activist, workout videotapes, Vietnam and the anti-war movement, local politics, 12-meter yachts, Western heroes, satellite television, glamour and romance at age 55, a Hollywood dynasty now into its third generation, the first worldwide television network, the first television cinémathèque, the Gulf War live in your living room, ecological activism, colorization, the Goodwill Games, workout salons, MGM, baseball and basketball. . . . (Courtesy Atlanta Braves.)
1995 年，特纳在收购哥伦比亚广播公司 (CBS) 的竞标中再次失利（很大程度上是因为现在在其董事会中占主导地位的有线电视利益集团受阻），之后他以 75 亿美元的价格将自己的公司卖给了时代华纳。时机不对。受 90 年代末互联网泡沫的影响，时代华纳在 2001 年泡沫破裂之际，在最糟糕的时刻与史蒂夫·凯斯 (Steve Case) 的美国在线 (AOL) 合并。最后一位伟大的电影大亨在一次可耻的公司倒闭中以配角的身份结束了。
In 1995, after losing out yet again in his bid for CBS (thwarted in large part by the cable interests that now dominated his board), Turner sold his company to Time Warner for $7.5 billion. It was bad timing. Caught up in the internet bubble of the late nineties, Time Warner merged with Steve Case’s AOL at the worst possible moment in 2001 just as the bubble burst. The last of the great movie moguls finished as a supporting player in an ignominious corporate collapse.
“电视”：艺术
“Television”: The Art
我们可以通过类型粗略地定义电视历史上的几个时期。四十年代末和五十年代初最令人难忘的是他们的综艺系列，因为新媒体迅速消耗了大量老年杂耍人才，广播喜剧和综艺节目被整个转移到更有利可图的媒体。这是埃德·沙利文、米尔顿·伯利、杰克·本尼、伯恩斯和艾伦、杰基·格里森和席德·凯撒的时代，他们与伊莫金·科卡、梅尔·布鲁克斯、卡尔·雷纳和霍华德·莫里斯一起创造了最早、最吸引人的电视之一节目《Your Show of Shows》，由马克斯·利布曼制作。
We could roughly define several periods of television history by their genres. The late forties and early fifties are best remembered for their variety series, as the new medium quickly consumed large amounts of aging vaudeville talent, and radio comedy and variety programs were transferred whole to the more profitable medium. This was the era of Ed Sullivan, Milton Berle, Jack Benny, Burns and Allen, Jackie Gleason, and Sid Caesar, who, with Imogene Coca, Mel Brooks, Carl Reiner, and Howard Morris, created one of the earliest and most engaging television programs, Your Show of Shows, produced by Max Liebman.
这一时期仅次于凯撒的创新者是厄尼·科瓦奇（Ernie Kovacs），他在纽约和费城的当地电视台开始工作。科瓦奇于 1962 年去世，也许他还没有充分发挥自己的潜力，他无疑是 20 世纪 50 年代技术上最具创造力的电视艺术家。他的作品对新媒体怪异技术的敏锐运用预示了独立视频的后来发展。
Second to Caesar as an innovator in this period was Ernie Kovacs, who started on local stations in New York and Philadelphia. Kovacs, who died in 1962 perhaps before he had realized his full potential, was easily the most technically inventive television artist of the 1950s. In its perceptive use of the weird technology of the new medium, his work forecast later developments in independent video.
五十年代中期，电视——就像之前的电影一样——在试图建立更成熟的声誉时转向了更受人尊敬的企业。这一时期——电视的青春期——因其现场、非连续剧、严肃的戏剧而被人们铭记，例如Philco Playhouse、Studio One、Kraft Television Theatre和Playhouse 90。收到的批评意见是，这是电视的“黄金时代”戏剧，但可以说这些戏剧作品的舞台质量并没有充分利用媒介效果。在此期间，电视编剧和导演获得了一定的公众地位。帕迪·查耶夫斯基、雷金纳德·罗斯、泰德·摩泽尔、罗伯特·艾伦·奥瑟、罗德·塞林和弗兰克·D·吉尔罗伊等人都赢得了作家的声誉，这对他们后来的发展很有帮助，而导演如约翰·弗兰肯海默、富兰克林·沙夫纳、西德尼·吕美特和阿瑟·佩恩后来在故事片方面取得了成功的职业生涯。
In the mid-fifties, television—as film had before it—turned to more respectable enterprises as it tried to establish a more mature reputation. This period—the adolescence of television—is remembered for its live, nonserial, serious dramas, such as Philco Playhouse, Studio One, Kraft Television Theatre, and Playhouse 90. The received critical opinion is that this was the “Golden Age” of television drama, yet it can be argued that the stagey quality of these theatrical productions did not use the medium to full effect. During this period television writers and directors achieved some public status. Paddy Chayefsky, Reginald Rose, Tad Mosel, Robert Alan Aurthur, Rod Serling, and Frank D. Gilroy, among others, developed reputations as writers that later stood them in good stead, while directors like John Frankenheimer, Franklin Schaffner, Sidney Lumet, and Arthur Penn later went on to successful careers in feature films.
六十年代初期录像带的引入，以及从网络制作向外部机构制作的持续转变，标志着电视历史上的一个重要转折点。在此期间，美国电视发展了我们今天所知的标准形式的组合。扩大了新闻和公共事务报道等著名项目。随着技术熟练程度的提高，有利可图的体育报道变得更加普遍和受欢迎。即时重播、慢动作和定格动作极大地增强了职业体育的影响力，以至于体育场最终不得不为现场观众提供自己的视频屏幕。新的联赛成立是为了应对日益增长的兴趣。足球成为政客们选择的隐喻。脱口秀节目由阿瑟·戈弗雷、戴夫·加罗威、史蒂夫·艾伦和杰克·帕尔等名人在 50 年代开创，随着约翰尼·卡森 (Johnny Carson，1962) 和众多模仿者的崛起，成为一种占主导地位的电视形式。脱口秀、游戏节目和肥皂剧的结合被确立为日间电视的标准。
The introduction of videotape in the early sixties, together with the continuing shift from network production to production by outside agencies, marked an important turning point in television history. During this period, American television developed the mix of standard forms by which we know it today. News and public affairs coverage, the prestigious items, were expanded. Profitable sports coverage became more common and more popular as technical proficiency expanded. Instant replay, slow motion, and stop motion enhanced the impact of professional sports so much that stadiums eventually had to provide live spectators with their own video screens. New leagues were formed in response to the growing interest. Football became the metaphor of choice for politicians. Talk shows, pioneered in the fifties by such personalities as Arthur Godfrey, Dave Garroway, Steve Allen, and Jack Paar, became a dominant television form with the rise of Johnny Carson (1962) and a host of imitators. The mix of talk, game shows, and soap opera was established as the standard for daytime television.
图 6-20。B之前（左）。霍华德·莫里斯、席德·凯撒、伊莫金·科卡和卡尔·雷纳在《你的表演》 （1953 年 9 月）中的草图。A FTER（右）。几个月后，莫里斯、凯撒、科卡和雷纳似乎重复了之前的草图：只需添加“生产值”（1954 年 6 月）。（美国全国广播公司）
Figure 6-20. BEFORE (left). Howard Morris, Sid Caesar, Imogene Coca, and Carl Reiner in a sketch from Your Show of Shows (September 1953). AFTER (right). Morris, Caesar, Coca, and Reiner months later in what appears to be a reprise of the earlier sketch: just add “production values” (June 1954). (NBC.)
与此同时，黄金时段的娱乐节目已经融入了半小时的喜剧和长达一小时的动作/戏剧系列的混合，我们今天将其视为其基本结构。电视没有发明这些形式。两种类型的节目都是主流广播形式的直系后代。事实上，我们甚至可以追溯到电影的两卷喜剧和六十到七十分钟的动作“程序员”。但这些形式在电视中呈现出新的相关性。
Meanwhile, primetime entertainment had settled into the mix of half-hour comedy and hour-long action/drama series that we recognize today as its basic structure. Television didn’t invent these forms. Both types of programs are direct descendants of the dominant radio forms; indeed, we can trace their genesis even further back, to the movies’ two-reel comedies and sixty- to seventy-minute action “programmers.” But the forms took on new relevance in television.
杰克·韦伯的《天罗地网》、露西尔·鲍尔和德西·阿纳兹的《我爱露西》是五十年代的基本模型。韦伯在其关于洛杉矶警察局警长星期五工作的开创性、华丽风格的“现实”系列中，确立了对英雄的强烈认同感以及外景拍摄的重要性的概念。鲍尔和阿纳兹通过在现场观众面前拍摄并用三个摄像机同时拍摄，确立了“情景喜剧”制作的基本规则。三摄像头技术可以追溯到三十年代最早的电视实验，但鲍尔和阿纳兹是第一个意识到即时、“实时/”现场电视剪辑（导演监控所有摄像机并立即决定使用哪个图像）可以与传统的事后电影剪辑相结合。
Jack Webb’s Dragnet and Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz’s I Love Lucy were basic models in the fifties. Webb established the concept of strong identification with the hero and the importance of location shooting in his seminal, magnificently stylized, “realistic” series about the work of Sergeant Friday of the Los Angeles Police Department. Ball and Arnaz established the basic rules of “situation comedy” production by filming in front of a live audience and shooting with three cameras simultaneously. The three-camera technique dated from the earliest experiments with television in the thirties, but Ball and Arnaz were the first to realize that immediate, “real-time/” live television editing (in which the director monitors all cameras and makes instantaneous decisions about which image to use) could be combined with traditional after-the-fact film editing.
图 6-21。今天。_ 1952 年 1 月 14 日早晨，随着 NBC 播音员的吟诵，电视开始成熟：“今天是你将要生活的日子，在纽约市中心 49 街的 RCA 展览厅举行。这是你的通讯员，戴夫·加罗威。” 从那时起，电视就成了家庭的一部分。
Figure 6-21. TODAY. On the morning of January 14, 1952, television came of age as the NBC announcer intoned, “This is Today, the day you are going to live, from the RCA Exhibition Hall on 49th Street in the heart of New York. And here is your communicator, Dave Garroway.” From that moment on, television was part of the family.
正如许多最好的好莱坞电影都是在 20 世纪 30 年代制作的，当时人们还没有意识到他们正在发明能够持续 60 年的叙事形式，同样，许多最好的美国电视节目也可以追溯到 60 年代初，当时的模式后来被广泛采用。变得如此高度程式化和严格定义是首先被建立的。一般来说，动作/戏剧表演是根据职业来组织的。（杰克·韦伯的影响在这方面很重要。） 警察和侦探类型都是以动作为导向的（就像大多数西部片一样）；医生、律师、教师等职业节目更加注重理念。甚至社会工作者、护士和政治家也在六十年代中期举办过自己的表演——尽管时间很短。
Just as many of the best Hollywood films were made in the 1930s, before people were aware that they were inventing narrative forms that would last for sixty years, so much of the best American television dates from the early sixties, when the patterns that were later to become so highly stylized and rigidly defined were first being established. Generally, the action/drama shows organized themselves according to professions. (Jack Webb’s influence is important in this respect.) Police and Detective genres were action-oriented (as were most Westerns); doctor, lawyer, teacher, and other profession shows were more idea-oriented. Even social workers, nurses, and politicians had their own shows—albeit briefly—in the mid-sixties.
最好的专业课程是在纽约制作的。赫伯特·布罗德金的《捍卫者联盟》（EG·马歇尔和罗伯特·里德饰演法律yers）和大卫·苏斯金德（David Susskind）的《东区，西区》（乔治·C·斯科特和西塞莉·泰森饰演社会工作者）脱颖而出。与洛杉矶制作的大多数节目相反，纽约的节目更多真正的。他们更有可能使用位置设置；它们的文笔更紧凑，人物刻画更坚韧，讽刺也更多；他们利用了纽约大量的表演人才，而当时的好莱坞表演除了小明星（男女）外几乎没有什么可借鉴的。*
The best of the profession programs were those produced in New York. Herbert Brodkin’s The Defenders (E. G. Marshall and Robert Reed as law yers) and David Susskind’s East Side, West Side (George C. Scott and Cicely Tyson as social workers) stood out. As opposed to the majority of programs produced in Los Angeles, the New York shows were more authentic. They were more likely to use location settings; they were more tightly written, with grittier characterizations and more irony; and they availed themselves of the large pool of acting talent in New York, while the Hollywood shows of the time had little to draw on except starlets (of both sexes).*
图 6-22。今晚。_ 《今夜秀》在建立独特的电视形式方面与《今日秀》一样重要，在其悠久的历史中只有六位主持人主持。从左到右，杰里·莱斯特和莫雷·阿姆斯特丹作为百老汇开放日的常驻喜剧演员，为时代做好了热身准备。史蒂夫·艾伦在五十年代的统治将滑稽剧提升为讽刺剧，并将该剧确立为一种制度。杰克·帕尔在他短暂但有影响力的任期内引入了新的个人基调。（背景是助手休·唐斯和常客多迪·古德曼和赫敏·金戈尔德。）所有这一切都是为约翰尼·卡森的二十九岁生日做准备。整个八十年代，继任问题一直是谣言的焦点。潜在的《今夜秀》主持人来了又走——通常是在其他网络上参加自己的节目。1992 年卡森最终退休时，杰伊·雷诺 (Jay Leno) 恰好坐在继任者的位置上。注意他们的笑容：莱诺把我们带回了莱斯特。（失败者是大卫·莱特曼，他转投哥伦比亚广播公司建立了自己的王朝。）
Figure 6-22. TONIGHT. Just as important as Today in establishing the unique forms of television has been The Tonight Show, presided over in its long history by just six hosts. From left to right, Jerry Lester and Morey Amsterdam provided the warmup in the timesfor as the resident comics on Broadway Open House. Steve Allen’s reign in the fifties brought the level up from burlesque to satire and established the show as an institution. Jack Paar introduced a new personal tone during his short but influential stint. (Sidekick Hugh Downs and frequent guests Dody Goodman and Hermione Gingold are in the background.) All of this was preparation for twenty-nine years of Johnny Carson. Throughout the eighties, the question of succession was grist for the rumor mill. Potential Tonight Show hosts came and went—often to their own shows on other networks. When Carson finally retired in 1992, Jay Leno happened to be sitting in the successor’s seat. Note the grins: Leno brings us back to Lester. (The loser was David Letterman, who moved to CBS to found his own dynasty.)
2004 年，NBC 宣布柯南·奥布莱恩 (Conan O'Brien) 将在五年后的 2009 年继任第七位主持人，这一独特举措表明了《今夜秀》主持人这一角色的神圣性。奥布莱恩作为《深夜秀》女主持人的学徒期持续了十五年。
In a unique move that indicated the hallowed nature of the role of Tonight show host NBC announced in 2004 that Conan O’Brien would succeed as host #7 in 2009, five years later. O’Brien’s apprenticeship as host-in-waiting on Late Night lasted fifteen years.
图 6-23。科瓦奇著名的图书馆草图（1957 年 1 月）。“尤金”无法将牛奶直接倒入玻璃杯中。相机倾斜，使其与倾斜的装置成直角。（注意舞台工作人员在右边擦地。）（NBC。）
Figure 6-23. Kovacs’s famous library sketch (January 1957). “Eugene” can’t quite pour his milk straight into the glass. The camera is tilted so that it is square with the inclined set. (Notice the stagehand mopping up at the right.) (NBC.)
如果警察和医生似乎仍然统治着电视广播，那么这可能是有充分理由的。正如前纽约市侦探、后来成为电视作家和制片人的桑尼·格罗索所指出的那样，医院和辖区电视台是当代戏剧故事的交换所。因此，它们为情节匮乏的电视剧提供了绝佳的外景地。
If cops and doctors seem to rule the airwaves still, there may be good reasons for that. As Sonny Grosso, a former New York City detective turned television writer and producer, pointed out, hospitals and precinct stations are the contemporary clearing houses for dramatic stories. As a result, they make excellent locations for plot-hungry series.
随着 20 世纪 60 年代的过去，电影制片厂开始发挥更大的影响力，纽约的电视制作几乎消失了。六十年代末，美国电视陷入了一种沉闷的模式：收视率游戏变得越复杂，吸引大量观众的产品就越没有吸引力。在哥伦比亚广播公司任职期间，节目总监詹姆斯·奥布里为这一时期设定了风格：目标是吸引最低的共同点，从而冒犯尽可能少的潜在观众。为了描述六十年代中期电视喜剧的特点，我们只需说出那些年最成功的节目，奥布里的《贝弗利山人》。
As the 1960s wore on, and as the movie studios began to exert more influence, New York television production all but disappeared. In the late sixties, American television settled into a dull rut: the more sophisticated the ratings game became, the less interesting were the products that acted as lures for massive audiences. During his tenure at CBS, program director James Aubrey set the style for this period: the aim was to appeal to the lowest common denominator so as to offend the fewest possible potential members of an audience. To characterize television comedy in the mid-sixties, we have only to name the most successful show of those years, Aubrey’s The Beverly Hillbillies.
图 6-24。扔刀素描中的露西。《我爱露西》开创了情景喜剧的风格，并持续了四十年。（哥伦比亚广播公司。）
Figure 6-24. Lucy in the knife-throwing sketch. I Love Lucy set a style for situation comedy that persisted for forty years. (CBS.)
这一时期，“分拆”的概念得到了广泛的接受。如果一个节目成功，那是因为节目的元素而不是其整体性。因此，这些元素可以被复制、稍微重新排列，然后再次组合在一起，形成第二场成功的演出。电视开始自我复制。如果是贝弗利山人（城市里的乡村人），那么绿英亩（乡村里的城市人）。到了 20 世纪 90 年代中期，衍生剧已经变成了“山寨品”——成功节目的无耻复制品。事实证明，山寨品对那些想成为新电视网的人特别有吸引力，它们争先恐后地挤满了他们的黄金时段。
During this period, the concept of the “spinoff” gained widespread acceptance. If a show was successful, it was because of the elements of the program rather than its wholeness. As a result, those elements could be duplicated, slightly rearranged, and put together again to form a second successful show. Television began to replicate itself. If The Beverly Hillbillies (country folk in the city), then Green Acres (city folk in the country). By the mid-1990s the spinoffs had metamorphosed into “knockoffs”—unashamed copies of successful shows. Knockoffs proved especially attractive to the new wannabe networks, rushing to fill their primetime schedules.
六十年代末，两档时长 60 分钟的节目预示了电视在七十年代的复兴—— 《Laugh-In》和《窒息喜剧兄弟时刻》[原文如此] ——这两档节目都涉及话题性幽默。由于不同的原因，两者都很快就消失了。尽管《Laugh-In》培养了一批有趣的喜剧演员，但它已经太过时了。另一方面，斯莫瑟斯兄弟通过在广播中宣读整篇《独立宣言》等网络反抗行为，赢得了政治激进分子的声誉。
In the late sixties, the renaissance of television in the seventies was prefigured by two 60-minute programs—Laugh-In and The Smothers Comedy Brothers Hour [sic]—both of which dealt in topical humor; both of which, for varying reasons, burned out quickly. Laugh-In, although it developed a stable of interesting comic actors, was too much of its time. The Smothers brothers, on the other hand, developed a reputation as political radicals through such acts of network defiance as reading the entire Declaration of Independence on the air.
1970 年，两部节目首播，为时事喜剧奠定了新的风格：《玛丽·泰勒·摩尔秀》和《全家福》（翻拍自英国热门节目《至死不渝》）。五年之内这两个人节目负责网络时间表上的十二到十五个衍生品和模仿品。自五十年代以来，此类节目被称为“情景喜剧”（情景喜剧），但这个说法具有误导性。与动作/戏剧节目一样，他们真正感兴趣的是角色的集合，而不是他们的处境。生活在皇后区的中下阶层家庭（《全家福》），或者明尼阿波利斯电视新闻节目的单身女性（玛丽·泰勒·摩尔饰），本身并没有什么好笑的。然而，卡罗尔·奥康纳、玛丽·泰勒·摩尔和他们的同事塑造的角色以及演员们的整体表演却有些幽默。再次强调，就像在广播中一样，个性是关键。*
In 1970 two programs debuted that set a new style for topical comedy, The Mary Tyler Moore Show and All in the Family (a remake of the popular British program ’Til Death Us Do Part). Within five years these two programs were responsible for twelve to fifteen spinoffs and imitations on the network schedules. Since the fifties, programs like these had been referred to as “sitcoms” (situation comedies), but the phrase is misleading. Their real interest, as with the action/drama shows, is their collection of characters, not their situation. There is nothing inherently funny about a lower-middle-class family living in Queens (All in the Family), or about a single woman working for a television news program in Minneapolis (Mary Tyler Moore). There is, however, something humorous about the characters that Carroll O’Connor, Mary Tyler Moore, and their colleagues fashioned and the ensemble work of the actors. Again, as in radio, personality is the key.*
图 6-25。1954 年的陆军-麦卡锡听证会被证明是电视新闻/公共事务部门的一个重要转折点。电视对世界的看法第一次成为美国政治的主要决定因素。随着听证会的持续进行，参议员约瑟夫·麦卡锡暴露了自己是一个窃笑、自大的骗子，他曾经掌握的巨大权力很快就消失了。在这里，他的律师罗伊·科恩（左）向他提供建议。他的对手、陆军顾问约瑟夫·N·韦尔奇(Joseph N. Welch)立即名声大噪，塑造了一位明智、幽默、略带讽刺的法官形象，直接来自于中央选角。麦卡锡和韦尔奇之间的较量更多的是形象的较量，而不是问题的较量。二十年后，“乡村律师”参议员萨姆·欧文（Sam Irvin）在水门事件参议院委员会听证会上展现了与韦尔奇相似（并且同样受欢迎）的形象。（摘自埃米尔·德·安东尼奥的《秩序论》。由纽约客电影公司提供。显像管放大的画面。）
Figure 6-25. The Army-McCarthy hearings in 1954 proved an important turning point for television news/public affairs departments. For the first time, the television vision of the world became a major determining factor in American politics. As the hearings droned on, Senator Joseph McCarthy revealed himself as a sniggling, egomaniacal liar and the once great power he wielded evaporated quickly. Here he is advised by his counsel, Roy Cohn (left). His adversary, Joseph N. Welch, counsel for the Army, gained instant celebrity projecting the image of a wise, good-humored, slightly sardonic judge straight from central casting. The battle between McCarthy and Welch was more a contest of images than of issues. Twenty years later, “country lawyer” Senator Sam Irvin projected an image similar to Welch’s (and just as popular) as Chairman of the Senate Committee hearings on Watergate. (From Emile De Antonio’s Point of Order. Courtesy New Yorker Films. Frame enlargement from kinescope.)
即使在表面上专注于事件的动作片中，人物相对于情节、情境或事件的重要性也是显而易见的。例如，七十年代最成功的侦探英雄是罗克福德档案馆的科伦坡（彼得·法尔克饰）、科贾克（泰利·萨瓦拉斯饰）和吉姆·罗克福德（詹姆斯·加纳饰）。最近，《X档案》（1993-2002）挖掘了这一脉络。让人们一周又一周地收看的不是这些角色的所作所为，而是他们的本质。这些极其古怪的角色可能在舞台或电影中格格不入，但他们提供了典型的电视体验。我们一周又一周地与他们在一起，因为我们知道会发生什么。
The significance of character as opposed to plot, situation, or event is clear even in the action shows, which are ostensibly devoted to event. The most successful detective heroes of the seventies, for example, were Columbo (Peter Falk), Kojak (Telly Savalas), and Jim Rockford (James Garner) of The Rockford Files. More recently, The X-Files (1993–2002) mined this vein. It isn’t what these characters did that got people to tune in week after week, but what they were. Such extraordinarily quirky characters might be out of place on the stage or in films, but they provided the quintessential television experience. We tuned in week after week to be with them because we knew what to expect.
图 6-26。纽约电视电影。_ _ _ 乔治·C·斯科特和西塞莉·泰森在大卫·苏斯金德的《东区，西区》(East Side, West Side ) (1963) 中。这一集#2“罪人”由杰克·斯迈特执导，杰克·普里斯特利拍摄。斯科特饰演的尼尔·布洛克经常缺乏耐心，有时甚至会犯错。他也被允许失败。计划是在整个系列中发展这个角色，但《东区，西区》只持续了一季。（大卫·苏斯金德。画框放大）
Figure 6-26. NEW YORK TELEFILMS. George C. Scott and Cicely Tyson in David Susskind’s East Side, West Side (1963). This episode, #2 “The Sinner,” was directed by Jack Smight and photographed by Jack Priestly. Scott’s character, Neil Brock, was often impatient, sometimes wrong. He was permitted to fail, as well. The plan was to develop the character throughout the series, but East Side, West Side lasted only one season. (David Susskind. Frame enlargement)
电视的基本单位不是节目而是连续剧，这使得电视在塑造人物方面比其他所有叙事媒体都具有优势，也许小说传奇除外。这也是为什么电视与其说是故事的媒介，不如说是情绪和氛围的媒介。我们收看节目不是为了了解正在发生的事情（因为通常相同的事情总是在发生），而是为了花时间与角色相处。在 20 世纪 90 年代，《宋飞正传》宣传为“什么都没有”的节目——好像这是独一无二的。所有情景喜剧都“没有什么”——除了角色之外什么都没有。
The basic unit of television is not the show but the series, which gives television an advantage in building character over every other narrative medium except perhaps the novel saga. This is also why television is not so much a medium of stories as of moods and atmosphere. We tune in not to find out what is happening (for generally the same things are always happening), but to spend time with the characters. In the 1990s Seinfeld was promoted as a show “about nothing”—as if that were unique. All sitcoms are about “nothing”—nothing but character.
图 6-27。Laugh-In几乎没有 Smotherses 的政治意识，而且持续时间更长。它是由点点滴滴、俏皮话、简短的草图、停顿、流行语、双关语、卡通、布景和笑话的拼贴，形成了一种被认为是六十年代典型的风格。它还为女性表演者提供了一个不寻常的机会，包括露丝·布兹 (Ruth Buzzi)、朱迪·卡恩 (Judy Carne)、乔安·沃利 (Joann Worley) 和歌蒂·霍恩 (Goldie Hawn)（如图所示）以及莉莉·汤姆林 (Lily Tomlin)。然而，它最著名的客座表演者是理查德·M·尼克松 (Richard M. Nixon)，他在 1968 年的一个晚上短暂露面，庄严地（预言性地）吟诵了该剧的台词：“Sock it to me？！” （美国全国广播公司）
Figure 6-27. Laugh-In had little of the Smotherses’ political consciousness and lasted longer. A collage of bits and pieces, one-liners, short sketches, blackouts, catch phrases, wordplay, cartoons, set pieces, and running jokes, it set a style considered typical of the sixties. It also gave an unusual opportunity to female performers, including Ruth Buzzi, Judy Carne, Joann Worley, and Goldie Hawn, pictured here, as well as Lily Tomlin. Its most famous guest performer, however, was Richard M. Nixon, who appeared briefly one evening in 1968 to intone the catchline for the show solemnly (and prophetically): “Sock it to me?!” (NBC.)
电视不仅比大多数其他媒体更有能力处理人物的微妙发展，而且还比其他媒体更有能力。相反，它也没有能力在其他基本的戏剧元素上取得成功。因为它比电影院的强度要低得多（它给我们提供的视觉和音频信息较少），所以动作和奇观的效果比电影院要差。而且因为它肯定不如现场戏剧那么亲密，所以它不能很好地处理思想和情感的高度戏剧性。
Television is not only better equipped than most other media to deal with subtle development of character; it is also conversely poorly equipped to succeed with other basic dramatic elements. Because it is much less intense than cinema (it gives us less visual and audio information), action and spectacle come off more poorly than in the movie theater. And because it is certainly less intimate than live theater, it can’t deal as well with the high drama of ideas and emotions.
然而，有一个因素阻碍了美国电视剧在角色方面充分发挥潜力：到目前为止，它们一直是开放式的。一个成功的系列几乎可以永远持续下去。结果是系列人物，就像路易吉·皮兰德娄的舞台人物一样，可以冻结在永恒的时刻，永远不会发展，永远不会改变。一个成功的节目具有巨大的利润潜力，不能因为美观或戏剧性的原因而被关闭，即使从观众到演员再到高管，每个人都非常清楚它已经超出了其目的。
There is one factor, however, that prevents American series from reaching their full potential in terms of character: until now, they have been open-ended. A successful series can run nearly forever. The result is that series characters, like Luigi Pirandello’s stage characters, can become frozen in the eternal moment, never developing, never changing. A successful program simply has far too great a profit potential to be closed down for esthetic or dramatic reasons, even when it is perfectly clear to everyone, from viewers to actors to executives, that it has outlived its purpose.
图 6-28。斯莫瑟斯兄弟，迪克和汤姆 (1967)。《斯莫瑟斯喜剧兄弟一小时》[原文如此]不仅在政治上活跃且具有尖锐的讽刺性，而且在其短暂的任期内在风格上也具有创造性，后来被紧张的哥伦比亚广播公司高管取消。（哥伦比亚广播公司。）
Figure 6-28. The Smothers Brothers, Dick and Tom (1967). The Smothers Comedy Brothers Hour [sic] was not only politically alive and sharply satirical but also stylistically inventive during its short tenure, before it was canceled by nervous CBS executives. (CBS.)
已有 25 年历史的广播/电视剧《枪烟》在七十年代中期被取消，并不是因为凯蒂、医生和马特·狄龙失去了吸引力，而是因为电视网高管认为西部片吸引了农村中年观众这对广告商来说并不那么有吸引力。阿奇·邦克继续说道，首先是他的孩子离开了节目，然后是他的妻子。制片人诺曼·李尔 (Norman Lear) 和巴德·约金 (Bud Yorkin) 在 1980 年的开场剧集中杀死了伊迪丝 (Edith)，为剧集的后续几季牺牲了她。《干杯》于 1993 年结束了长达 11 年的连播（创情景喜剧纪录），几乎与十年前一样受欢迎。
The twenty-five-year-old radio/television series Gunsmoke was canceled in the mid-seventies not because Kitty, Doc, and Matt Dillon had lost their appeal, but because network executives had decided that Westerns drew a rural, middle-aged audience that wasn’t as attractive to advertisers as it might be. Archie Bunker continued as, first his children left the show, then his wife. Producers Norman Lear and Bud Yorkin killed off Edith in the opening episode in 1980, sacrificing her for a few more seasons for the series. Cheers ended its eleven-year run in 1993 (a record for a sitcom) nearly as popular as it had been a decade earlier.
一些成功的喜剧通过产生大量的衍生剧，部分地避免了开放式结局的陷阱，每一个衍生剧都改变了母剧的情况。玛丽·泰勒·摩尔的两位配角（菲利斯和罗达）在七十年代中期举办了自己的表演。《全家福》本身就是翻拍版，它是从《杰斐逊一家》和《莫德》中衍生出来的，而《杰斐逊一家》又衍生出了《好时光》（因此是第四代衍生剧）。最后，该剧在《阿奇·邦克之家》中展开。20 世纪 90 年代，《弗雷泽》从《干杯》中分离出来（尽管除了主角之外，它没有任何母公司的元素）。
Some successful comedies have partially avoided the open-end trap by generating a profusion of spinoffs, each of which altered the situation of the parent show. Two of the supporting players of Mary Tyler Moore (Phyllis and Rhoda) were given shows of their own in the mid-seventies. All in the Family, itself a remake, spun off The Jeffersons and Maude, which in turn spun off Good Times (thus a fourth-generation spinoff). Finally, the show spun off itself into Archie Bunker’s Place. In the 1990s Frasier spun off from Cheers (although it shared none of its parent’s elements except the title character).
当然，我们一直在专门谈论黄金时段网络电视。也许 20 世纪 70 年代美国电视的核心创新是《周六夜现场》，这项“实验”使得 NBC 周六的深夜时段几乎与受人尊敬的约翰尼·卡森 (Johnny Carson) 占据的工作日一样有利可图。和它的前辈一样，《周六夜现场》为一群演员表演喜剧小品提供了广阔的舞台。与斯莫瑟斯兄弟一样，“未准备好黄金时段玩家”通过话题幽默获得了优势。
We have been speaking, of course, about primetime network television exclusively. Perhaps the central innovation of the 1970s in American television was Saturday Night Live, the “experiment” that made the late-night time slot almost as profitable for NBC on Saturday as it was during the week when occupied by the venerable Johnny Carson. Like its predecessors, Your Show of Shows and Laugh-In, Saturday Night Live offered a broad canvas to a group of actors to do sketch comedy. Like the Smothers Brothers, the “Not Ready for Prime Time Players” gained an edge by doing topical humor.
从1975年开始，该剧迅速在年轻人中赢得了超过一代人的追随者。事实上，它是现场直播的——这在七十年代末是一个引人注目的事实——这导致了一种即兴的即时性精神，这种精神在网络电视中近二十年来从未出现过。它还提供了美国最好的幽默，有时是相关的，但往往不仅仅是诙谐。它成为二十世纪初期杂耍传统的最后避难所。此后的三十多年里，随着人才的不断涌现和流失，《周六夜现场》为流行文化设定了议程。它引进了切维·切斯、约翰·贝鲁什、丹·艾克罗伊德、比尔·默里、吉尔达·拉德纳、艾迪·墨菲、迈克·梅尔斯、亚当·桑德勒和威尔·法雷尔等人才，他们后来在故事片中取得了成功。
Beginning in 1975, the show quickly gained a following among young people that has lasted for more than a generation. It was, indeed, broadcast live—a remarkable fact in the late seventies—and this resulted in a spirit of impromptu immediacy that hadn’t been seen for almost twenty years in network television. It also provided some of the best humor in America, sometimes relevant, often more than simply witty. It became the last refuge for the vaudeville tradition that had marked the earliest years of the twentieth century. For more than thirty years thereafter, as talent came and went, Saturday Night Live set the agenda for popular culture. It introduced talent like Chevy Chase, John Belushi, Dan Aykroyd, Bill Murray, Gilda Radner, Eddie Murphy, Mike Myers, Adam Sandler, and Will Ferrell, who went on to success in feature films.
七十年代的另外两项创新是：纪录片和迷你剧。专为电视制作的电影（或“本周电影”——好莱坞用语“MOW”）的根源不是电视，而是电影。由于缺乏产品，电视网在六十年代初转向大量积压的好莱坞电影。由于时间和审查制度的原因，院线电影是这十年来电视节目的主要内容，尤其有价值，因为它们是预先上市的。随着现有产品开始变得稀薄，并且电影制片人转向看似不适合电视的主题，电视网开始自行制作电影。
Two other innovations marked the seventies: the docudrama and the miniseries. The made-for-television movie (or “Movie-of-the-Week”—MOW in Hollywood parlance) had its roots not in television but in film. Starved for product, the networks had turned in the early sixties to the vast backlog of Hollywood movies. Edited for reasons of time and censorship, theatrical films were a major staple of the television diet throughout the decade, especially valuable because they had been premarketed. As the existing product began to run thin and as film producers turned to subjects seemingly unfit for television, the networks turned to producing films themselves.
电视电影的问题在于，与戏剧产品不同，它们的电视转播没有得到大规模宣传的支持。网络发现了解决这个问题的巧妙方法。利用电视体验中虚构与现实之间的惊人同一性，节目管理人员开发了“纪录片”，这是一部或多或少松散地基于时事和历史的电视电影，涉及观众和观众已经熟知的主题。因此从某种意义上说是预售的。
The trouble with made-for-television films was that, unlike the theatrical product, their telecasts were not supported by massive publicity. The networks discovered an ingenious solution to this problem. Trading on the striking identity between fiction and reality that characterizes the television experience, program executives developed the “docudrama,” a made-for-television film based more or less loosely on current events and history, dealing with subjects already well known to viewers and thus in a sense presold.
《十月导弹》（Missiles of October，1974 年）是其中最早的一部，该片戏剧性地描述了 1962 年约翰·肯尼迪总统任期内的古巴导弹危机。《审判中的恐惧》 （Fear on Trial，1975）调查了哥伦比亚广播公司五十年代中期将著名评论员约翰·亨利·福克（John Henry Faulk）列入黑名单的情况，从而给这一类型带来了很好的自我批评转折。《布莱恩之歌》（Brian's Song，1971）讲述了一个关于足球运动员与癌症的斗争，因此不仅改变了人们对疾病的迷恋，还改变了对运动的狂热。当然，纪录片之父是奥森·威尔斯历史性的广播节目《世界大战》（1938），其纪实技巧是如此逼真，以至于成千上万的听众认为我们真的正在受到火星人的入侵。
The Missiles of October (1974), which dramatized the 1962 Cuban missile crisis of John Kennedy’s term as president, was among the first of these. Fear on Trial (1975) investigated the blacklisting by CBS in the mid-fifties of John Henry Faulk, a well-known commentator, and thus gave the genre a nice self-critical twist. Brian’s Song (1971) was the true story of a football player’s battle with cancer and thus traded not only on the popular fascination with disease but also on the mania for sports. Of course, the godfather of the docudrama was Orson Welles’s historic radio program War of the Worlds (1938), whose documentary techniques were so lifelike that hundreds of thousands of listeners thought we really were being invaded by Martians.
图 6-29。格式和类型。_ 多年来，电视的形式已经得到完善和标准化。变量包括连续性、发展和组织（格式）；以及虚构的性质、质量和方法（类型）。近年来，混合格式和类型受到更多关注：例如，假装纪录片的伪现实节目。（感谢 David Lindroth 对“现实”类型的分析。）
Figure 6-29. FORMATS AND GENRES. Over the years the forms of television have been refined and standardized. The variables include continuity, development, and organization (format); and fictional nature, quality, and approach (genre). In recent years, more attention has been paid to hybrid formats and genres: for example, the Pseudo-Reality shows that pretend to be documentary. (Thanks to David Lindroth for his analysis of “Reality” genres.)
七十年代末的第二个重要发展是迷你剧。经过对这种扩展的两部分或三部分电视电影（例如QB VII）的多次实验， ABC 享受到了非凡的效果亚历克斯·哈利 (Alex Haley) 的《根源》(Roots)于 1977 年 1 月下旬连续八晚播出，取得了巨大的收视率。ABC 管理层对这部廉价制作的剧集太不重视，因此将其安排在非横扫期间播放。*对网络和本地收视率影响最小的时期。然而， 《根源》非常受欢迎，其八集中有七集跻身有史以来十大电视节目之列。
The second important development of the late seventies was the miniseries. After several experiments with this extended two-part or three-part movie-for-television (QB VII, for example) ABC enjoyed extraordinary ratings success with Alex Haley’s Roots, broadcast in late January 1977 on eight consecutive evenings. The ABC management had thought so little of the cheaply produced series that it had scheduled it during a non-sweep * period when it would have the least effect on network and local ratings. Roots was an extraordinary hit, however, and seven of its eight episodes were ranked in the top ten television shows of all time.
图 6-30。帕特·韦弗 (Pat Weaver) 通过《今日》和《今夜》节目发明消遣电视二十多年后，NBC 和制片人洛恩·迈克尔斯 (Lorne Michaels) 在《周六夜现场》中找到了周末节目。1976 年第二季的演员包括约翰·贝鲁什、丹·艾克罗伊德、比尔·默里、拉瑞恩·纽曼（后排）、吉尔达·拉德纳、简·科廷和加勒特·莫里斯。
Figure 6-30. More than twenty years after Pat Weaver invented pastime television with the Today and Tonight programs, NBC and producer Lorne Michaels found a weekend equivalent in Saturday Night Live. The 1976 second season cast included John Belushi, Dan Aykroyd, Bill Murray, Laraine Newman (back row), Gilda Radner, Jane Curtin, and Garrett Morris.
一年多后，NBC 的《大屠杀》也以一场史诗般的历史悲剧为主题，受到了有争议的评论和很高的收视率。1977 年 11 月的四个晚上，弗朗西斯·科波拉的两部《教父》电影的电视转播以及按时间顺序重新剪辑的几分钟额外镜头也是一个里程碑。到了八十年代，迷你剧已经成为一种电视形式。
A little more than a year later NBC’s Holocaust, also taking as its subject a historical tragedy of epic proportions, received controversial critical notices and substantial ratings. The telecast of Francis Coppola’s two Godfather films together with a few minutes of extra footage re-edited in chronological order during four evenings in November 1977 was also a landmark. By the eighties the miniseries was well established as a television format.
这部迷你剧填补了一个半小时的单镜头电视电影和无尽的美式连续剧之间的连续性。现在，电视作品（或戏剧电影）可以以不同长度和划分的多种形式呈现。所有这些格式的统一之处——并将它们与传统格式区分开来——是它们的连载风格：故事的发展；故事的发展；故事的发展。结局已在望。
The miniseries filled in the continuum between the one-shot hour-and-a-half made-for-television movie and the endless American-style series. A television property (or theatrical film, for that matter) can be couched, now, in numerous forms of various lengths and divisions. What unites all these formats—and separates them from the traditional formats—is their serial style: their stories develop; an end is in sight.
图 6-31。根据亚历克斯·黑利 (Alex Haley) 的书改编的迷你剧《根源》(Roots )（1977 年）不仅创下了收视率记录，还标志着人们对弥合种族鸿沟的民族遗产重新产生了兴趣。
Figure 6-31. The miniseries Roots (1977), based on Alex Haley’s book, not only set ratings records but marked a renewed interest in ethnic heritage that bridged racial divides.
八十年代和九十年代更有趣的戏剧节目遵循了这一传统，逐集发展人物。其中最主要的是 Steven Bochco 的开创性作品《Hill Street Blues》，该作品于 1980 年首次亮相，标志着乐队的更替。《希尔街蓝调》也许是八十年代所有媒体中最具创新性的叙事方式，它融合了震撼人心、以问题为导向的警察剧和荒诞喜剧，所有这些都以一系列关于一大群人物的连续肥皂剧故事为背景。它将罗伯特·奥尔特曼的幽默感和范围融入到对相关政治问题的现实纪录片处理中。程式化的高级喜剧与严肃的智慧相结合，所有这些都以最平凡的类型为背景，标志着故事讲述的复杂性达到了一个新的水平——这是故事片从业者尚未超越的水平。
The more interesting dramatic shows of the eighties and nineties followed this tradition, developing characters from episode to episode. Chief among these was Steven Bochco’s seminal Hill Street Blues, which debuted in 1980 and marked a changing of the guard. Perhaps the most innovative narrative in any medium during the eighties, Hill Street Blues merged hard-hitting, issues-oriented police drama with absurdist comedy, all set in the context of a continuing set of soap opera stories about a large group of characters. It brought Robert Altman’s sense of humor and range to realistic docudrama treatment of relevant political issues. The combination of stylized high comedy with serious intelligence, all set in the context of the most mundane of genres, marked a new level of sophistication in storytelling—one that has yet to be exceeded by practitioners of the feature film.
《希尔街》是 Grant Tinker 的 MTM 制作公司的产品，预示着 Tinker 作为 NBC 救世主的统治。1982 年，另一部 MTM 作品《St. Elsewhere》加入该剧，由布鲁斯·帕特洛（格温妮丝的父亲）担任执行制片，该剧将希尔街模式应用于医院环境。1985年，Bochco将这种富有想象力和创新的风格应用到了一群律师身上。洛杉矶法律在其长期发展过程中涵盖了数百个智慧和感知问题。它可能被认为是八十年代的标志性电视节目，因为它几乎同样频繁地涉及商业问题与政治问题一样，商业活动是美国那十年的特征。
A product of Grant Tinker’s MTM production company, Hill Street heralded Tinker’s reign as savior of NBC. It was joined in 1982 by another MTM production, St. Elsewhere, executive-produced by Bruce Paltrow (father of Gwyneth), which applied the Hill Street formula to a hospital setting. In 1985, Bochco applied this imaginative and innovative style to a group of lawyers. L.A. Law covered hundreds of issues with wit and perception during its long run. It may be remembered as the emblematic television show of the eighties, since it dealt almost as often with business issues as with political issues, and it was the business of business that characterized that decade in America.
你可以看到这里发生的事情：八十年代的电视，就像六十年代的电影一样，已经足够成熟，可以发展出自我意识。仅仅制作电视节目是不够的；现在有必要以讽刺和复杂的叙事形式来表达该计划。六十年代，许多优秀的熟练电影制片人都是从电视界走出来的。在八十年代和九十年代，许多电影制片人在电视中找到了在美学和智力上更有价值的工作。潮流已经转变。虽然我们仍然接受过区分这两种形式的训练，但艺术家在相当长一段时间内将它们视为同一枚硬币的两半。
You can see what was happening here: television in the eighties, like film in the sixties, was mature enough to develop a self-consciousness. It wasn’t enough to make a television show; now it was necessary to couch that program in ironic and sophisticated narrative forms. In the sixties, many of the better journeyman filmmakers came out of television. In the eighties and nineties, many filmmakers found more rewarding work, esthetically and intellectually, in television. The tide had turned. While we are still trained to separate the two forms, artists for quite a while now have considered them two halves of the same coin.
直到七十年代末，人们都知道电视明星永远无法出演故事片。许多人尝试过但都失败了。但当约翰·特拉沃尔塔和亨利·温克勒成功从小银幕过渡到大银幕时，一个新时代开始了。演员们随意地在两种形式之间来回穿梭，而许多七十年代聪明的年轻电影导演（克劳迪娅·威尔就是一个例子）在电视中找到了更舒适的艺术生活。作家们发现电子媒体最受欢迎。在故事片世界中，编剧仍然被认为是雇佣兵，几乎没有艺术控制力，而在电视领域，编剧兼制片人已成为当今的艺术英雄，拥有真正的权力，正如博赫科和许多其他人发现的那样。
Until the late seventies it was common knowledge that television stars could never carry feature films. Many had tried and failed. But when John Travolta and Henry Winkler successfully made the transition from the smaller screen to the larger, a new era began. Actors moved back and forth between the two forms at will, while many of the brighter young film directors of the seventies (Claudia Weill is an example) found more comfortable artistic lives in television. Writers found the electronic medium most welcoming. In the feature film world, writers are still considered hired guns, with little artistic control, while in television the writer-producer has become the artistic hero of the day, with real power, as Bochco and many others discovered.
博赫科的作品最能体现风格和流派的碰撞，这也标志着八十年代和九十年代初期的其他系列。迈克尔·曼 (Michael Mann) 执导的《迈阿密风云》 (1985-89) 在色彩缤纷的拉丁美洲新首都举办了一场黑色电影警匪剧，配以时尚的配乐。格伦·戈登·卡伦 (Glenn Gordon Caron) 的时尚喜剧《月光》 (Moonlighting )（1985-89）经常引用其自身。爱德华·兹威克和马歇尔·赫斯科维茨的三十多岁（1987-91），在坚持基本肥皂剧叙事模式的同时，经常玩弄文体技巧。
The collision of styles and genres best exemplified by Bochco’s work also marked other series of the eighties and early nineties. Michael Mann’s Miami Vice (1985–89) set a Film-Noir cop show in the colorful pastels of the new capital of Latino America with a hip soundtrack to match. Glenn Gordon Caron’s stylish comedy Moonlighting (1985–89) often referenced itself. Edward Zwick’s and Marshall Herskovitz’s thirty something (1987–91), while sticking to the basic soap opera mode of narrative, often toyed with stylistic tricks.
到了1990年，钟摆再次摆动。迪克·沃尔夫的《法律与秩序》 （1990 年至今）向杰克·韦伯三十年前开创性的《天罗地网》致敬，同时建立了一种主导电视剧二十年的格式。《法律与秩序》在纽约拍摄，风格几乎接近歌舞伎剧场的风格，每周的前半小时讲述三名警察调查犯罪的故事，后半小时讲述三名地方检察官起诉该案的故事。这六个“角色”是如此克制——他们没有表现出任何私人生活——以至于人们渴望看到乔·星期五中士偶尔与他的搭档和助手开玩笑。周末烧烤。通过避开角色，沃尔夫能够专注于想法和问题，创作出一个又一个激烈且涉及的故事情节。因为这部剧是关于想法而不是角色，所以它能够在近二十年的播出中经历了无数次演员阵容的变化。该剧及其衍生剧提供了足够的剧集来支持自己的有线电视频道。
By 1990, the pendulum was swinging again. Dick Wolf’s Law & Order (1990-) paid homage to Jack Webb’s pioneering Dragnet of thirty years earlier, while establishing a format that would dominate television drama for two decades. Shot in New York, and stylized almost to the point of Kabuki theater, Law & Order each week devoted its first half hour to three cops investigating a crime and its second half hour to three district attorneys prosecuting that case. The six “characters” were so restrained—they evidenced no private lives whatsoever—that one longed for Sergeant Joe Friday’s occasional perfunctory banter with his partner and sidekick about the weekend barbecue. By eschewing character, Wolf was able to concentrate on ideas and issues, producing one intense and involving storyline after another. Because the show is about ideas rather than character it has been able to survive numerous cast changes over its nearly two-decade run. Together with its spinoffs the show has provided enough episodes to support its own cable channel.
图 6-32。史蒂文·博切奥 (Steven Bocheo) 的《希尔街蓝调》 (Hill Street Blues，1981-87) 为电视剧树立了一种新风格，其效果令人印象深刻。每部剧中至少有十四名主角出现在荧幕上。（这是原来的演员阵容。）
Figure 6-32. Steven Bocheo’s Hill Street Blues (1981–87) set a new style for television drama whose effect was felt well into the oughts. No fewer than fourteen lead characters received screen time in each show. (This is the original cast.)
图 6-33。博赫科的《洛杉矶法律》（1986-94）将这个公式应用到了一家虚构的洛杉矶律师事务所，增加了对热门话题的辛辣评论和对八十年代城市的滑稽感觉。人物名单减少到十二人：律师的费用比警察高。（这是原来的演员阵容。）
Figure 6-33. Bochco’s LA Law (1986–94) applied the formula to a fictional Los Angeles law firm, adding to the mix pungent comment on topical subjects and a droll feel for the city of the eighties. The roster of characters was reduced to twelve: lawyers cost more than cops. (This is the original cast.)
图 6-34。三十多岁的演员（1987-91）在一张姿势优美的宣传照中。虽然缺乏史蒂文·博赫科 (Steven Bochco) 节目的尖锐性和讽刺性，但由埃德·茨威克 (Ed Zwick) 和马歇尔·赫斯科维茨 (Marshall Herskovitz) 制作的这部剧集是“迷失的”七十年代一代的第一个重大贡献。
Figure 6-34. The cast of thirtysomething (1987–91) in a well-posed publicity shot. While it lacked the bite and irony of Steven Bochco’s shows, this series, produced by Ed Zwick and Marshall Herskovitz, was the first major contribution of the “lost” seventies generation.
也许九十年代最具创新性的系列是 Steven Bochco 1991 年的《警察摇滚》。就像法律与秩序一样，它结合了警察和律师。但与沃尔夫毫无个性的喉舌不同的是，这些人有不可抗拒的习惯，每集都会唱六到八次！该系列在几周后被取消。博赫科还通过《NYPD Blue》 （1993-2005）开辟了新天地，他试图为电视剧带来更成人的氛围。
Perhaps the most innovative series of the nineties was Steven Bochco’s 1991 Cop Rock. Like Law & Order, it combined cops and attorneys. But unlike Wolf’s characterless mouthpieces, these folks had the irresistible habit of breaking into song six or eight times each episode! The series was canceled after a few weeks. Bochco also broke new ground with NYPD Blue (1993–2005), his attempt to bring a more adult atmosphere to television drama.
同样令人感兴趣的（尽管持续时间不长）是茨威克和赫斯科维茨的《我所谓的生活》（1994-95），它对青少年的影响就像他们三十多岁时对年轻人的影响一样。
Also of interest (although it didn’t last long) was Zwick and Herskovitz’s My So-Called Life (1994–95) which did for teenagers what their earlier thirty something had done for young adults.
虽然八十年代黄金时段的长达一小时的戏剧开辟了新天地，但半小时的情景喜剧更为传统。两部喜剧在这一时期占据主导地位：长期上演的《干杯》（Cheers，1982-93）和非常成功的《考斯比秀》（The Cosby Show，1984-92）。《干杯》避开了职业和家庭，将一群角色设置在酒吧里，在那里他们没有什么可以分散他们的俏皮话的注意力。
While the hour-long dramas of eighties primetime broke new ground, the half-hour sitcoms were more traditional. Two comedies dominated the period: the long-running Cheers (1982–93) and the highly successful The Cosby Show (1984–92). Eschewing both professions and families, Cheers set its group of characters in a bar, where they had nothing to distract them from wisecracking.
《科斯比秀》展示了极具影响力的比尔·科斯比的才华，他是布鲁克林中产阶级家庭明智而机智的一家之主。它的社会学意义比它的幽默更重要，尽管它是真诚的。二十年前，比尔·考斯比 (Bill Cosby) 与《我是间谍》(I Spy)联合主演，成为第一位主演戏剧连续剧的非裔美国人，现在他已准备好在美国文化偶像的万神殿中占据一席之地。自从诺曼·李尔的衍生剧《杰弗逊一家》 （1975-85）以来，黑人情景喜剧在整个七八十年代很常见，但重点始终是种族。科斯比在六十年代拒绝作为一名单口喜剧演员“走奇特林”路线，他强调他的角色和家庭的人性，而不是他们的种族。因此，《考斯比秀》成为美国种族政治史上的里程碑。
The Cosby Show showcased the talents of the enormously influential Bill Cosby as the wise and witty head of a middle-class Brooklyn family. It was more important for its sociology than for its humor, as genuine as that was. Having been the first African-American to star in a dramatic series twenty years earlier as the co-star of I Spy, Bill Cosby was now ready to take his place in the pantheon of American cultural icons. Black sitcoms had been common throughout the seventies and eighties, ever since Norman Lear’s spinoff The Jeffersons (1975–85), but the emphasis had always been on race. Cosby, who had refused to “go the chit’lin’ route” as a standup comic in the sixties, emphasized the humanity of his character and his family—not their race. As a result, The Cosby Show stands as a landmark in the history of American race politics.
其中许多具有里程碑意义的节目都是在 NBC 节目主管布兰登·塔蒂科夫 (Brandon Tartikoff) 于 1981 年至 1991 年间制作的。从《科斯比秀》到《家庭纽带》再到《迈阿密风云》，他在电视界留下了不可磨灭的印记。他无疑是自帕特·韦弗以来最重要的程序员，也是最后一位取得如此杰出成就的程序员。
Many of these landmark shows were developed during the reign of programming chief Brandon Tartikoff at NBC between 1981 and 1991. From The Cosby Show to Family Ties to Miami Vice he left an indelible mark on the TV landscape. He was certainly the most important programmer since Pat Weaver, and the last of the breed to achieve such prominence.
图 6-35。迪克·沃尔夫的《法律与秩序》（1990-）强调思想而非角色，以至于它能够在每年更换演员的情况下保持其地位五年。最初的六位主角（图中为其中四位）到 1994 年只剩下一位。没有其他黄金时段剧集能够做到这一点。左起：克里斯·诺斯、乔治·杜兹扎、迈克尔·莫里亚蒂和理查德·布鲁克斯。
Figure 6-35. Dick Wolf’s Law & Order (1990-) emphasized ideas over character to such an extent that it was able to maintain its position for five years while changing actors every year. Of the six original leads, four of whom are pictured here, only one remained by 1994. No other prime-time series has been able to do that. From left: Chris Noth, George Dzundza, Michael Moriarty, and Richard Brooks.
正如您所预料的那样，八十年代电视中的大部分情节都发生在网络外和黄金时段之外。这一时期的节目创新强调了媒体的即时性，仿佛是对不断膨胀的有线电视和录像机媒体提供的丰富的虚构和故事片材料的反应。十年间，随着有线电视普及率从不到 30% 增长到 60% 以上，并且VSR拥有率从接近零激增到 90 年代初的 75% 以上，电视消费者面临着丰富的视频娱乐。当地的音像商店提供了五到万部故事片的库，还有两打特殊兴趣的有线电视网络，每周提供数千小时的内容，从最新的故事片到家庭购物，这真是一个奇迹。半小时的情景喜剧和一小时的正剧最终幸存下来。
As you might expect, much of the action in television during the eighties took place off-network and outside primetime. The programming innovations of the period emphasized the immediacy of the medium, as if in reaction to the wealth of fictional and feature film material offered by the ballooning cable and VCR media. As cable penetration grew from under 30 percent to more than 60 percent during the decade and as VSR ownership exploded from close to zero to more than 75 percent by the early nineties, television consumers were confronted with a cornucopia of video entertainment. With the local video store offering a library of five to ten thousand feature films, and two dozen special-interest cable networks providing a weekly feed of thousands of hours of everything from recent features to home shopping, it’s a wonder that the traditional broadcast genres of the half-hour sitcom and the hour drama survived at all.
为了应对录像机和有线电视的双重挑战，广播公司转向了一种后来被称为“基于现实的节目”的风格。如果这个短语看起来很尴尬，那么这种类型也很尴尬：“现实”和节目之间的关系通常非常紧张。首播联合组织，节目制作人直接与当地电视台进行交易（或有线系统），成为基于现实的节目的场所。随着真人秀节目的蓬勃发展，首播联合市场也随之蓬勃发展。
To confront the twin challenges of VCR and cable, broadcasters turned to a style that came to be known as “reality-based programming.” If the phrase seems awkward, so does the genre: the relationship between “reality” and the programming is often quite strained. First-run syndication, in which the producers of the programs make deals directly with local stations (or cable systems), became the venue for reality-based programming. As reality shows boomed, so did the first-run syndication market.
八十年代，约翰尼·卡森在深夜节目中出现了许多新的竞争对手，其中一些是成功的（大卫·莱特曼、阿森尼奥·霍尔），许多则不是（琼·里弗斯），还有更多的新作品出现在俗气的日间脱口秀领域。这是菲尔·多纳休 (Phil Donahue) 在七十年代开创的。深夜节目的重点是展示艺人推销新产品，而白天的节目则对生活方式杂耍怪人进行激烈的竞争——通常带有荒谬而复杂的性倾向。
The eighties saw a host of new competitors to Johnny Carson in the late-night time slot, some successful (David Letterman, Arsenio Hall), many not (Joan Rivers), and an even greater number of new entries in the tawdry daytime talkshow field that had been pioneered by Phil Donahue in the seventies. While the late-night shows focused on showcasing entertainers plugging new products, the daytime shows engaged in feverish competition for lifestyle sideshow freaks—usually with absurdly convoluted sexual proclivities.
一切都开始得天真无邪：在七十年代，菲尔·多纳休因对女权主义和其他政治问题的辩论做出的合理贡献而赢得了很大程度的尊重；但随着八十年代的过去，白天的脱口秀节目变成了逻辑极端的马戏团。这也许只是反映了美国公共生活大多数领域情报的瓦解。到了 20 世纪 90 年代中期，这种形式已经沦落到卑鄙的杰里·斯普林格 (Jerry Springer) 和淫荡的霍华德·斯特恩 (Howard Stern) 的水平。
It had all started innocently enough: in the seventies Phil Donahue had gained a good measure of respect for reasoned contributions to the debate on feminist and other political issues; but as the eighties wore on, the daytime talkshow circuit became a circus of logical extremes. In this perhaps it only mirrored the unraveling of intelligence in most areas of American public life. By the mid-1990s, the format had sunk to the level of sleazeball Jerry Springer and smut-nut Howard Stern.
脱口秀并不是现实题材中唯一的类型。在七十年代即使是最积极进取的电影教育家也无法预见的发展中，娱乐本身成为了一个流行的主题。吉恩·西斯克尔 (Gene Siskel) 和罗杰·艾伯特 (Roger Ebert) 是两位受人尊敬的纸质电影评论家，他们于 1978 年在 PBS 上开创了这一类型。很快就有六对真诚的人加入了他们的行列，表达观点并利用电影剪辑。《今夜娱乐》（1981-）及其模仿者每天晚上为数百万娱乐爱好者提供专业细节的娱乐业报道。
Talkshows weren’t the only genre in the reality-based category. In a development unforeseen by even the most aggressive of film educators in the seventies, entertainment itself became a popular subject. Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert, two respected print film critics, pioneered the genre on PBS in 1978. They were soon joined by half a dozen pairs of earnest men expressing opinions and exploiting film clips. Entertainment Tonight (1981–) and its imitators covered the business of entertainment in professional detail every evening for millions of buffs.
鲁珀特·默多克（Rupert Murdoch）靠出版小报发家致富，他通过《时事》（ A Current Affair，1986-1996）将这种情感带入电视，这是他的新福克斯网络的第一批热门影片之一。这种血腥和煽情的传统组合很快就被许多模仿者加入。在这一点上，联合小报节目与普通的当地新闻节目没有太大区别，当地新闻节目越来越集中于谋杀、纵火、强奸和虐待儿童等上镜主题。
Rupert Murdoch, who had made his fortune publishing tabloid newspapers, brought this sensibility to television with A Current Affair (1986–1996), one of the first hits of his new Fox network. This traditional mix of gore and sensationalism was soon joined by a host of imitators. In this, the syndicated tabloid shows weren’t much different from the average local news shows, which increasingly concentrated on the photogenic subjects of murder, arson, rape, and child abuse.
甚至传统电视网也加入了基于现实的节目潮流，随着杂志节目在备受尊敬且盈利的《60 分钟》的引领下成为黄金时段的主要节目。到 20 世纪 90 年代末，杂志节目已成为大多数电视网的晚间专题节目，甚至超过了 20 世纪 70 年代电视网的电影节目。为什么？现实趋势是部分原因；《60分钟》的常年高收视率也是如此；但这种格式很快就普及了，因为这些节目利用了电视网现有的新闻部门，制作成本低廉，而且最重要的是，电视网无需向其他电视网支付制作费。例如，当时 NBC 发现自己必须向华纳公司开出一张 8.5 亿美元的支票，以保留其主播节目《急诊室》（就像 1998 年那样），并且与体育联盟的合同价值数十亿美元，诸如《杂志秀在经济上是不可抗拒的。
Even the traditional networks joined the reality-based programming tide as magazine shows became a staple of primetime following the lead of the venerable and profitable 60 Minutes. By the late 1990s magazine shows were nightly features on most networks—exceeding even the movie programming that had carried the networks through the 1970s. Why? The reality trend was part of the reason; so were the perennial high ratings of 60 Minutes; but the format became pervasive so quickly because these shows leveraged the existing news departments at the networks, they were cheap to produce, and—most important—the networks didn’t have to pay production fees to others. At a time when, for example, NBC found itself having to write a check to Warner for $850 million to keep its anchor show ER (as it did in 1998) and contracts with the sports leagues were denominated in billions, homegrown news productions like the magazine shows were economically irresistible.
人们可能会认为杂志节目的流行代表了对现实的渴望，但在九十年代推动美国电视发展的“现实”比任何小说都更加荒谬。这十年始于美国有线电视新闻网 (CNN) 的明星记者彼得·阿内特 (Peter Arnett) 在巴格达的现场，愚蠢地描述了海湾战争过早爆发时夜视摄像机以黄绿色和青色色调捕捉到的爆炸事件。回想起来，这十年中的大部分时间似乎都在关注 OJ 辛普森案的审判，这是对正义和媒体的嘲弄。然后，我们以一根大雪茄、一声巨响和《莫妮卡之年》（1998）结束，其中包括总统大陪审团证词的实际广播——这是一场让 OJ 相形见绌的法律嘲讽（尽管它是磁带延迟的）。总统的纠葛被媒体马戏团很好地结束了，这些媒体以次要王室成员的死亡为食：戴安娜（1997年）和小肯尼迪（1999年）。*
One would like to suppose that the popularity of magazine shows represented a hunger for reality, but the “reality” that drove American television in the nineties was more absurd than any fiction. The decade began with Peter Arnett, CNN’s star correspondent, on location in Baghdad dumbly describing the bombing that the night-vision cameras were capturing in shades of chartreuse and teal as the Gulf War ejaculated prematurely. Most of the middle of the decade, it seems in retrospect, was taken up with the O. J. Simpson trial, a travesty of justice and media. Then we concluded with a fat cigar and a bang and the year of Monica (1998), which included the actual broadcast of the president’s grand jury testimony—a legal travesty that dwarfed O. J. (even though it was tape-delayed). The presidential imbroglio was bookended nicely by the media circuses that fed on the deaths of secondary royalty: Diana (1997) and JFK Jr (1999).*
现实运动在公共广播中找到了更有益的表现。在 70 年代早期的发展过程中，PBS 严重依赖英国戏剧进口。八十年代，随着预算紧缩，公共广播公司 (PBS) 制片人转向本土且成本较低的类型。随着《法国厨师》先驱朱莉娅·柴尔德 (Julia Child) 与志同道合的人一起改造老房子、修理旧汽车、园艺，当然，还做饭、做饭、再做更多的事情，这个“如何做”节目成为公共电视上广受欢迎的主打节目。1980 年卡尔·萨根 (Carl Sagan) 的《宇宙》系列节目取得成功后， 《Nova》和《自然》等科学和自然节目（通常是国际合拍片）成为 PBS 节目表中的常年主播。到了 20 世纪 90 年代中期，这些指导类型中的每一种都拥有了自己的有线电视网络。
The reality movement found more salutary manifestations in Public Broadcasting. Throughout its early growth in the seventies, PBS had depended heavily on British drama imports. As budgets tightened in the eighties, PBS producers turned to homegrown and less-expensive genres. The how-to program became a welcome staple of public television as The French Chef pioneer Julia Child was joined by kindred spirits who remodeled old houses, fixed old cars, gardened, and, yes, cooked, and cooked, and cooked some more. After the success of Carl Sagan’s Cosmos series in 1980, science and nature programs like Nova and Nature (usually international coproductions) became perennial anchors of the PBS schedule. By the mid-1990s each of these how-to genres had its own cable network.
这部几乎被商业网络驱逐的纪录片在公共电视节目中找到了受欢迎的家。《前线》（1982-）表明“基于现实”的编程可以是智能的、相关的——甚至是明智的。亨利·汉普顿 (Henry Hampton) 感人至深的《获奖之眼》 (1987、1990) 是美国民权运动的权威历史，证明了电视作为历史媒介的真正价值。肯·伯恩斯 (Ken Burns) 的《内战》 (1990) 吸引了 PBS 观众的创纪录人数，其中超过 50 万观众还购买了在广播中宣传的录像带版本。电视首次被确认为参考媒体。伯恩斯随后推出了其他不祥的系列剧（《棒球》，1994 年；《爵士乐》， 2001 年；《战争》， 2007 年）——全都是高度风格化、静态而严肃的——全都引人入胜且非常受欢迎：伯恩斯已经成为一种自己的流派。
The documentary, all but banished from the commercial networks, found a welcome home on public television schedules. Frontline (1982–) showed that “reality-based” programming could be intelligent, relevant—even wise. Henry Hampton’s moving and incisive Eyes on the Prize (1987, 1990), a definitive history of the civil rights movement in America, proved the real value of television as a historical medium. Ken Burns’s The Civil War (1990) attracted record PBS audiences, more than half a million of whom also purchased the videocassette version advertised on the air. For the first time, television was confirmed as a reference medium. Burns followed with other portentous series (Baseball 1994; Jazz, 2001; The War, 2007)—all highly stylized, all static and serious—all absorbing and highly popular: Burns has become a genre unto himself.
1986 年，比尔·莫耶斯 (Bill Moyers) 最终放弃了与商业网络哥伦比亚广播公司 (CBS) 的暧昧关系，成为公共电视首席散文家，从直接新闻转向政治，从纪录片转向哲学，推出了《约瑟夫·坎贝尔》 (Joseph Campbell) 和《神话的力量》 (1988)、 《现在》 (2002)等系列剧。 -2004），比尔·莫耶斯杂志（2007-）。莫耶斯可能是唯一一位可以继承爱德华·R·默罗智慧遗产的职业记者，这对美国电视史来说是一个悲伤的评论。让我们希望他多年来完善的论文形式能够成为未来几代作家兼制片人的典范。
In 1986 Bill Moyers finally abandoned his flirtation with commercial network CBS to settle down as public television’s premiere essayist, moving from straight news to politics, from documentary to philosophy, with series like Joseph Campbell and The Power of Myth (1988), Now (2002-2004), Bill Moyers Journal (2007–). It’s a sad commentary on the history of American television that Moyers may be the only working journalist who can lay claim to the wise heritage of Edward R. Murrow. Let’s hope the essay form he has refined over the years proves a model for generations of writer-producers to come.
在“应该”中，基于现实的编程的主导概念被降低了一两个等级。广播网络越来越受到有线节目的威胁，为了控制成本，他们的节目表上充斥着制作成本低廉的游戏节目和比赛。讽刺的是，这些时装秀的模特都是欧洲人。*
In the oughts the dominant concept of reality-based programming was ratcheted down a notch or two. Increasingly threatened by cable programming the broadcast networks, intent on controlling costs, littered their schedules with cheap-to-produce game shows and contests. Ironically, the models for these shows were both European.*
《谁想成为百万富翁》（1999 年至今）改编自一部英国连续剧，该剧现已在一百多个国家获得许可，创下了纪录。与五十年代的游戏节目或创纪录的Jeopardy（1964 年至今）有何不同？不多：专注于一名参赛者；没有时间限制；观众围坐；黑色套装；最重要的是 Technocrane 的摄影技术。ABC 在早期的黄金时段表现不佳每周多次播出该节目，试图从中获取尽可能多的收视率。它标志着精心校准的黄金时段节目游戏结束的开始。如今，黄金时段对所有人来说都是免费的：四十年来的规则现在毫无用处。要了解《百万富翁》及其仿制品的解药，请聆听科尔·波特的同名歌曲（1954 年，上流社会： “谁想成为百万富翁？我不想”）。
Who Wants to Be a Millionaire (1999–) was based on a British series which has now been licensed in more than one hundred countries—a record. What’s different from the game shows of the fifties, or the record-setting Jeopardy (1964–)? Not much: a focus on one contestant; no time limits; audience seated in the round; black set; and most important, Technocrane camerawork. In the early oughts ABC riddled their prime-time schedule with multiple weekly broadcasts of the show trying to milk as much ratings juice from it as possible. It marked the beginning of the end of the carefully calibrated prime-time programming game. Today, prime time is a free for all: the rules that pertained for forty years are now useless. For an antidote to Millionaire and its knockoffs listen to Cole Porter’s song of the same name (1954, High Society: “Who wants to be a millionaire? I don’t”).
图 6-36。亨利·汉普顿 (Henry Hampton) 具有里程碑意义的《聚焦奖项》中的一个戏剧性镜头——只是该系列发掘的非凡历史镜头的一个例子。
Figure 6-36. A dramatic shot from Henry Hampton’s landmark Eyes on the Prize—just one example of the remarkable historical footage the series unearthed.
比这部翻新的智力问答节目更有影响力的是《老大哥》（ Big Brother，2000-）。基于荷兰的一个项目（现已授权给 70 个国家），其概念很简单：将一群人放在一所房子（或一座岛上）中，让他们在人气竞赛中相互竞争。这是对初中或中学社会生活的夸张推断（令人惊讶的是，该剧的一个版本尚未以原始背景为背景。）评论家杰曼·格里尔将其定义为“残酷电视”。要了解“老大哥”及其仿冒品的解药，请阅读乔治·奥威尔的小说《1984》（1949），该小说的书名即出自该小说。
More influential than this refurbished quiz show has been Big Brother (2000–). Based on a Dutch program (now licensed to seventy countries) the concept is simple: put a bunch of people in a house (or on an island) and make them compete against each other in a popularity contest. It’s an exaggerated extrapolation of the social life of junior high or middle school (and it is surprising that a version of this show has not yet been set in that original context.) Critic Germaine Greer has defined it as “Cruelty Television.” For an antidote to Big Brother and its knockoffs read George Orwell’s novel 1984 (1949) from which the title is derived.
我不明白为什么这些竞赛节目获得了“真人秀”的称号。将《幸存者》的任何一集与《美国家庭》进行比较：这里的任何现实都是被迫和抽象的。这些节目唯一“真实”的是他们使用非专业演员。和脚本很瘦。像这样的节目是节目的填充物，履行与八十年代每周电影相同的功能。
Why these contest shows have gained the appellation “reality TV” escapes me. Compare any episode of Survivor to An American Family: whatever reality there is here is forced and abstract. The only thing “real” about these shows is that they use nonprofessional actors. And the scripts are thin. Shows like this are programming filler, fulfilling the same function in the oughts that movies-of-the week served in the eighties.
然而，尽管“真人秀”无处不在，情景喜剧和小时剧仍然存活下来。这部情景喜剧可能已经失去了光彩（《人人都爱雷蒙德？》、《男人两个半？》），但这部剧却展现出了一些新的生命。亚伦·索金 (Aaron Sorkin) 的《白宫风云》(The West Wing，1999-2006) 将一些情报应用于总统政治问题。福克斯的《24小时》（2001年至今）利用了将一天发生的事件扩展为一整季电视节目的叙事理念。该剧讲述了一个名为“反恐部队”的虚构政府组织，有幸在 2001 年 9 月 11 日后不到两个月的时间首播。《绝望的主妇》（2004 年至今）很好地放大了黄金时段肥皂剧的潜在性欲。在《30 Rock》（2006 年至今）中，编剧兼演员兼制片人蒂娜·菲虚构了她作为《周六夜现场》明星的经历。所有这些戏剧都避开了通常的警察和医生的惯例，探索新的主题。但警察和医生在美国网络电视节目中仍然占据重要地位。
But despite the pervasiveness of “reality tv” in the oughts, the sitcom and the hour drama survive. The sitcom may have lost its lustre (Everybody Loves Raymond?, Two-and-a-Half Men?) but the drama has shown some new life. Aaron Sorkin’s The West Wing (1999–2006) applied some intelligence to presidential political issues. Fox’s 24 (2001–) exploited the narrative conceit of expanding the events of one day into a full tv season. About a fictional government organization called the Counter-Terrorism Unit, the show had the good fortune to debut less than two months after September 11, 2001. Desperate Housewives (2004–) nicely magnified the underlying sexuality of soap operas in prime time. With 30 Rock (2006–) writer-actor-producer Tina Fey fictionalized her experience as a star of Saturday Night Live. All of these dramas eschewed the usual cops-and-doctors routine to explore new subject matter. But cops and doctors still loom large in American network television programming.
就像史蒂文·博赫科 (Steven Bochco) 之于八十年代和迪克·沃尔夫 (Dick Wolf) 之于九十年代一样，杰里·布鲁克海默 (Jerry Bruckheimer) 之于应有之人。他的《犯罪现场调查》（2000 年至今）及其衍生作品定义了这十年的电视审美。这些节目为他们的调查团队配备了充满伪科学设备的实验室，以提供丰富多彩的图形，这些图形可能与同样普遍的犯罪现场血腥有很大关系，也可能没有太大关系。与其说是逻辑，不如说是视觉体验：不断的闪回，无论真实与否；重磅流行音乐；多种颜色——绿色、红色、金色；慢速和快速剪辑；大量的闪光擦拭布；持续不断的配乐呼啸声；剧情切换，切换，切换。犯罪现场调查的风格在一定程度上归功于《迈阿密风云》的高雅风格，更多地归功于数字技术，它使这种视觉上的忙碌变得如此简单。
What Steven Bochco was to the eighties and Dick Wolf was to the nineties, Jerry Bruckheimer has been to the oughts. His CSI (2000–) and its spinoffs have defined the tv esthetic of the decade. These shows arm their investigator teams with labs full of pseudo-scientific gear to provide colorful graphics which may or may not have much to do with the equally prevalent crime-scene gore. It’s less about logic than the visual ride: constant flashbacks, real or not; heavy pop soundtrack; lots of color washes—green, red, gold; slomo and quick cuts; lots of flash wipes; constant soundtrack whooshes; switch, switch, switch in the plotline. The CSI style owes a little to the high style of Miami Vice, a lot more to the digital technology that makes such visual busyness so easy.
当网络电视的需求继续缓慢下降时，原创有线电视节目已经成熟。大卫·蔡斯 (David Chase) 的 HBO 连续剧《黑道家族》（1999 年至 2007 年共播出六季）显然占据了这十年的主导地位。是性、暴力和街头语言吗？或者是一个四十多岁的主人公试图接管家族企业并使之现代化，同时还要面对令人窒息的母亲、要求很高的妻子和两个十几岁的孩子的吸引力？难怪他去看心理医生。（或者可能是一群有趣的演员在外景地表现出色。）无论出于什么原因，《黑道家族》仍然是历史上最赚钱的有线电视节目，而当时 HBO 的收视率还不到 30% 的美国家庭。
While network television continued its slow decline in the oughts, original cable programming came of age. David Chase’s HBO series The Sopranos (six seasons between 1999 and 2007) clearly dominated the decade. Was it the sex, violence, and street language? Or was it the attraction of a forty-something protagonist trying to take over the family business and modernize it while dealing with a suffocating mother, demanding wife, and two teenage children? No wonder he’s seeing a shrink. (Or maybe it was the ensemble of interesting actors doing great work on location.) Whatever the reasons, The Sopranos remains the most financially successful cable show in history—and this at a time when HBO reached less than thirty percent of American homes.
图 6-37。电视政治的前景。左：马丁·辛和约翰·斯宾塞在亚伦·索金执导的以问题为导向的总统剧《白宫风云》（1999-2006）中。右：基弗·萨瑟兰在乔尔·苏诺和罗伯特·科克伦的偏执惊悚片《24》（2001 年至今）中。
Figure 6-37. TV POLITICS IN THE OUGHTS. Left: Martin Sheen and John Spencer in Aaron Sorkin’s issues-oriented presidential drama The West Wing (1999–2006). Right: Kiefer Sutherland in Joel Surnow and Robert Cochran’s paranoid thriller 24 (2001-).
这并不是 HBO 十年来唯一的热门影片。达伦·斯塔的《欲望都市》（1998-2004）、艾伦·鲍尔的《六尺之下》（2001-2005）、大卫·西蒙的《火线》（2002-2008）、拉里·大卫的《遏制你的热情》（2000-）等，都遇到了财务问题以及重大成功，确保了 HBO 作为“蒂芙尼”网络的地位。
And it wasn’t HBO’s only hit of the decade. Darren Star’s Sex and the City (1998–2004), Alan Ball’s Six Feet Under (2001-2005), David Simon’s The Wire (2002-2008), Larry David’s Curb Your Enthusiasm (2000–), among others, all met with financial and critical success, assuring HBO’s status as the “Tiffany” network of the oughts.
但有线电视创造力的爆炸式增长也有一个缺点。二十年前，我们都观看相同的节目：电视在美国是一种团结力量。随着数十个频道的出现，每个频道在人口统计上都得到了细化，我们已经失去了这种团结力量。HBO 与一般的付费有线电视节目一样，是一种高档产品，覆盖全国不到三分之一的地区。我们其他人则被降级到主导广播网络的游戏和竞赛中。这种阶级差异很可能是所谓真人秀节目发展的原因之一。这无疑是 HBO 前卫节目背后的推动力。
But there is a downside to this explosion of cable creativity. Twenty years ago we all watched the same shows: television was a unifying force in the U.S. With scores of channels, each demographically refined, we’ve lost that unifying force. HBO—like premium cable programming in general—is an upscale product, available to less than a third of the country. The rest of us are relegated to the games and contests that dominate the broadcast networks. This class difference may well be one the reasons for the growth of so-called reality tv; it is certainly the impetus behind HBO’s edgy programming.
有线电视聚宝盆允许和鼓励的分歧也是政治性的。没有任何媒体（印刷媒体或广播媒体）比福克斯新闻更有影响力。由鲁珀特于 1996 年创立默多克和罗杰·艾尔斯的明确目的是反击默多克所认为的美国有线电视新闻网和网络新闻机构的左翼偏见，福克斯理所当然地主导了美国的政治对话。没有任何组织——政治组织或新闻组织——比我们更能将我们分成红蓝两派——就好像政治只不过是一场夏令营的颜色战争。
The divisiveness that the cable cornucopia permits and encourages is political, as well. No media outlet—print or broadcast—has been more influential in the oughts than Fox News. Founded in 1996 by Rupert Murdoch and Roger Ailes with the expressed purpose of countering what Murdoch saw as the left-wing bias of CNN and the network news organizations, Fox has dominated American political dialogue in the oughts. No organization—political or journalistic—has done more to divide us into Reds and Blues—as if politics were nothing more than a summer-camp color war.
正如广播电视在六七十年代帮助统一了美国的不同地区一样，在九十年代卫星广播与私有化和扩大的国家电视系统一起使欧洲和世界其他大部分地区同质化。这种同质化的电视文化具有明显的美国风味。20 世纪 80 年代，《达拉斯》和《王朝》等热门节目的欧洲粉丝几乎与美国粉丝一样多。1989 年，当撒切尔夫人的广播放松管制法案在下议院通过时，该法案提出的英国制作节目比例不得低于 25% 的要求显得蹩脚。
Just as broadcast television helped to unify the disparate regions of the U.S. in the sixties and seventies, so in the nineties satellite broadcasting together with privatized and expanded national television systems homogenized Europe and much of the rest of the world. And that homogenized television culture has a distinctly American flavor. In the 1980s popular shows like Dallas and Dynasty had nearly as many European devotees as American fans. When the Thatcher broadcasting deregulation bill passed the House of Commons in 1989, it called lamely for a 25 percent minimum of British-produced programming.
在20世纪80年代私有化浪潮到来之前，欧洲频道基本上被保留为公共设施并由国家机构运营。在意大利，RAI 在 20 世纪 70 年代颇具影响力，作为许多有趣的戏剧/电视电影项目的联合制片人。埃尔曼诺·奥尔米（Ermanno Olmi）和罗伯托·罗西里尼（Roberto Rossellini）等导演就是靠这个系统维持的。同样，德国国家网络在 20 世纪 70 年代为该国电影复兴提供了资金支持。（在法国，电视对电影的影响较小，其本身的成功也较少。）在世界上大多数国家，电视和故事片行业现在是一体的。
Until the wave of privatization in the 1980s, European channels were, in the main, reserved as public facilities and operated by state agencies. In Italy, RAI was influential in the 1970s as coproducer of a number of interesting theatrical/television film ventures. Directors like Ermanno Olmi and Roberto Rossellini were sustained by this system. Likewise, the German state networks were instrumental in financing the renaissance in film in that country in the 1970s. (In France, television had both less influence on film and fewer successes on its own.) In most countries of the world, the television and feature film industries are now one and the same.
在法国，20 世纪 90 年代的巨大成功属于 Canal Plus（成立于 1984 年），这项付费服务将美国有线电影和体育模式欧洲化，并在此战略的基础上成为多个国家领先的电视力量。在欧洲最大的电视市场德国，私人和公共频道与卫星频道竞争。意大利是第一个放松管制的欧洲国家（1975 年），国家机构 RAI 运营着多个渠道，西尔维奥·贝卢斯科尼 (Silvio Berlusconi) 强大的 Fininvest 集团也是如此。付费渠道于 1991 年推出。
In France, the great success of the 1990s belonged to Canal Plus (founded in 1984), the pay service that Europeanized the American cable formula of movies and sports, and built on this strategy to become a leading television force in several countries. In Germany, the largest television market in Europe, private and public channels compete with satellite. In Italy, the first of the European countries to deregulate (in 1975), RAI, the state agency, operates several channels, as does Silvio Berlusconi’s powerful Fininvest group. Pay channels were introduced in 1991.
在英国，发明家约翰·洛吉·贝尔德 (John Logie Baird) 在 1920 年代末展示了第一个可用的电视系统，电视行业始终遵循独立于美国商业和大陆国营系统的道路。尽管由公共资助，但英国广播公司的运营始终独立于政府控制。商业电视于 1955 年引入英国，加入了自 1936 年开始运营的 BBC 两个频道。 1982 年第四频道是第二个独立频道，其成立的目的是为少数群体服务——审美和政治。八十年代，第四频道为英国电影制作人带来了福音：节目资金来源仅增加了 33%。1996 年，另一个独立频道 Channel 5 加入其中。
In the U.K., where inventor John Logie Baird had demonstrated the first working television system in the late 1920s, the television industry had always followed a path independent of both the U.S. commercial and continental state-run systems. While publicly funded, the British Broadcasting Corporation was always operated independent of government control. Commercial television was introduced into Britain in 1955, joining the BBC’s two channels, which had been in operation since 1936. In 1982 Channel 4, a second independent channel, was introduced with a mandate to serve minorities—esthetic as well as political. During the eighties, Channel 4 proved a boon to British filmmakers: sources of program funding had just increased 33 percent. In 1996 Channel 5, another independent, was added to the mix.
图 6-38。电视中的性爱。这两张宣传剧照形成了有趣的对比。达伦·斯塔 (Darren Star) 的《欲望都市》 (1998-2004) 的形象是 HBO 坦率成人节目的贞洁象征，而马克·切里 (Marc Cherry) 的受限网络《绝望主妇》(2004-) 的镜头则承诺的内容比该剧所提供的更多。
Figure 6-38. TV SEX IN THE OUGHTS. These two publicity stills provide an interesting contrast. The image for Darren Star’s Sex and the City (1998–2004) is a chaste emblem of the frankly adult HBO show, while the shot for Marc Cherry’s restricted network Desperate Housewives (2004-) promises more than the show delivers.
1991 年，撒切尔政府拍卖了 15 个运营第三频道的地区许可证，其中几张易手。与此同时，英国商业电视和公共电视的不同寻常的组合催生了美国以外最具创意的电视产业，也是唯一一个真正具有国际影响力的电视产业。
In 1991 the Thatcher government auctioned off the fifteen regional licenses to operate Channel 3, and several changed hands. Meanwhile, the unusual mix of commercial and public television in the U.K. led to the most creative television industry outside the U.S.—and the only other one with any real international presence.
图 6-39。蒂娜·菲 (Tina Fey) 和亚历克·鲍德温 (Alec Baldwin) 为《30 Rock》拍摄的宣传剧照（蒂娜·菲 (Tina Fey)，2006 年–）。关于电视的电视，还有什么节目比美国电视上播出时间最长的非脱口秀《周六夜现场》更值得受到待遇呢？
Figure 6-39. Tina Fey and Alec Baldwin in a publicity still for 30 Rock (Tina Fey, 2006–). TV about TV, and what show deserves the treatment more than Saturday Night Live, the longest-running non-talk show on American television?
尽管法国、英国和其他地方的文化批评家对美国的“文化帝国主义”发出警告，但世界各地的电视高管仍然发现“购买美国货”更有利可图，而且电影/电视业仍然是美国为数不多的出口收入来源之一。
While cultural critics in France, England, and elsewhere warn against American “cultural imperialism” television executives around the world still find it more profitable to “buy American,” and the film/television industry remains one of America’s very few export earners.
广播和电视在其发展初期都与军队有着密切的联系。美国国防部目前在全球运营着众多电视台和广播电台。更为强大的是由 NBC、CBS 和 ABC 开创的全球联合网络，并在 1971 年 FCC 决定裁定这些网络不能再发行非它们自己制作的节目后被好莱坞企业集团接管。（“Fin-Syn”裁决于 1993 年被推翻。）
Both radio and television were closely connected with the military during their infancies. The U.S. Department of Defense now operates numerous television stations and radio transmitters worldwide. Far more powerful is the global syndication network pioneered by NBC, CBS, and ABC and taken over by the Hollywood conglomerates after a 1971 FCC decision ruled that the networks could no longer distribute programs they themselves had not produced. (The “Fin-Syn” ruling was reversed in 1993.)
在 20 世纪 70 年代末期，《Bonanza》在国际上达到顶峰，每周有来自 90 个国家的超过 4 亿观众观看。《Bonanza》连续 14 年播出，共 359 集。在其联合播出结束之前，观众可能已经花费了超过 143 万亿人时来了解卡特赖特家族的价值观。在接下来的十年里，《达拉斯》几乎和 20 世纪 90 年代的《海滩救护队》一样普及。
At its international peak in the late 1970s, Bonanza could be seen each week by more than 400 million viewers in 90 countries. The 14-year run of Bonanza included 359 episodes. Before its syndication run ended, viewers may have spent more than 143 trillion person-hours exposed to the values of the Cartwright family. In the next decade Dallas was almost as widespread, as was Baywatch in the 1990s.
这些是单个程序的数字。数百份正在分发中。联合国教科文组织曾估计，每年有 10 万到 20 万小时的美国节目可供出口。华纳兄弟拥有 52 家海外子公司，业务遍及 117 个国家；MCA 则拥有 24 家子公司，业务遍及 115 个国家。此外，许多国家电视系统都是由美国网络的制造部门直接建造的，或者从他们那里购买设备。早在1972年，当卫星传播刚刚起步时，ABC的奥运会卫星报道就已经向100个国家的20亿人提供了服务。最终结果是文化影响达到了前所未有的规模。
These are the numbers for a single program. Hundreds are in distribution. UNESCO once estimated that 100,000 to 200,000 hours of American programming are available for export each year. Warner Brothers has controlled 52 foreign subsidiaries operating in 117 countries, and MCA had 24 subsidiaries dealing with 115 nations. Moreover, many of those national television systems were built outright by the manufacturing arms of the American networks, or else bought their equipment from them. As early as 1972, when satellite distribution was in its infancy, ABC’s satellite coverage of the Olympic games was available to 2 billion people in 100 countries. The net result has been cultural influence on an unprecedented scale.
图 6-40。大卫·蔡斯的《黑道家族》 ——尽管情节复杂——被证明是具有里程碑意义的电视节目，标志着有线电视相对于网络电视的优势。在该剧的最后一幕中，托尼、卡梅拉和 AJ 等待着梅多的到来——以及结局。剪成黑色。
Figure 6-40. David Chase’s The Sopranos—despite its obstreperous plotlines—proved to be the landmark television show of the oughts, marking the ascendancy of cable over network TV. Here, in the last scene of the series, Tony, Carmela, and A. J. await the arrival of Meadow—and the end. Cut to black.
随着世界经济的发展，娱乐业仍然是美国主导的行业。上世纪六七十年代，美国国内外的文化批评家将这种影响归因于某种邪恶的帝国主义冲动。事实更简单。
As the world economy has developed, entertainment has remained an industry that America dominates. In the sixties and seventies, cultural critics in the U.S. as well as abroad attributed this influence to some nefarious imperialistic impulse. The truth is simpler.
美国电影和电视从一开始就是由市场形成的。“艺术”往往是欧洲电影和电视制片人和导演关心的问题，但在美国却很少被允许干预这一进程。因此，好莱坞生产的产品仍然比其他国家更畅销。此外，美国演员看起来和其他人没什么两样。如果你是亚洲人、非洲人或拉丁裔人，你更有可能在美国电视节目中找到与你相似的人，而不是在法国作品中。也许最重要的是，美国电影业多年来一直国际化，在发现人才的地方吸引人才。
American film and television have been formed by the marketplace ever since their beginnings. Where “art” is often a concern for European film and television producers and directors, it has seldom been allowed to interfere with the process in the U.S. As a result, Hollywood turns out more marketable product, still, than other countries do. Moreover, American actors look like everyone else. If you are Asian, or African, or Latino, you are more likely to find folks who look like you in an American television show than in, say, a French production. Perhaps most important, the U.S. film industry has been international for many years, drawing on talent where it finds it.
如果你是一名试图上演节目的澳大利亚制片人，这种解释并不会减轻你的愤怒。正如埃里克·巴努 (Erik Barnouw) 在《丰盛之管》(Tube of Plenty)中指出的那样，美国辛迪加实际上削弱了本土生产，以远低于本土生产商的价格提供产品。这种日益同质化的世界文化的缺点是，我们失去了地方色彩所带来的活力；好处是，因同一个笑话而发笑的人可能不太可能互相开枪。
This explanation doesn’t make it any less infuriating to you if you are an Australian producer trying to get a show on. As Erik Barnouw pointed out in Tube of Plenty, American syndicators effectively undercut native production, offering product at far lower rates than native producers can. The downside to this increasingly homogenized world culture is that we lose the vitality that comes with local color; the upside is that people who laugh at the same jokes may be less likely to shoot each other.
美国人在世界影视市场上的优势之一就是英语。他们与其他国家共享这一点。在过去的二十年里，美国公共电视台与英国公共电视台和独立电视台建立了密切的联系。从六十年代末开始，BBC 和 ITV 的知名剧集开始对世界市场产生显着影响，最终甚至影响了美国电视的发展形态。
One advantage the Americans have in the world film and television market is the English language. This they share with other countries. During the past twenty years American public television has developed close ties with both public and independent U.K. television. Beginning in the late sixties BBC and ITV prestige series began to have a noticeable effect on world markets, eventually even influencing the developing shape of American television.
部分原因是英国独立传统的结果，这使得英国广播公司相对不受大多数其他国有系统必须接受的政府审查。同时，由于英国公共电视台的资金来源是用户许可费（而不是广告或税收拨款），因此它不受该融资体系给美国电视带来的限制，并且相对独立于政治审查。 。此外，虽然在美国电影制片人将电视视为训练场，但在六十年代末的英国，电视也成为无法再获得故事片融资的戏剧电影导演的避难所。
Partly this was the result of British traditions of independence, which left the BBC relatively free of the government censorship to which most other state-owned systems had to submit. At the same time, because it was financed through a user license fee (rather than by advertising or tax allotments), British public television was free from the constraints which that system of financing brought to American television, as well as relatively isolated from political censorship. Moreover, while in the U.S. filmmakers thought of television as a training ground, in Britain in the late sixties it also became a refuge for theatrical film directors who could no longer obtain financing for features.
这部英国电视剧较少依赖于单一的顶级明星，而更多地依赖于集体演奏：大多数最好的电视剧都有一种社区意识，这在美国电视中是罕见的。英国电视剧通常计划限量放映，这种做法催生了七十年代末的美国迷你剧。最后，英国人很快发现了封闭式电视剧和十九世纪小说传奇之间的相似之处，并在新媒体中重复使用了大量小说——通常是多次。
The British series depends less on a single top star and more on ensemble playing: there is a sense of community in most of the best series that is rare in American television. British series are often planned for limited runs, an approach that gave rise to the American miniseries of the late seventies. Finally, the British quickly discovered the similarities between the closed-end television series and the nineteenth-century novel saga, and recycled numerous novels in the new medium—often several times.
1967 年制作的 BBC 版约翰·高尔斯华绥的《福尔赛传奇》共 26 集，在国际上取得了重大成功，为英国电视打开了世界市场。《战争与和平》（1972 年，二十集，无疑是该经典在任何媒介中的最佳改编版）、萨特的《自由之路》（1970 年，十三集）和左拉的《娜娜》（1968 年，五集）都脱颖而出，但还有很多其他作品也产生了相当大的影响。肯尼思·克拉克 (Kenneth Clark) 的《文明》 (1969) 和雅各布·布罗诺夫斯基 (Jacob Bronowski) 的《人类的崛起》 (1973) 发明了电视讲座系列，从那时起，这种形式就被证明是有益的。
The twenty-six episodes of the BBC’s version of John Galsworthy’s Forsyte Saga made in 1967 were a major international success and opened world markets to British television. War and Peace (1972, twenty episodes and easily the best adaptation of that classic in any medium), Sartre’s Roads to Freedom (1970, thirteen episodes), and Zola’s Nana (1968, five episodes) all stood out, but there were many others of considerable impact as well. Kenneth Clark’s Civilization (1969) and Jacob Bronowski’s The Ascent of Man (1973) invented the television lecture series, a form which has proven rewarding ever since.
这一时期的英国戏剧都是对已证实的材料的改编。BBC 将原创剧集的制作权交给了英国商业电视（主要是《格拉纳达》和《伦敦周末》）的制片人。楼上/楼下（1971-1975，六十八集），记录了从 1900 年到 1930 年，一个富裕家庭及其仆人的生活在国际上取得了重大成功。
The British dramas of the period were all adaptations of proven material. The BBC left it to the producers of British commercial television (mainly Granada and London Weekend) to come up with original series. Upstairs/Downstairs (1971–1975, sixty-eight episodes), which chronicled the lives of a well-to-do family and its servants from 1900 to 1930, was a major international success.
图 6-41。巨蟒剧团的飞行马戏团（BBC，1969-1974）。这是脏叉子草图。借鉴 20 世纪 50 年代Goon Show所修改的英国音乐厅的传统，Python 创造了一种空灵抽象但往往尖锐的讽刺风格，赢得了广泛的观众。
Figure 6-41. Monty Python’s Flying Circus (BBC, 1969–1974). Here, the dirty fork sketch. Drawing on the traditions of British Music Hall as modified by the Goon Show of the 1950s, the Pythons created an ethereally abstract, yet often sharply pointed satirical style that gained wide audiences.
然而，那个时期英国最重要的出口仍然是巨蟒剧团的飞行马戏团。英国戏剧系列可能只是美国常见的娱乐方式的更有效和更有说服力的版本，但英国喜剧却与美国风格截然不同。Monty Python，一个半小时的短剧、动画、双关语、讽刺和愚蠢的串剧，一劳永逸地认识到电视的基本粒子是事件，而不是表演；喜剧至少可以像戏剧一样雄辩、紧凑和有益；以及“没有人预料到西班牙宗教裁判所”。
The most significant British export of that period, however, remains Monty Python’s Flying Circus. British dramatic series may just be more effective and eloquent versions of a mode of entertainment that is common in the U.S., but British comedy is a radical departure from the American style. Monty Python, a half-hour string of skits, animation, wordplay, satire, and silliness, recognized once and for all that the elementary particle of television is the incident, not the show; that comedy can be at least as eloquent, dense, and rewarding as drama; and that “nobody expects the Spanish Inquisition.”
“电视：虚拟家庭
“TV: The Virtual Family
由于电视是一种持续的而非离散的体验，因此它具有在观众与现实之间进行调解的非凡能力。电影可能会持续两三个小时，在这段时间里我们生活在他们的世界里。电视是持续不断的、永无止境的，无论是在一天的节目内容中，还是在其原生形式的连续剧和连续剧中。此外，电视发生在我们的空间、我们的时代。它成为我们现实的一部分。对于一个每天看电视近七个小时的普通美国家庭来说（根据尼尔森年度调查），电视是日常生活的背景——这种背景常常压倒前景。因此，它不仅在观众与现实之间发挥作用，而且在现实与虚构之间发挥作用。我们都很困惑。
Because it is a continuing rather than a discrete experience, television has an extraordinary ability to mediate between the viewer and reality. Films may last two or three hours, during which time we live in their world. Television is ongoing, never-ending, whether in the context of a single day’s programming or in regard to the series and the serials that are its native forms. Moreover, television happens in our space, in our time. It becomes part of our reality. For an average American family, watching television nearly seven hours a day (according to annual Nielsen surveys), television is the background to everyday life—a background that often overwhelms the foreground. As a consequence, it mediates not only between the viewer and reality but also between reality and fiction. We’re all confused.
因为它既是一种娱乐媒介，又是一种信息媒介，有时我们发现很难区分前者的本质上是虚构的，而后者本质上是非虚构的。正如我们所见，“基于现实”的编程常常是一个自相矛盾的术语。关于电视的社交影响已经有很多文章——重复的暴力对儿童的影响、电视世界对沉迷于电视的人来说成为现实的趋势等等。
Because it is both an entertainment and an information medium, sometimes we find it hard to distinguish between the essentially fictional nature of the first and the essentially nonfictional nature of the second. “Reality-based” programming, as we have seen, is often a contradiction in terms. Much has been written about the socializing influence of television—the effect repetitive violence has on children, the tendency of the television world to become the real reality for people addicted to it, and so on.
这种强大媒介的总效应是，正如雷蒙德·威廉姆斯在《电视：技术与文化形式》中所说，它使戏剧成为生活的一部分：
The sum effect of this powerful medium is that, as Raymond Williams said in Television: Technology and Cultural Form, it has made drama a part of life:
显然，先进工业社会的独特特征之一是，戏剧作为一种体验现在已成为日常生活的固有组成部分，其数量水平比任何先例都要大得多，以至于似乎是根本性的质变[强调] 。
It is clearly one of the unique characteristics of advanced industrial societies that drama as an experience is now an intrinsic part of everyday life, at a quantitative level which is so very much greater than any precedent as to seem a fundamental qualitative change [emphasis added].
即使在电影的鼎盛时期，戏剧也是一种独立的体验，但现在它已经无缝地融入了我们的生活，并主导了我们的大部分生活。街上发生枪击事件，人们会自动转向寻找摄像机。通常没有。越南战争（1963-75）于第二天拍摄、剪辑并播出；海湾战争（1991 年 1 月）在世界各地的屏幕上进行了现场直播。伊拉克战争（2003年至今）以“嵌入”记者为特色，这些记者随部队旅行，对这场行动提供持续的评论。真实的故事被以纪录片的形式重述，“新闻”被重新演绎，因为摄像机经常错过第一次拍摄。但正如威廉姆斯指出的，最重要的是我们日复一日、年复一年地接触到的大量戏剧性媒体。
Drama, which even as late as the heyday of the movies was a separate experience, is now seamlessly integrated into our lives—and dominates most of them. A shooting takes place on the street and people automatically turn to look for the cameras. Often there aren’t any. The Vietnam War (1963–75) was filmed, edited, and broadcast the next day; the Gulf War (January 1991) was offered live as it happened to screens around the world. The Iraq War (2003–) featured “embedded” reporters, journalists who traveled with the troops offering running commentary on the action. Real stories are retold as docudramas and “news” is re-enacted because the cameras often miss the first take. But most important, as Williams noted, is the sheer volume of dramatic media to which we are exposed, day in, day out, year after year.
电视的普遍影响力是一个至关重要的问题。多年来，对电视的批评一直集中在题材问题上，特别是暴力问题，因为它影响着观众。对于年幼的孩子来说，这个问题似乎尤其严重。有大量证据证明，媒体确实提高了日常生活的暴力指数。（正如六十年代活动家 H. Rap Brown 四十五年前所说，枪击、刺伤和其他暴力行为“像樱桃派一样美国化”，而且更加常见，这怎么可能不是呢？）
The pervasive influence of television is a question of utmost significance. For many years, critiques of television have centered on the issue of subject matter—specifically violence—as it affects viewers. The problem seems especially acute with regard to younger children. There is much evidence to prove that the medium does in fact raise the violence quotient of everyday life. (How could it not when it makes shootings, stabbings, and other acts of violence “as American as cherry pie,” as sixties activist H. Rap Brown said forty-five years ago—and far more common?)
然而，还有大量令人信服的证据表明，电视可以起到安全阀的作用，化解潜在的暴力倾向。七十年代末，佛罗里达州一名被指控谋杀的男孩的律师将他的行为部分归咎于他接触过电视暴力，而加州被指控强奸的几名女孩则将一部为电视制作的电影作为她们的罪名。模型。这些辩护并不成功，但问题却尖锐起来。
Yet there is also a convincing body of evidence to show that television works as a safety valve, defusing potentially violent personalities. In the late seventies, lawyers for a boy accused of murder in Florida blamed his action in part on his exposure to television violence, and several girls accused of rape in California cited a made-for-television movie as their model. These defenses were not successful, but the issue was sharply drawn.
20 世纪 70 年代末出现了一种新的论点。玛丽·温恩 (Marie Winn) 在 1977 年出版的《插件毒品》一书中将谴责的焦点从主题转移到了媒介的体验上。温恩认为，电视的问题不在于它展示什么，而在于它如何展示。她提出了一个令人信服的论点，即媒体向儿童灌输被动性，并认为接触电视甚至可能会影响幼儿的神经发育。温恩讨论了电视对语言能力的影响，并研究了它与意识状态改变的关系，但她的论点的核心——而且仍然是一个强有力的论点——在于她对电视的存在破坏家庭生活的批评。
In the late 1970s a new line of argument developed. In her 1977 book The Plug-in Drug, Marie Winn shifted the focus of censure from the subject matter to the experience of the medium. The problem with television, Winn contended, is not what it shows but how it shows it. She made a convincing argument that the medium inculcates passivity in children, and suggested that exposure to television might very well affect even the neurological development of small children. Winn discussed the effect of television on language abilities and investigated its relationship to changed states of consciousness, but the crux of her argument—and it remains a powerful one—lay in her critique of the destruction of family life by the presence of television.
对于温恩来说，屏幕已经成为了代理父母，接管了呈现和发展社会和道德价值观的大部分工作，并在此过程中获得了比孩子的亲生父母更大程度的权威。她的书名并不是隐喻性的。她说，父母首先像使用药物一样使用电视来让孩子保持安静。最终孩子会上瘾，屏幕成为必要的终生习惯。
For Winn, the screen had become a surrogate parent, taking over most of the work of presenting and developing social and ethical values and in the process achieving a much greater degree of authority than the child’s biological parents. The title of her book was not meant to be metaphorical. Parents, she says, first use television precisely like a drug, to keep children quiet. Eventually the child becomes addicted and the screen becomes a necessary, lifelong habit.
显然，许多孩子确实在电视经历中幸存下来，但许多人也深受其影响，我们仍然不知道影响到什么程度、如何影响，也不知道这对社会和政治意味着什么。关于电视作为一种社会现象的大部分讨论都集中在这个深刻的问题上。
Obviously, many children do survive the television experience, but many also are affected deeply by it, and we still don’t know to what degree nor how, nor do we know what this will mean socially and politically. Much of the discussion of television as a social phenomenon centers on this profound question.
温恩的书出版一年后，前广告人杰瑞·曼德对他以前的饭票进行了广泛的谩骂，这使得该书的论点看起来非常保守。该作品的标题很简单，就是《消除电视的四个论据》。曼德很严肃。他找到了一群现成的听众。三十年后，他的书印刷了第三十八次。一切都没有改变。*
A year after Winn’s book appeared, its thesis was made to look positively conservative by ex-adman Jerry Mander’s own wide-ranging diatribe against his former meal-ticket. The title of that work was, simply, Four Arguments for the Elimination of Television. Mander was serious. He found a ready audience. Thirty years later, his book was in its thirty-eighth printing. And nothing had changed.*
曼德的“四个论点”——“经验的中介”、“经验的殖民化”、“电视对人类的影响”和“电视的固有偏见”——是对电视的便捷分类。对定义二十世纪下半叶的强大媒介提出了数十种有说服力的批评。粗略地解释一下，它们包括：
Mander’s “Four Arguments”—“The Mediation of Experience,” “The Colonization of Experience,” “Effects of Television on the Human Being,” and “The Inherent Biases of Television”—are convenient classifications for dozens of telling criticisms of the powerful medium that defined the second half of the twentieth century. Roughly paraphrased, they include:
图 6-42.ABC。家庭的变形。_ _ _ 二十多岁的美国家庭的理想是：爸爸和妈妈、弟弟和妹妹幸福地围坐在餐桌旁，互相交谈、眼神交流。（照片中的姿势是作弊的。）注意四大杯牛奶。后来，到了四十年代，核心家庭的核心包括了收音机。他们可能正在听广播并且说话较少，但他们仍然进行眼神交流。到了六十年代，这个梦想已经破灭了。核心家庭已经成为观众。他们看不到对方，也听不到对方的声音。到了八十年代，每个人都有自己的电视，不必坐在一起。（档案照片/兰伯特提供）
Figure 6-42.ABC. THE METAMORPHOSIS OF THE FAMILY. The ideal of the American family in the twenties: Dad and Mom, Junior and Sis in happy reunion around the dinner table, talking with each other and making eye contact. (The poses are cheated for the photo.) Note the four large glasses of milk. Later, in the forties, the nucleus of the nuclear family included the radio. They may be listening to the broadcast and talking less, but they are still making eye contact. By the sixties, the dream was moribund. The nuclear family had become an audience. They can’t see each other or hear each other. By the eighties, everyone had their own TV and didn’t have to sit together. (Courtesy Archive Photos/Lambert)
图6-42D ..家庭的权利。现在大多数屏幕都是便携式的，我们又聚在一起了，至少是身体上的，如果不是情感上的。即使您独自一人时，也会有太多的屏幕需要您的注意力。注意力缺陷障碍已成为屏幕时代的一大弊病，这是偶然吗？
Figure 6-42D.. THE FAMILY IN THE OUGHTS. Now that most screens are portable we’ve come together again, at least physically if not emotionally. Even when you are alone there are just too many screens demanding your attention. Is it an accident Attention Deficit Disorder has become a major malady in the age of the screens?
这里实际上没有人在看电视，但无论如何电视都在播放，现在已经是家庭的正式成员了。苏珊正在检查她的语音信箱。玛格丽特正在听她的 iPod（它是 Nano，所以在这张照片中很难看到）。Rachel 正在 YouTube 上观看一档节目。查尔斯正在工作。与此同时，电视上的马里奥·巴塔利（Mario Batali）和马克·比特曼（Mark Bittman）正在平原上的某个地方与意大利朋友（没有电视）一起享用午餐。(JM)
No one here is actually watching TV, but it’s on anyway, now a full member of the family. Susan is checking her voicemail. Margaret is listening to her iPod (it’s a Nano, so, hard to see in this shot). Rachel is watching a show on You Tube. Charles is working. Meanwhile, on the TV Mario Batali and Mark Bittman are enjoying lunch with Italian friends (and no TV) somewhere in the campagna. (JM)
电视将我们与现实分开；
television separates us from reality;
电视剥夺了我们体验的选择；
television deprives us of choice in experience;
阴极射线管的辉光对你没有好处；
cathode-ray-tube glow is no good for you;
电视是一种很弱的媒介，它会扭曲现实。
and television is such a weak medium that it distorts reality.
曼德对二十世纪的终极大众传媒提出了强有力的控诉。但在他提出的所有观点中，有一个观点最为突出：我们大多数人现在让电视引领我们的生活；这种诱人而普遍的产品剥夺了我们与现实的亲密接触。
Mander presents a powerful indictment of the ultimate mass medium of the twentieth century. But of all the points he makes, one stands out: most of us now let television lead our lives for us; this seductive and pervasive product has deprived us of intimate contact with reality.
1985 年，社会评论家尼尔·波兹曼 (Neil Postman) 加入了与《娱乐至死：演艺界时代的公共话语》的斗争，这是一篇平行的评论，重点关注电视和我们的娱乐世界对政治的影响。波兹曼深刻地区分了 20 世纪中叶两首具有影响力的悲歌：乔治·奥威尔的《1984》和奥尔德斯·赫胥黎的《美丽新世界》：
In 1985 social critic Neil Postman joined the battle with Amusing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business, a parallel critique, which focused on the effect of television and our entertainment universe on politics. Postman insightfully differentiated between the two seminal jeremiads of the mid-twentieth century, George Orwell’s 1984 and Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World:
图 6-43。五十年代。对于客厅里常驻的电子客人来说，还有什么比家人更好的谈话话题呢？在很大程度上，电视家庭已经取代了我们自己的家庭。这种策略很受欢迎，因为“客厅”戏剧依赖于对话、亲密和心理，非常适合小屏幕。美国电视家庭往往很简单、“核心”：母亲、父亲和几个孩子。尼尔森家族实际上是在电视上长大的，现在仍然是原型。前乐队队长奥齐和他的歌手妻子哈里特主演。儿子大卫后来在商界享有盛誉。瑞奇成为摇滚明星，在一次飞机失事中戏剧性地去世。在接下来的四十年里，纳尔逊家族因其善良的基因而经常被模仿，但从未与之竞争。
Figure 6-43. FIFTIES. What better subject of conversation for the permanent electronic guest in the living room than families? To a significant extent, television families have replaced our own. The strategy thrives, since “drawing room” drama, dependent on dialogue, intimate and psychological, fits the small screen very well. American television families tend to be simple, “nuclear”: a mother, father, and a couple of children. The Nelson family, which literally grew up on television, remains the prototype. Ozzie, an ex-bandleader, and his wife Harriet, a singer, starred. Son David later enjoyed a career in the business; Ricky became a rock star, dying dramatically in a plane crash. Over the next forty years, the Nelson family was often mimicked, never rivaled, for its good-natured gemütlichkeit.
图 6-44。FlFTES 。_ 尼尔森家族在五十年代最接近的竞争对手是“Father Knows Best”的安德森家族。罗伯特·杨（后来成为一位同样模范的医生）和简·怀亚特主演。埃莉诺·多诺休、比利·格雷和劳伦·查平都是孩子们。五十年代，我们与尼尔森一家和安德森一家待在一起，因此不再需要自己的家庭。
Figure 6-44. FlFTlES. The Nelsons’ closest competitor in the fifties was the Anderson family of Father Knows Best. Robert Young (later an equally model doctor) and Jane Wyatt starred. Elinor Donohue, Billy Gray, and Lauren Chapin were the kids. Spending time with the Nelsons and the Andersons in the fifties, we had less need of our own families.
图 6-4。小说传奇。_ _ _ _ 二十六集的英国连续剧《福尔赛传奇》（BBC，1967 年）改编自维多利亚时代小说家约翰·高尔斯华绥的六本书系列，在世界范围内取得了巨大成功。照片中的 15 个主要人物坐在一幅 1880 年代风格的全家福中。女主角艾琳（尼里·黎明·波特饰）坐在中间。在她的左边，前景是索姆斯（埃里克·波特饰），他最初是这部作品的反派，后来成为主角。乔（肯尼思·莫尔饰）是后排左二，是一个明智的叙述者。
Figure 6-4. THE NOVEL SAGA. The twenty-six-episode British series The Forsyte Saga (BBC, 1967), based on the six-book cycle by Victorian novelist John Galsworthy, was an enormous success worldwide. Pictured here sitting for an 1880s-style family portrait are the fifteen major characters. Irene (Nyree Dawn Porter), the heroine, is seated, center. To her left, in the foreground is Soames (Eric Porter), at first the villain of the piece, later its major character. Jo (Kenneth More) is second from the left in the back row, the sensible narrator.
图 6-46。七项活动。到了七十年代，经过十年的代际冲突，这一理想受到严重玷污。《纽约皇后区的地堡》和《全家福》（Norman Lear 和 BudYorkin，1971）介绍了真实的家庭问题，并以一定的理解方式处理它们。这里是格洛丽亚（莎莉·斯特拉瑟斯饰）、伊迪丝（简·斯台普尔顿饰）、阿奇（卡罗尔·奥康纳饰）、迈克（罗布·雷纳饰）和贝蒂·加勒特。
Figure 6-46. SEVENTIES. By the seventies, the ideal was seriously tarnished after ten years of generational conflict. The Bunkers of Queens, New York, and All in the Family (Norman Lear and BudYorkin, 1971) introduced real family issues and dealt with them with some understanding. Here, Gloria (Sally Struthers), Edith (Jean Stapleton), Archie (Carroll O’Connor), Mike (Rob Reiner), with Betty Garrett.
图 6-47。七项活动。1973 年，克雷格·吉尔伯特 (Craig Gilbert) 的 PBS 系列剧集《一个美国家庭》以挑衅性的电影风格描绘了圣巴巴拉的喧嚣。与家人一起生活了一年，电影制片人收集了足够制作一部肥皂剧的戏剧，包括婚姻的破裂和大儿子兰斯参与纽约同性恋场景，这在当时是电视禁忌的话题。劳德夫妇成为全国名人，抗议电影制片人只关注他们家庭生活的负面因素，而忽视了积极的一面。
Figure 6-47. SEVENTIES. In 1973 Craig Gilbert’s PBS series An American Family portrayed the Louds of Santa Barbara in provocative cinémavérité style. Living with the family for a year, the filmmakers collected enough drama for a soap opera, including the breakup of the marriage and oldest son Lance’s participation in the New York homosexual scene, a taboo television subject at the time. The Louds became national celebrities protesting that the filmmakers focused on the negatives of their family life, ignoring the positives.
图 6-48。八十年代。赫克斯特布尔家族（图中为其变体之一）挑战了七十年代的神话，为八十年代的理想带来了新的生命，在此过程中模糊了种族界限。从左至右依次为比尔·科斯比：萨布丽娜·勒博夫、凯希亚·奈特·普利亚姆、丽莎·博内特、马尔科姆·贾马尔·华纳、菲利西亚·拉沙德和坦佩斯特·布莱索。
Figure 6-48. EIGHTIES. Challenging the mythos of the seventies, the Huxtable clan (pictured here in one of its variations), brought new life to the ideal in the eighties, blurring racial lines in the process. Left to right behind Bill Cosby: Sabrina LeBeauf, Keshia Knight-Pulliam, Lisa Bonet, Malcolm Jamal-Warner, Phylicia Rashad, and Tempestt Bledsoe.
图 6-49。九十年代。_ 《科斯比秀》制片人马西·卡西和汤姆·沃纳再次凭借现实的工人阶级家庭罗珊妮（1988-1997）再次得分。
Figure 6-49. NINETIES. Cosby Show producers Marcy Carsey and Tom Werner scored again with the realistic working-class family of Roseanne (1988–1997).
罗珊娜和丹（约翰·古德曼饰）在抚养 DJ、达琳和贝基方面做得非常好。
Roseanne and Dan (John Goodman) did a pretty good job raising D. J., Darlene, and Becky.
图 6-50。九十年代。_ 正如《考斯比秀》统治了八十年代，功能失调的辛普森一家统治了九十年代。家庭的钟摆又摆回了“哑巴爸爸”的位置。孩子们喜欢后现代的参考文献和厚重的模仿。至少玛吉和荷马还在一起。
Figure 6-50. NINETIES. As The Cosby Show dominated the eighties, so the dysfunctional Simpsons ruled the nineties. The family pendulum had swung back to the “dumb Dad” position. Kids enjoyed the postmodern references and thick parody. At least Marge and Homer are still together.
图 6-51。噢。_ 在以“家庭”为导向的情景喜剧主要由残余家庭主导的十年里（参见《男人两个半》），托尼·索普拉诺的家庭占主导地位——无论是核心家庭还是隐喻性的延伸家庭。第六季中这张著名的艺术宣传片暗示了唐世界的巴洛克式混乱与野鸭焦虑症。该系列的成功很大程度上是因为它是关于家庭以及“家庭”的。
Figure 6-51. OUGHTS. In a decade where “family”-oriented sitcoms were dominated by remnant families (see Two-and-a-Half Men) Tony Soprano’s families dominated—both nuclear and metaphorically extended. This famous arty publicity shot from the sixth season suggests the baroque confusions of the world of the don with wild duck anxiety syndrome. The series succeeded in large part because it was about the family—as well as the “Family.”
奥威尔害怕的是那些禁书的人。赫胥黎担心的是，没有理由禁止一本书，因为没有人想读一本书。奥威尔担心那些会剥夺我们信息的人。赫胥黎担心那些给予我们太多的人会导致我们变得被动和利己主义。奥威尔担心真相会向我们隐瞒。赫胥黎担心真相会被淹没在无关紧要的海洋中。奥威尔担心我们会成为一种被俘虏的文化。赫胥黎担心我们会成为一种被轻视的文化…… 1984年，人们通过施加痛苦来控制。在《美丽新世界》中，他们通过施加快乐来控制。简而言之，奥威尔担心我们所憎恨的事物会毁掉我们。赫胥黎担心我们所爱的东西会毁了我们[页 11]。八-九]。
What Orwell feared were those who would ban books. What Huxley feared was that there would be no reason to ban a book, for there would be no one who wanted to read one. Orwell feared those who would deprive us of information. Huxley feared those who would give us so much that we would be reduced to passivity and egoism. Orwell feared that the truth would be concealed from us. Huxley feared the truth would be drowned in a sea of irrelevance. Orwell feared we would become a captive culture. Huxley feared we would become a trivialized culture…. In 1984, people are controlled by inflicting pain. In Brave New World, they are controlled by inflicting pleasure. In short, Orwell feared that what we hate will ruin us. Huxley feared that what we love will ruin us [pp. viii-ix].
波兹曼在 198 年写道，奥威尔的可怕里程碑已经到来又消失，他的预言正在失去作用。事实上，奥威尔对极权主义威胁的阴暗愿景在 1984 年初在苹果计算机公司推出麦金塔电脑的著名超级碗广告中得到了最引人注目的纪念。在苹果公司的奥威尔式营销隐喻中，IBM 是极权主义力量，而麦金塔则是作为救赎：“我们其他人的计算机”。谈论琐碎化！甚至奥威尔自己雄辩的恐惧也被赫胥黎的装置消除了！
Postman was writing in 198 Orwell’s dread milestone had come and gone and his prophecy was losing currency. Indeed, Orwell’s dark vision of that totalitarian threat was most strikingly commemorated at the beginning of 1984 in Apple Computer’s famous Super Bowl commercial introducing the Macintosh. In Apple’s Orwellian marketing metaphor, IBM was the totalitarian power and the Macintosh was offered as salvation: “the computer for the rest of us.” Talk about trivialization! Even Orwell’s own eloquent fear had been neutralized by a Huxleyan device!
从晚期的应有来看，赫胥黎的优势更加明显。奥威尔恐惧的主要对象苏联已经不复存在。冷战结束了。就连IBM也被微软超越了。然而，由于反恐战争，奥威尔也重新流行起来：无休止的、瘴气十足的战争成为限制自由的借口，而“新话”却空前繁荣。
From the perspective of the late oughts, the ascendancy of Huxley is even more apparent. The Soviet Union, a primary object of Orwell’s fear, has ceased to exist. The Cold War is over. Even IBM has been transcended by Microsoft. Yet, thanks to the War on Terror Orwell has also regained currency: the endless, miasmic war is the excuse to restrain liberty, while “newspeak” thrives as never before.
与此同时，轰炸我们的图像和声音的数量呈指数级增长；他们的生产者拥有更强大的工具；视频文化日益同质化；图像和声音本身继续无情地远离现实并走向幻想。别人的幻想！显然，问题不是老大哥在看着我们，而是我们在看着老大哥。
Meanwhile, the quantity of images and sounds that bombard us has increased exponentially; their producers have ever more powerful tools at their command; the video culture is increasingly homogenized; and the images and sounds themselves continue to move inexorably away from reality and toward fantasy. Someone else’s fantasy! The problem, clearly, is not that Big Brother is watching us, but that we are watching Big Brother.
正如曼德所说：
As Mander puts it:
它在我们的大脑中产生图像，
我们称之为体验，但我们无法分辨这是我们的
体验
还是其他什么。
它存在于我们的头脑中，但不是我们创造的。
我们不知道它是否真实。
我们无法停止广播。
我们接受任何发生的事情。
一个愿景与下一个愿景相同。
一个想法与下一个想法一样好。
所有信息合并。
所有经验都融合在一起。
我们凭信心对待一切。
一种解释与下一种解释相同。
矛盾是不存在的。
我们已经失去了对自己思想的控制。
我们都迷失在太空中。
我们的世界只存在于记忆中。
一切都是任意的。
[页。111-112，已添加表格]
It causes images in our brain.,
We call this experience, but we can’t tell if it is our
experience
or something else.
It is in our heads, but we didn’t create it.
We don’t know if it is real or if it isn’t.
We can’t stop the broadcasts.
We accept whatever comes.
One vision is equal to the next.
One thought is as good as the next.
All information merges.
All experience merges.
We take everything on faith.
One explanation is the same as the next one.
Contradictions do not exist.
We have lost control of our minds.
We are all lost in space.
Our world exists only in memory.
Everything is arbitrary.
[pp. 111-112, form added]
这是一个令人心酸的反应。事实上，温恩、曼德和波兹曼这三人的批评都流露出令人感动的个人语气。因为正是在我们的个人生活、我们的家庭中，电视的力量在它开始扭曲我们的政治之前就发挥了最直接的影响。对于那些必须独居的人来说，它可能是一种滋养和刺激的伴侣，或者是对于病人来说一种镇定的、也许是恢复性的药物（有没有没有床位的医院床位？电视？），在任何家庭中，屏幕通常都是无法控制的怪物。它就像外星人一样把家里的谈话吸走了。它破坏了时间。它取代了父母（或孩子）、丈夫（或妻子）。对于我们很多人来说，它为我们谋生。
This is a poignant reaction. Indeed, the critiques of all three—Winn, Mander, and Postman—evince a touching personal tone. For it is in our personal lives, in our families, that the power of television has its most immediate effect, well before it begins to distort our politics. Potentially a nourishing and stimulating companion for those who must live alone, or a calming, perhaps restorative, drug for the ill (is there a hospital bed without a television?), the screen is often an uncontrollable ogre in any family this side of total dysfunction. It sucks the conversation out of the family like some alien. It destroys time. It replaces parents (or children), husbands (or wives). For too many of us, it does our living for us.
虚拟家庭_ _
VIRTUAL UNFAMILIES
图 6-52。九十年代。_ 就像辛普森一家为功能失调的家庭所做的那样，《宋飞正传》（ Seinfeld，1991-98）为功能失调的非家庭做了同样的事情，陶醉于永恒的青春期，这是婴儿潮一代给 X 一代的悲伤礼物。这对单身四人在七年里遇到的情人比荷马还多。甜甜圈。（当婚姻威胁到乔治时，唯一的出路就是杀死准新娘。）从形式上来说，这部剧的成功是因为它对经典喜剧风格的优雅关注：迈克尔·理查兹的闹剧、杰瑞·宋飞和杰森·亚历山大的奇怪情侣，以及朱莉娅路易斯-德雷福斯的直接行动。
Figure 6-52. NINETIES. What the Simpsons did for the dysfunctional family, Seinfeld (1991–98) did for the dysfunctional non-family, reveling in eternal adolescence, the Boomers’ sad gift to Gen X. The singles foursome ran through more lovers in seven years than Homer did doughnuts. (When marriage threatened George, the only way out was to kill off the would-be bride.) Formally, the show succeeded because of its elegant attention to classic comedic styles: Michael Richards’s slapstick, Jerry Seinfeld’s and Jason Alexander’s odd couple, and Julia Louis-Dreyfus’s straight-man takes.
图 6-53。噢。_ 史蒂文·莫法特（Steven Moffat）诙谐且结构优雅的 BBC 系列剧《耦合》（2000-2004）将《宋飞正传》/《老友记》的模式推向了新的高度，其错综复杂的情节建立在六个年轻朋友的互动之上。它充满了丰富的对话和明亮的时机，更新了英国喜剧系列。（吉娜·贝尔曼、莎拉·亚历山大、杰克·达文波特、本·迈尔斯、理查德·科伊尔、凯特·伊西特。）
Figure 6-53. OUGHTS. Steven Moffat’s witty and elegantly structured BBC series Coupling (2000-2004) took the Seinfeld/Friends model to new heights with intricately wrought plots built on the interactions of six young friends. Replete with rich dialogue and bright timing it renewed the British comedy franchise. (Gina Bellman, Sarah Alexander, Jack Davenport, Ben Miles, Richard Coyle, Kate Isitt.)
图 6-54。噢。_ 与此同时，美国的情景喜剧主要关注破碎和功能失调的家庭（《发展受阻》、《老克里斯汀的新冒险》）。《男人两个半》（2003-）因夸大了杰瑞和乔治的社交障碍而大受欢迎。（查理·辛、乔恩·克莱尔、安格斯·T·琼斯。）
Figure 6-54. OUGHTS. Meanwhile, back in the US of A sitcoms focused on broken and dysfunctional families (Arrested Development, New Adventures of Old Christine). Two-and-a-Half Men (2003-) became a hit exaggerating the social dysfunction of Jerry and George. (Charlie Sheen, Jon Cryer, Angus T. Jones.)
对于我们大部分时间陪伴的电视家庭来说，最不可抗拒的事实是他们不看电视。如果他们这样做了，他们就会像我们一样无聊；我们会像自己一样尽快关闭它们。
The single most irresistible fact about the television families with whom we spend much of our time is that they don’t watch television. If they did, they’d be as boring as we are; we’d turn them off as quickly as we do ourselves.
例如，《科斯比秀》中最诱人的元素是父母与孩子之间以及克里夫和克莱尔·赫克斯泰布尔之间的牢固关系，他们是聪明人，婚姻牢固。Roseanne 和 Dan Connor 在每周节目的 22 分钟内彼此（以及与他们的孩子）交谈的次数比大多数粉丝在节目间隙的 10,050 分钟内交谈的次数还要多。玛丽·泰勒·摩尔（Mary Tyler Moore）不像大多数单身女性那样，回家时看到的是一间空荡荡的公寓和一整晚的电视，而是和一群健谈而机智的邻居一起喝咖啡。她改造后的妹妹墨菲·布朗(Murphy Brown)有一位住家油漆工，但没有电视。老友记里的二十多岁的人在咖啡馆里闲逛，而不是在地铁前。哈丽特曾经为奥齐、戴夫和瑞奇提供过电视晚餐吗？如果露西和埃塞尔下午都看肥皂剧，会有人看《我爱露西》吗？现实生活中绝望的家庭主妇沉迷于肥皂剧；电视里的绝望主妇更喜欢肥皂剧。
The most seductive elements of The Cosby Show, for example, were the strong relationships between parents and children, and between Cliff and Claire Huxtable, intelligent people with a strong marriage. Roseanne and Dan Connor talked more with each other (and with their children) in the 22 minutes of action in each week’s show than most of their fans did in the 10,050 minutes between shows. Mary Tyler Moore did not come home, like most single women, to an empty apartment and an evening of television, but to a kaffeeklatsch of voluble and witty neighbors. Her remade sister, Murphy Brown, had a live-in housepainter, not a television. The twentysomethings of Friends hung out at the coffee house, not in front of the tube. Did Harriet ever serve Ozzie, Dave, and Ricky a TV dinner? Would anyone have watched I Love Lucy if Lucy and Ethel had spent their afternoons watching soap operas? Real-life desperate housewives are addicted to the soaps; TV’s Desperate Housewives prefer to live their soaps.
也许需要说的是，这一切都不是对媒体本身的控诉。错误不在于电视，而在于我们自己，我们滥用了它。
Perhaps it needs to be said that none of this is an indictment of the medium itself. The fault lies not in television, but in ourselves, that we abuse it.
在影视短暂的历史中，20世纪70年代和1980年代是一段停滞期，在此期间我们吸收了技术，并在某些情况下对其进行了完善。生产商和分销商开发了实现销售最大化所需的基础设施，而我们大多数消费者也心甘情愿地跟随，重新安排我们的生活以尽可能多地消费。
In the short history of film and television, the 1970s and 1980s were a period of stasis during which we absorbed the technology and in certain cases refined it. Producers and distributors developed the infrastructure necessary to maximize sales, while most of us consumers willingly went along, rearranging our lives to consume as much as possible.
当录像机问世时，它的发明者认为它将用于时移，却没有意识到只有孩子才会足够关心学习如何对这些该死的东西进行编程。相反，它意味着更多的值得关注。然而，时间转移的理想仍然存在，只不过我们想要转移的不是时间，而是努力。看电视的大部分社会责任可以留给机器，让我们有时间进行更积极的努力。当节目被安全地捕获到磁带或磁盘上时从某种意义上说，它变得没有必要观看。当它被记录时，我们就可以控制它。
When the VCR was introduced, its inventors thought it would be used for time-shifting, not realizing that only children would care enough to learn to program the damn things. Instead, it has meant just more to watch. Yet the ideal of time-shifting remains, only it is not so much time that we want to shift, but effort. Much of the social responsibility of watching television can be left to the machines, leaving us time for more active endeavors. When the show has been safely captured on tape or disk it becomes, in a sense, not necessary to watch it. When it’s recorded we have control over it.
半个多世纪以来，先是电影，然后是电视，灌输了令人窒息的被动性，这让奥尔德斯·赫胥黎和其他人如此担忧。但现在这种平衡正在发生变化。不是因为我们注意到了社会批评家的警告并采取了行动，而是因为现在日趋成熟的图像和声音技术给我们带来了生产的力量。
For more than half a century, first film, then television inculcated that suffocating passivity that so concerned Aldous Huxley and others. But the balance is now shifting. Not because we heeded the warnings of the social critics and took action, but rather because the image and sound technologies that are now maturing bring the powers of production to us.
1977 年，第一版《如何阅读电影》以“媒体民主注释”结束，勾勒出交互式电视、每个家庭的私人电脑、海量信息网络、按需节目数据库等的未来。未来比我想象的要长一些。总是如此。但它终于到来了，而这一到来就是第七章的主题。
In 1977 the first edition of How to Read a Film concluded with a “Note on Media Democracy” that sketched a future of interactive television, private computers in every home, massive information networks, databanks of programming available on demand, and the like. The future took a little longer than I thought. It always does. But it has finally arrived, and that advent is the subject of Chapter 7.
7
多媒体：数字革命
7
Multimedia: The Digital Revolution
从模拟到
数字 多媒体的神话
虚拟现实的
神话 网络空间的
神话 媒体圈
FROM ANALOG TO DIGITAL
THE MYTH OF MULTIMEDIA
THE MYTH OF VIRTUAL REALITY
THE MYTH OF CYBERSPACE
THE MEDIASPHERE
“最重要的是，我们需要记住，除了电影、媒体、多媒体之外，仍然存在着现实的痕迹。”
“And most important, we need to remember that there is still a vestige of reality beyond film, beyond media, beyond multimedia.”
从模拟到数字
From Analog to Digital
一开始，就有这个迹象。人们说出并唱出了这个标语。然后它被写下来，首先是图画，然后是文字。最终，这个标志被打印出来了。书写时巧妙的编码系统可以捕捉和保存想法和感受、描述和观察。印刷技术将这些书面记录从孤立的图书馆中解放出来，使它们能够传播给数千人，然后是数百万人。它们是将我们的文化粘合在一起的粘合剂。
In the beginning, there was the sign. The sign was spoken and sung. Then it was written, first as picture, then as word. Eventually the sign was printed. The ingenious coding system that was writing allowed ideas and feelings, descriptions and observations to be captured and preserved. The technology of printing liberated these written records from isolated libraries, allowing them to be communicated to thousands, then millions. They are the glue that binds our culture together.
随着十九世纪科学革命的爆发，我们发现了通过技术捕捉图像和声音的方法。摄影，然后是记录和电影，在没有文字介入的情况下再现了现实。至少我们认为他们做到了。我们接受了他们的陈述，就好像它们是真实的一样。事实上，它们只是一组不同的代码。虽然电影的图像和声音比文字更加真实，但它仍然是代码系统——现实的提炼，有时是现实的扭曲，总是对现实的想象。这就是为什么有必要学习如何阅读电影。
As the scientific revolution took hold in the nineteenth century, we discovered methods to capture images and sounds technologically. Photography, then records and film, reproduced reality without the intervention of words. At least we thought they did. We accepted their representations as if they were real. In fact, they were simply a different set of codes. While far more verisimilitudinous than words, the images and sounds of cinema are still code systems—distillations of reality, sometimes distortions of it, always imaginations of it. That’s why it is necessary to learn how to read a film.
电影及其后代为我们定义了二十世纪。
Movies and their offspring have defined the twentieth century for us.
但现在我们发现自己正处于媒体历史新阶段的边缘。我们发明的代表现实的语言正在融合。胶片不再与印刷品分离。书籍可以包括电影；电影，书籍。我们将这种综合称为“多媒体”或“新媒体”。技术提供了诱人的承诺：即时、普遍地获取世界知识和艺术，这些知识和艺术是通过一套多功能媒体工具捕获或制作的。但它也带来了一些技术和道德方面的棘手挑战。
But now we find ourselves on the verge of a new phase in the history of media. The languages which we invented to represent reality are merging. Film is no longer separate from print. Books can include movies; movies, books. We call this synthesis “multimedia,” or “new media.” The technology offers tantalizing promise: instant and universal access to the world’s knowledge and art, captured or produced with a versatile set of media tools. But it also brings with it some knotty challenges, both technical and ethical.
信息时代是真实存在的。20 世纪 80 年代开始的微型计算机革命使我们对信息的访问和控制增加了一百倍。随着下一代革命的成熟，信息力量将再增加四到五个数量级。在我们的有生之年，世界上的大多数知识将立即为世界上的许多人所用，而且成本可以忽略不计。没有回头路，也不再有任何怀疑。我们现在知道，我们可以索引所有印刷过的内容，并且可以在几秒钟而不是几年内建立网络来访问这个印刷世界。（在过去的几年里，对音频和视频的类似访问已经变得很常见，尽管我们还没有认真考虑如何索引图像和声音，但这也将会到来。）
The Information Age is quite real. The microcomputer revolution that began in the 1980s has increased our access to and control over information a hundredfold. As that revolution matures over the next generation, information power will increase by another four or five magnitudes. Within our lifetimes, most of the world’s knowledge will be available to many of the world’s people instantaneously and at negligible cost. There is no turning back, nor is there any longer any doubt. We now know that we can index everything ever printed and that we can build networks to access this print universe in seconds rather than years. (Similar access to audio and video has become as common in the last few years, although we haven’t yet thought seriously how to index images and sounds, but this will come, too.)
戈达尔的《宪兵》（ Les Carabiniers ，1963）中有一个令人难忘的场景，两个士兵在战后带着战利品回到了妻子身边。他们有世界各地奇迹的明信片，一次一张地展示：埃菲尔铁塔、大金字塔、帝国大厦、大峡谷……。他们认为这些图像是财产的契约。随着明信片堆积如山，我们嘲笑他们的天真。这一场景是信息革命的象征：我们现在拥有世界上所有知识财富的成果。但我们将如何处理这笔难以想象的财富呢？也许我们就像戈达尔的卡宾枪手一样天真：我们已经获得了虚拟王国的钥匙，但曾经作为其主题的现实又如何呢？
There is a memorable scene in Godard’s Les Carabiniers (1963) in which the two soldiers return to their wives after the war with their booty. They have postcards of all the world’s wonders which they proudly display, one at a time: the Eiffel Tower, the Great Pyramid, the Empire State Building, the Grand Canyon…. They think these images are deeds to the properties. We laugh at their naïveté as the pile of postcards mounts. The scene is an emblem of the information revolution: we now have the deeds to all the world’s intellectual riches. But what will we do with this unimaginable wealth? Perhaps we are just as naive as Godard’s carabiniers: we have been given the keys to the virtual kingdom, but what about the reality that was once its subject?
正如我们在第一章中指出的那样，虚拟世界日益排挤自然世界，而我们现在拥有的操纵这些曾经珍贵的图像和声音的能力却使它们贬值，摧毁了我们对它们诚实的信心和对它们艺术的欣赏。
As we noted in Chapter 1, the virtual world increasingly crowds out the natural world, and the very power that we now have to manipulate these once precious images and sounds devalues them, destroying our faith in their honesty and our appreciation of their art.
当这本书的第一版于 1977 年出版时，电影介绍中包含了如此多的印刷和电子媒体内容，这可能看起来很奇怪。当时，电影和印刷品似乎没有什么共同点：确实，它们都是通信系统，但相似之处仅此而已。现在，随着用于复制和传播两者的技术和分发系统的融合，我们可以看到它们如何结合在一起。
When the first edition of this book appeared in 1977, it may have seemed strange that an introduction to film included so much about print and electronic media. At the time, movies and print seemed to have little in common: they were both communication systems, true, but the similarity ended there. Now, as the technologies and distribution systems used to reproduce and disseminate the two converge, we can see how they fit together.
这几乎是偶然发生的。1960 年，没有人开始寻找书籍和电影之间的技术共同点。没有戈达尔的粉丝注意到他对文字和图像冲突的着迷，决定找到两者之间的联系。特吕弗的粉丝在看过《华氏 451 度》或读过特吕弗的希区柯克之后，也没有花费数年时间去发现电影制片人/作家同样喜爱的两种媒体之间技术上的共同纽带。符号学在六七十年代的发展是偶然的，因为它为书面语言和电影语言提供了单一的批判方法，但符号学是一种思维方式，而不是一门科学; 没有政府资助的符号学实验室来发现意义的基本组成部分。
This has happened almost by accident. No one set out in 1960 to find a technological common denominator between books and movies. No Godard fan, noticing his fascination with the clash of words and images, decided to find the link between the two. Nor did a Truffaut aficionado, after having seen Fahrenheit 451 or having read Truffaut’s Hitchcock, dedicate years to discovering the technical common bond between the two media which that filmmaker/writer loved equally. The development of semiotics in the sixties and seventies was fortuitous, since it provided a single critical approach to both written language and filmed language, but semiotics was a way of thinking, not a science; there were no semiotics labs funded by governments to discover the basic building blocks of signification.
相反，正如您所期望的那样，这些技术或多或少是出于平凡的经济原因而独立开发的。直到十年的激烈活动之后，人们才清楚地意识到，印刷和电影这两种表达方式将共享一种共同的技术，因此，有可能在同一个地方同时进行这两种表达。他们现在共享的共同技术是数字化。
Rather, as you might expect, the technologies developed more or less independently and for mundane economic reasons. It was only after a decade of furious activity that it became clear that both types of expression, print and film, were going to share a common technology and that—therefore—it would be possible to do both at the same time in the same place. The common technology they now share is digitization.
在 20 世纪 50 年代，计算机被简单地视为数字运算器。（1952 年，IBM 实际上估计 18 台计算机将饱和整个世界市场。）当时的机器是通过输入一副打孔卡（一种可以追溯到 1890 年代的媒介）来编程的。他们需要精心设计的环境（“计算机房”）；它们是由受过专门训练的工程师操作的，他们就像古代的祭司一样，专门被任命进入圣所并接近电子神谕。
In the 1950s, computers were regarded simply as number-crunchers. (In 1952 IBM actually estimated that eighteen computers would saturate the entire world market.) The machines of that day were programmed by feeding in decks of punched cards—a medium that dated from the 1890s; they required carefully engineered environments (“computer rooms”); and they were operated by specially trained engineers, who—like priests of old—were exclusively ordained to enter the sanctum sanctorum and approach the electronic oracle.
在 20 世纪 60 年代，人们发现 CRT 屏幕可以在机器和操作人员之间提供比当时已普及的打孔卡或纸张和磁带更有效的联系。事实上，第一个想到将电视阴极射线管连接到计算机的 IBM 工程师可能被认为是多媒体的教父，因为一旦视觉设备成为基本的输入/输出通道，逻辑控制的视觉隐喻的发展过程变得不可抗拒。这种技术的结合并不是命中注定的，如果穿孔卡和带式打印机仍然是数字计算机的输入/输出设备，那么多媒体——更不用说微型计算机设备本身——可能仍然是一个梦想。
In the 1960s, it became clear that the CRT screen could provide a more efficient link between the machines and the people who operated them than the punched cards or the paper and magnetic tapes that had become common by that time. Indeed, the engineer at IBM who first thought to connect a television cathode ray tube to a computer may be considered the godfather of multimedia, for once that visual device became the basic input/output channel, the development of a visual metaphor for the logical control process became irresistible. This marriage of technologies was not preordained, and if punched cards and band printers had remained the input/output devices for digital computers, multimedia—to say nothing of the microcomputer appliance itself—might have remained a dream.
在 20 世纪 70 年代，文字处理器作为基本商业工具的发展表明普通外行人也可以操作计算机，人们对视觉控制隐喻（或“图形用户界面”，正如后来的行话所标记的那样）的兴趣增加了。与此同时，电影制作人和音频技术人员对将这种新工具应用于图像和声音处理的令人兴奋的可能性产生了兴趣。James 和 John Whitney 等电影制作人早在 1961 年就使用大型机为其电影制作抽象图像。音乐家和音频艺术家在 20 世纪 60 年代末开始迷恋新型 Moog 合成器。第一台数字录音机由 Lexicon 公司于 1971 年发售。到 20 世纪 70 年代末，哥伦比亚广播公司 (CBS) 开发了一种用于录像带数字编辑的机器。价格？100万美元。（不知道是否有售出。今天，您可以使用成本低于 3,000 美元的系统做得更好。） 多媒体元素正在不断发展。
In the 1970s, when the development of word processors as basic business tools suggested that computers could be operated by ordinary laypeople, interest increased in a visual control metaphor—or “graphical user interface,” as the jargon later tagged it. At the same time, filmmakers and audio technicians became intrigued with the exciting possibilities of applying this new tool to the manipulation of images and sounds. Filmmakers like James and John Whitney used mainframes to produce abstract images for their films as early as 1961. Musicians and audio artists became infatuated with the new Moog synthesizer in the late 1960s. The first digital audiotape recorder was offered for sale by the Lexicon company in 1971. By the late 1970s CBS had developed a machine for digital editing of videotape. The price? $1 million. (It is not known if any were sold. Today you can do a better job with a system that costs less than $3,000.) The elements of multimedia were evolving.
图 7-1。约翰·惠特尼 (John Whitney) 和詹姆斯·惠特尼 (James Whitney) 在 20 世纪 60 年代开创了计算机驱动图像技术。这里是约翰·惠特尼 (John Whitney) 的《目录》(1961) 中的框架。（John Whitney © 1984。经许可使用。框架放大。）
Figure 7-1. John and James Whitney pioneered computer-driven imagery in the 1960s. Here, frames from John Whitney’s “Catalog” (1961). (John Whitney © 1984. Used with permission. Frame enlargements.)
图 7-2。乔丹·贝尔森的电影没有使用计算机技术，但他们确实将光学和机械效果与自然现象和许多其他实验技术结合起来，产生一种有节奏的、抽象的美感。这些帧来自贝尔森的“Samadhi”（1967）。（Jordan Belson © 1989。经许可使用。框架放大。）
Figure 7-2. Jordan Belson’s films didn’t use computer techniques but they did combine optical and mechanical effects with natural phenomena and many other experimental techniques to produce a rhythmic, abstract esthetic. These frames are from Belson’s “Samadhi” (1967). (Jordan Belson © 1989. Used with permission. Frame enlargements.)
1968 年 12 月，斯坦福研究所的员工道格拉斯·恩格尔巴特 (Douglas Engelbart) 演示了一个有效的图形用户界面，实现了物理学家万尼瓦尔·布什 (Vannevar Bush) 在其 1946 年开创性论文《正如我们所想》中首次概述的梦想。20 世纪 70 年代初，施乐帕洛阿尔托研究中心和其他地方的研究人员将现在无处不在的 CRT 上的图形与他们称为鼠标的独立物理指点设备结合起来。在恩格尔巴特看来，这可能是一系列技术发展的终结，现在却显示出它本身是一个肥沃而迷人的探究领域的开始：为人类与人类之间复杂而微妙的相互作用发明了一个连贯的视觉和物理隐喻。他们的第一个真正的智力工具。界面设计迅速成为人们浓厚兴趣的主题。新的基本款并不常见并发明了通用语言系统。*二十世纪出现了两个世纪：首先是电影，然后是图形界面。作为新的交流系统，电影语言和计算机语言的融合只是时间问题。
In December 1968 Douglas Engelbart, an employee of the Stanford Research Institute, demonstrated an effective graphical user interface, fulfilling a dream first outlined by physicist Vannevar Bush in his seminal 1946 essay “As We May Think.” In the early 1970s researchers at Xerox’s Palo Alto Research Center and elsewhere combined the graphics on the now ubiquitous CRT with a separate physical pointing device that they called a mouse. What may have appeared to Engelbart to be the end of a line of technological development now revealed itself as instead the beginning of a fertile and fascinating field of inquiry: the invention of a coherent visual and physical metaphor for the complex and subtle interaction between humans and their first true intellectual tools. Interface design rapidly became a subject of intense interest. It isn’t often that a new basic and universal language system is invented.* The twentieth century saw two: first film, then the graphical interface. As new systems of communication, it was only a matter of time before the languages of film and computers merged.
Apple 的 Macintosh 电脑于 1984 年 1 月大张旗鼓地推出，标志着人们期待已久的多媒体的诞生。作为第一台成功将施乐帕洛阿尔托研究中心开发的图形界面商业化的微型计算机，该机器及其软件提供了一个足够复杂的平台，足以支持未来十年新媒体的发展。†
Apple’s Macintosh computer, introduced with great fanfare in January 1984, marked the long-anticipated birth of multimedia. As the first microcomputer to commercialize successfully the graphical interface developed at Xerox PARC years earlier, the machine and its software provided a platform sophisticated enough to support the development of new media during the next ten years.†
该公司由两位年轻的加州人史蒂文·乔布斯和斯蒂芬·沃兹尼亚克于 1977 年创立。虽然沃兹尼亚克被视为“技术专家”，但事实证明，“商业领袖”乔布斯对技术史产生了更大的影响，因为正是他倡导了麦金塔计算机作为一种电器的愿景，就像烤面包机一样，界面足够简单，任何未经技术培训的人都可以操作。
The company had been founded in 1977 by two young Californians, Steven Jobs and Stephen Wozniak. While Wozniak was regarded as the “techie,” Jobs, the “business head,” turned out to have the greater impact on the history of technology, for it was he who championed the Macintosh vision of the computer as an appliance, like a toaster, with an interface simple enough for anyone without technical training to operate.
在推出 Mac 之前，苹果公司已经制造了一些机器，就像其他新兴的微型计算机行业一样，这些机器需要大量的技术专业知识才能操作。在此之前，他们的成功归功于两个因素：他们所展现的活跃而浪漫的形象，以及幸运的意外，来自马萨诸塞州剑桥的另外两个年轻人丹·布里克林（Dan Bricklin）和鲍勃·弗兰克斯顿（Bob Frankston）编写了一个名为“VisiCalc”的程序。 ”，该程序仅在 Apple II 计算机上运行。VisiCalc 于 1979 年首次亮相后不久就被推向市场。成千上万的年轻 MBA 满怀 20 世纪 80 年代的金融梦想，纷纷购买苹果电脑来运行这个新的“电子表格”程序，这是一种商业规划工具。‡
Before the introduction of the Mac, Apple had manufactured machines, like the rest of the nascent microcomputer industry, which required significant technical expertise to operate. Their success until that time had been due to two factors: the feisty and romantic image they had projected, and the lucky accident that two other young men, Dan Bricklin and Bob Frankston, based in Cambridge, Massachusetts, had written a program called “VisiCalc,” which ran only on the Apple II computer. VisiCalc was introduced to the market in 1979, shortly after the machine debuted. Thousands of young MBAs, heady with the financial dreams of the 1980s, rushed out to buy Apples to run this new “spreadsheet” program, a business planning tool.‡
图 7-3。介绍 Macintosh 的“1984”广告仅在 1984 年 1 月 24 日超级碗期间播出过一次。雷德利·斯科特执导。（由 Apple Computer, Inc. 提供。框架放大。）
Figure 7-3. The “1984” commercial introducing the Macintosh aired just once during the Super Bowl, January 24, 1984. Ridley Scott directed. (Courtesy Apple Computer, Inc. Frame enlargements.)
第一台 Macintosh 于 1984 年上市，配有绘画程序和文字处理软件。用户可以立即在屏幕上绘图和打字。也许同样重要的是，机器的图形能力不仅适用于图像，还适用于文本。作家实际上可以选择自己的字体和字体样式！相对于当时基于点阵字符的屏幕的粗略表示，这是一个重大进步。（见图6-3。）出版商和印刷商迄今为止所关心的神秘问题——字体、行距、磅值、字偶距——很快就成为新一代助理和中层管理人员的常识。这种社会和审美的巨变在 20 世纪 70 年代就已经预示，当时廉价复印机随处可见，几乎任何人都可以成为出版商。现在，麦金塔也允许任何人设计布局和设置字体。
The first Macintoshes shipped in 1984 with a painting program as well as word-processing software. Immediately, users could draw on their screens as well as type. Perhaps just as important, the graphic power of the machine was applied to texts as well as images. Writers could actually choose their own fonts and type styles! This was a major advance over the crude representations of the dot-matrix character-based screens of that time. (See Figure 6-3.) The heretofore arcane concerns of publishers and printers—fonts, leading, point sizes, kerning—quickly became common knowledge for a new generation of assistants and middle managers. This social and esthetic sea-change had been foreshadowed in the 1970s when ubiquitous cheap photocopiers allowed almost anyone to be a publisher. Now the Macintosh let anyone design layouts and set type, too.
五六十年代推崇的“消费者”正在让位于八九十年代的“用户”。消费者曾经是二十世纪伟大工业生产者的被动和尽责的合作伙伴，而用户正在成为本世纪服务提供商的主动、独立和苛刻的客户。当我们在六十年代在街头游行时高呼“权力归人民！”时，我们几乎不知道权力确实会被授予——但在艺术和传播领域，而不是在政治和经济领域。
The “consumer” celebrated in the fifties and sixties was yielding to the “user” of the eighties and nineties. Where the consumer had been a passive and dutiful partner for the great industrial producers of the twentieth century, the user is becoming an active, independent, and demanding client for the service providers of this century. Little did we know, as we marched in the streets in the sixties chanting “Power to the People!,” that the power would indeed be granted—but in the arts and communications, rather than in politics and economics.
六十年代的反主流文化和八十年代的微型计算机文化之间的关系令人好奇，但不可否认。苹果很早就明白了这一点，并从这种理解中获益。著名的超级碗广告将 Macintosh 介绍为“计算机1984 年 1 月的《对于我们其他人来说》大量利用了反文化渴望的残余。
This relationship between the counterculture of the sixties and the microcomputer culture of the eighties is curious but undeniable. Apple understood it early on, and profited by that understanding. The famous Super Bowl commercial that introduced the Macintosh as “the computer for the rest of us” in January 1984 traded heavily on the residue of countercultural yearnings.
除了它所获得的文化神秘感之外，微型计算机在最纯粹的意义上也是“革命性的”，因为它的历史进步是用几何而不是算术来衡量的。“摩尔定律”表明，每美元的芯片密度（以及计算能力）每 18 个月就会翻一番。主导芯片制造商英特尔的创始人之一戈登·摩尔很早就提出了这一经验法则。微型计算机过去三十年的历史不可思议地见证了它的真理。我在 1994 年 3 月购买的机器比我在 1981 年 4 月购买的机器运行速度快 200 倍，存储容量是它的 200 倍，而成本却差不多。这些数字几乎完全符合摩尔定律的预测。根据通货膨胀进行调整，性能再次翻倍。
Separately from the cultural mystique that it acquired, the microcomputer was also “revolutionary” in the purest sense of the term, since its historical progress is measured geometrically rather than arithmetically. “Moore’s Law” suggests that chip density (and by extension computing power) per dollar doubles every 18 months. Gordon Moore, one of the founders of Intel, the dominant chip manufacturer, offered this rule of thumb early on. The history of the microcomputer over the past thirty years bears uncanny witness to its truth. The machine I bought in March 1994 ran 200 times faster than the machine I bought in April 1981, had 200 times the storage capacity, and cost about the same. Those figures are almost exactly what Moore’s Law would have predicted. Adjust for inflation, and performance doubles yet again.
这不仅仅是电脑运动员的谈话。从数字上看，20世纪80年代的信息革命在不到十年的时间里就完成了交通革命在1960年代结束之前花了100年才完成的事情。换句话说，如果交通运输能力与信息能力在 20 世纪 80 年代的发展速度相同，那么从纽约到洛杉矶 5 小时的飞行现在只需大约 1 分半钟。我想起了鲍勃·迪伦六十年代的一句话：
This isn’t just computer jock talk. Numerically, the information revolution of the 1980s accomplished in fewer than ten years what took the transportation revolution 100 years to achieve before it ended in the 1960s. Put another way, if transportation power had developed at the same speed as information power in the 1980s, the five-hour flight from New York to Los Angeles would now take about a minute and a half. Bob Dylan’s phrase from the sixties comes to mind:
……这里正在发生一些事情
，但你不知道那是什么
，是吗，琼斯先生？*
… something is happening here
But you don’t know what it is
Do you, Mr. Jones?*
虽然新兴的微型计算机行业在办公室中处于领先地位，但消费电子行业却在家庭中利用了微芯片革命。
While the burgeoning microcomputer industry led the way in the office, the consumer electronics industry took advantage of the microchip revolution in the home.
在 20 世纪 70 年代末，人们在剧院看电影，听唱片中的音乐，观看四大国家电视网络之一（实际上有时会从椅子上站起来换频道），使用将电线连接到互联网的电话。如果他们愿意的话，可以使用钢笔、铅笔、打字机、纸张和美国邮政服务相互通信。
At the end of the 1970s, people saw movies in theaters, listened to music on records, watched one of the four national television networks (actually getting up out of their chairs to change channels on occasion), used telephones with wires tethering them to the wall, and, if they were so inclined, corresponded with each other using pens, pencils, typewriters, paper, and the U.S. Postal Service.
到了 20 世纪 90 年代初，这些人主要在家里通过录像带看电影，听光盘上的数字音乐（更多时候是走在街上而不是坐在家里），可以选择 40 个或更多的有线频道（并在不离开椅子的情况下浏览频道），他们在车里或四处走动时打电话，如果愿意的话，还可以通过传真或电子邮件相互通信。
By the early 1990s, these same folks saw movies mainly at home on videotape, listened to digital music on Compact Discs (more often walking in the street than sitting at home), had their choice of 40 or more cable channels from which to choose (and channel-surfed without leaving their chairs), made telephone calls in their cars or walking around, and, if they were so inclined, corresponded with each other via fax or electronic mail.
到 2000 年代初，如果他们愿意的话，他们还可以购买一台摄像机，让他们拍摄接近专业质量的数字视频。他们可以安装一个家庭影院，其屏幕几乎与当地六厅影院的屏幕一样大（并且音响系统明显更好）。他们可以观看 DVD，像看书一样跳过、浏览、冻结和略读；安装自己的卫星天线；或者购买一台具有 20 世纪 80 年代 IBM 大型机功能的电脑供孩子们玩。
By the early 2000s, they could also, if they so chose, buy a camcorder that would let them shoot digital video of near-professional quality. They could install a home theater with a screen almost as large as the ones at the local sixplex (and with a sound system that was markedly better). They could watch DVDs, skipping, browsing, freezing, and skimming as they might with a book; install their very own satellite dish; or buy a computer for the kids to play with that had the power of a 1980s IBM mainframe.
他们越来越多地选择最后一种选择，通常是为了孩子们。到 1990 年，计算机知识已成为许多学院和大学入学的先决条件。到 1994 年，近 40% 的美国家庭拥有微型计算机，多媒体将我们刚才列举的大部分技术组合在一起的舞台已经搭建好了。
Increasingly they chose this last alternative, often for the sake of the children. By 1990, computer literacy was a prerequisite for admission to many colleges and universities. By 1994, nearly 40 percent of American homes had microcomputers and the stage was set for multimedia to weave together most of the technological strands we have just enumerated.
“你说你想要一场革命……” 数字化和计算机化完成了我们文化架构的深刻转变，这一转变始于一个世纪前的爱迪生实验室。随着信息时代成为现实，知识将劳动力和资本纳入社会方程式，意识形态却跟不上。米哈伊尔·戈尔巴乔夫本人曾指出，微芯片的兴起伴随着冷战的结束绝非巧合。
“You say you want a revolution….” Digitization and computerization completed the profound shift in our cultural architecture that had begun in Edison’s labs a century earlier. As the Information Age became a reality and knowledge joined labor and capital in the social equation, ideology couldn’t keep up. It is more than coincidental that the rise of the microchip accompanied the end of the Cold War, a conjunction that Mikhail Gorbachev himself once pointed out.
尽管 80 年代数字革命的速度呈指数级增长，但自 1985 年推出 CD-ROM 以来，多媒体仍然花了十二年多的时间才成为一种适销对路的产品。原因？数字化图像和声音，更不用说电影，对处理器速度、存储容量和通信带宽提出了极高的要求。本书的数字文本（完全格式化）大约为 2.5 兆字节。书中出现的黑白图像和图表额外占用 750 兆字节。在本书的 DVD-ROM 版本中，额外的插图、彩色、动画、编程、文本和电影填满了剩余的 4,300 兆字节的大部分。换句话说，《如何阅读电影》的完全格式化文本所占用的磁盘空间还不到多媒体版本所需磁盘空间的十分之一，而仅仅说明它的图像和声音所占用的空间是真实版本的 1,000 倍以上。财产。
Despite the exponential speed of the digital revolution in the eighties, it took more than twelve years after the introduction of the CD-ROM in 1985 before multimedia became a marketable product. The reason? Digitized images and sounds, not to mention movies, made extraordinary demands on processor speed, storage capacity, and communication bandwidth. The digital text for this book, fully formatted, amounts to about 2.5 megabytes. The black-and-white images and diagrams that appear in the book take up an additional 750 megabytes. On the DVD-ROM version of the book, the additional illustrations, color, animation, programming, texts, and movies fill up most of the remaining 4,300 megabytes. In other words, the fully formatted text of How to Read a Film occupies less than one-tenth of one percent of the disc space required for the multimedia version, while the images and sounds which merely illustrate it consume more than 1,000 times as much real estate.
其他一些需要考虑的数字：
Some other numbers to think about:
20 世纪 90 年代中期，多媒体已经成熟，标准电脑屏幕的尺寸为 640 x 480 像素。如果全屏中的每个像素图像要么是黑色的，要么是白色的，描述该图像需要 38,400 字节。*但是，如果您有标准 VGA 彩色屏幕，调色板有 16 种颜色，则将该数字乘以 4；如果您想要色彩接近电影或电视的质量，请将其乘以 24。突然之间，单个屏幕占用了近兆字节的存储空间。将屏幕尺寸增加到 1280 × 854（近代常见），您需要超过 3.2 MB 来存储图像。您会看到其中的差异：您可以存储整本书，或者单个像样的彩色图像。一张图片可能抵得上一千个字，但它应该值十五万字吗？这可不是什么好事。
The standard computer screen of the mid-nineties, when multimedia came of age, measured 640 by 480 pixels. If each pixel in a full-screen image was either black or white, 38,400 bytes would have been necessary to describe that image.* However, if you had a standard VGA color screen, with a palette of 16 colors, multiply that number by 4; and if you want color approaching the quality of film or television, multiply it by 24. All of a sudden, a single screen occupies nearly a megabyte of storage. Increase the screen size to 1280 × 854 (common in the late oughts) and you need more than 3.2 megabytes to store an image. You see the disparity: you can store an entire book—or a single decent color image. A picture may be worth a thousand words, but should it cost 150,000? This is not a good deal.
现在，让静态彩色图像移动。甚至不要考虑每秒 24 帧。尝试 12 — 几乎就可以了。现在，您播放的动画电影每秒需要超过 11 MB 的空间。一张 CD-ROM 的存储容量为 650 兆字节，可以容纳一分钟的电影（嗯，不完全是）。这也不是一件好事。旧的模拟世界从未看起来如此美好。
Now, make that still color image move. Don’t even think about 24 frames per second. Try 12—it will almost work. Now you need more than 11 megabytes for each second of jerky movie that you show. A CD-ROM, with its storage capacity of 650 megabytes, could hold a minute of film (well, not quite). This is also not a good deal. The old analog world never looked so good.
最后，假设您可以找到某种方法来解决存储问题，请记住，您必须以每秒 11 兆字节的速度从光盘传输到 CPU 到屏幕，才能显示您的 640 × 480 每秒 12 帧的小电影”，而 20 世纪 80 年代末 CD-ROM 的标准传输速率是每秒 150,000 字节。†
Finally, assuming that you can find some way to lick the storage problem, remember that you will have to transfer 11 megabytes per second from disc to CPU to screen in order to show your little 640 × 480 12-frames-per-second “movie,” while the standard transfer rate of CD-ROMs in the late 1980s was 150,000 bytes per second.†
您现在已经了解了数字视频先驱所面临的技术挑战！他们针对这个看似无法克服的问题提出的解决方案非常巧妙且富有启发性。大多数情况下，它们最初并不是基于硬件的。构建能够足够快地以合理的价格处理如此大量信息的芯片只能解决一半的问题，因为存储需求与处理器的需求一样庞大。单独的数字信号处理器芯片 (DSP) 很有用，甚至是必要的，但第一个多媒体阶段是通过使用纯数学技术的软件实现的，这些技术既美观又有效。
You now have some idea of the technical challenges that confronted the digital video pioneers! The solutions they worked out for this seemingly insurmountable problem are ingenious and instructive. For the most part, they were not initially hardware-based. Building chips that could process this amount of information quickly enough and at a reasonable price would have solved only half the problem, since the storage demands were just as astronomical as the demands on the processors. Separate Digital Signal Processor chips (DSPs) are useful—even necessary—but the first stage of multimedia was made possible by software that uses purely mathematical techniques that are as beautiful as they are effective.
图 7-4。遥控器。
Figure 7-4. REMOTES.
(A) Warner-Amex Cable 的 Qube III 有线电视“键盘” Qube 于 1977 年推出，是下世纪互动有线电视市场的早期先驱。它将允许有线电视观众选择各种各样的节目频道（其中一些频道按小时收费），并且还可以与有线电视网络“顶嘴”。由于技术尚未成熟，实验失败了。但键盘遥控器改变了我们在八十年代对媒体的体验。
(A) Warner-Amex Cable’s Qube III cable television “keypad” Introduced in 1977, Qube was the early harbinger of the interactive cable market of the next century. It would have allowed the cable television viewer to select a large variety of programming channels—some of which incurred per-hour charges—and also to “talk back” to the cablecasting network. The technology wasn’t ready and the experiment failed. But the keypad remote control changed our experience of the medium in the eighties.
(B) 到了九十年代，遥控器已经无处不在，不仅适用于电视设备，还适用于音频和其他设备。这些是摩纳哥家庭（两名成人，三名青少年）在城市小公寓中使用的遥控器。顶部的前三个（有线电视盒、录像机和电视）必须作为三驾马车来操作客厅设备。该系列中最大和最小的分别是激光光盘播放器和 Hi-8 相机。中间的空间是为立体声遥控器保留的：我们从未找到过它。
(B) By the nineties, the remote was ubiquitous, not only for television equipment but for audio and other devices, as well. These are the remotes the Monaco family—two adults, three teenagers—used in a small city apartment. The first three at the top (cable box, VCR, and TV) had to be employed as a troika to operate the living room equipment. The largest and smallest in the collection are the Laserdisc player and the Hi-8 camera, respectively. The space in the middle is reserved for the stereo remote: we never did find it.
(C) 这些经典遥控器控制三台电视、两台立体声音响和一台旧录像机。注意 VCR 遥控器上的电线，1984 年老式。它是全套 14 件中唯一从未丢失的一根。
(C) These classic remotes controlled three televisions, two stereos, and an old VCR. Note the wire on the VCR remote, vintage 1984. It is the only one of the complete set of fourteen that never got lost.
(D) 索尼“集成遥控器”：终于，一个遥控器的遥控器！
(D) A Sony “Integrated Remote Commander” of the oughts: finally, a remote for remotes!
(E) 遥控器简化为其基本元素。
(E) The remote reduced to its basic elements.
尽管它们太复杂，无法在这里详细说明，但足以说明这些算法通过记录连续像素和帧之间的差异来压缩存储和显示图像（或称为电影的连续图像）所需的数据量，而不是每帧中每个像素的单独值。例如，具有单一颜色大背景的静止图像比具有多色、杂色背景的相同图像占用的存储空间要少得多。重要的是变化的数量，而不是像素的数量。同样，一部动作缓慢且剪辑较少的电影比快速变化且剪辑较多的场景所需的存储空间要少得多。仅记录帧之间的差异，而不记录每帧的完整数据。每个静止图像的压缩称为“空间压缩”；后续帧的压缩称为“时间压缩”。这两套算法对于生成经济上可行的数字视频都是必要的。
Although they are too complex to detail here, suffice it to say that these algorithms compress the amount of data required to store and display an image (or that succession of images known as a movie) by recording the difference between successive pixels and frames rather than the individual values of each pixel in each frame. For example, a still image with a large background of a single color would take much less room to store than the same image with a multicolored, variegated background. It is the number of changes that count, not the number of pixels. Similarly, a movie that is slow moving with few cuts requires far less storage than a quickly changing scene with numerous cuts. Only the differences between frames are recorded, not the complete data for each frame. The compression of each still image is known as “spatial compression;” the compression of succeeding frames is called “temporal compression.” Both sets of algorithms are necessary to produce economically viable digital video.
这些压缩技术可以轻松地将静态图像的存储量减少 10 倍，将运动图像的存储量减少 100 倍。因此，我们又回到了可用硬件容量规定的限制范围内。静态图像压缩的主要标准称为 JPEG（设计该标准的组织为联合图像专家组），而电影的主要标准称为 MPEG（运动图像专家组）。DVD 规范基于 MPEG-2，并提供全屏、全动态视频。还有许多其他方案正在使用。（哦，是的。还有一个非常简单的方法可以减少数字电影所需的数据量：减小图像的大小。这就是为什么您在网络上看到如此多的邮票电影。）
These compression techniques can easily reduce storage for a still image by a factor of 10 and storage for a moving image by a factor of 100. So we are back within the limits prescribed by the capacities of available hardware. The main standard for still image compression is known as JPEG (for the group that designed it, the Joint Photographic Experts Group) while the main standard for movies is called MPEG (for Motion Picture Experts Group). The DVD specification is based on MPEG-2 and provides for fullscreen, full-motion video. There are many other schemes in use as well. (Oh, yes. There is also a very simple way to reduce the amount of data necessary for a digital movie: reduce the size of the image. That’s why you see so many postage-stamp movies on the web.)
尽管 Voyager 公司早在 1989 年就通过发行 Robert Winter 的《贝多芬第九交响曲 CD Companion》展示了多媒体的可能性，但多媒体直到 1991 年 6 月才开始成为市场现实，当时 Apple 推出了名为 QuickTime 的电影软件技术。（微软于第二年推出了 Video for Windows。）QuickTime 被设计为支持所有媒体类型（无论是否基于时间）的体系结构。
Although the Voyager Company had demonstrated the possibilities of multimedia as early as 1989 with their release of Robert Winter’s CD Companion to Beethoven’s Ninth, multimedia did not begin to become a market reality until June 1991, when Apple introduced their software technology for movies known as QuickTime. (Microsoft followed with Video for Windows the next year.) QuickTime was designed as an architecture to support all media types, time-based or not.
其目标之一是提供一种独立于平台的技术，以便可以以运行图像的硬件所能达到的最佳质量显示移动图像。随着软件的连续版本的发布，该架构支持更多的功能（文本、交互性），更多编解码器（压缩算法）以及在互联网上使用的适应性（流媒体、可变传输速率）。
One of its aims was to provide a platform-independent technology so that moving images could be shown at the best quality that the hardware on which they were run was capable. As successive versions of the software were issued the architecture supported more features (text, interactivity), more codecs (compression algorithms), and adaptations for use on the internet (streaming, variable transmission rates).
图 7-5。存储技术。_ (A) 让 IBM 取得成功的打孔卡 (1929) 在 24 平方英寸上可容纳 80 个字符。(B) 8 英寸软盘 (1971) 在 50 平方英寸上可容纳 128,000 个字符。(C) DVD (1997) 在不到 20 平方英寸的面积上容纳了超过 40 亿个字符。(D) 《时间机器》 （公元 802,701 年）中的歌环容量……稍微少一点，但不需要任何玩家，除了 Yvette Mimieux 或 Rod Taylor。
Figure 7-5. STORAGE TECHNOLOGY. (A) The punched card (1929) that made IBM successful held eighty characters on 24 square inches. (B) The 8-inch floppy disk (1971) held 128,000 characters on 50 square inches. (C)The DVD (1997) holds more than four billion characters on less than 20 square inches. (D)The singing ring from The Time Machine (802,701 AD) holds … a little bit less, but requires no player, except Yvette Mimieux or Rod Taylor.
借助 QuickTime，新媒体制作者拥有了第一个在文本环境中集成音频和视频的有效工具，但他们仍然受到硬件的限制。他们的传递媒介、CD-ROM 和互联网都是有限的。CD-ROM 基于 20 世纪 70 年代末设计的技术，而互联网传输则受到低调制解调器速度的阻碍。DVD 是 CD 的后继者，旨在为数字视频提供足够的容量和速度，直到 1997 年才上市，而高速电缆调制解调器和 DSL 互联网连接直到世纪之交后才得到普及。
With QuickTime, new media producers had their first effective tool for integrating audio and video in a text environment, but they were still constrained by the hardware. Their delivery media, the CD-ROM and the internet, were both limited. CD-ROM was based on technology that was devised in the late 1970s, while internet transmission was hampered by low modem speeds. DVD, the successor to the CD and designed to have sufficient capacity and speed for digital video, was not marketed until 1997, while high-speed cable modems and DSL internet connections did not become widespread until after the turn of the century.
由飞利浦和索尼联合开发的激光 CD 于 1982 年作为音频介质推出。六年之内，它主导了唱片行业，成为二十世纪消费电子营销的伟大成功故事之一。CD 在音频市场上的成功使价格迅速下降，使这种物理介质变得更加重要这对计算机行业很有吸引力，计算机行业于 1985 年采用 CD-ROM 作为未来的存储技术。
Developed jointly by Philips and Sony, the laser-based CD was introduced as an audio medium in 1982. Within six years it dominated the recording business, one of the great success stories of twentieth-century consumer electronics marketing. The success of the CD in the audio market brought prices down rapidly, making this physical medium even more attractive for the computer industry which in 1985 adopted CD-ROM as the storage technology of the future.
讽刺的是，索尼和飞利浦一样，在多媒体市场上几乎没有取得成功。在 20 世纪 90 年代初期，该公司推出了至少四个版本的便携式 CD-ROM 播放器，但 Data Discman（有几个版本）、Bookman 和 MMCD 播放器都没有被公众接受。该公司以 20 世纪 80 年代的热门随身听而闻名，继便携式播放器的一系列失败之后，又于 2006 年推出了索尼阅读器（一种电子书设备），但陷入了彻底的沉寂。
Ironically, Sony, like Philips, had little success in the multimedia market. During the early 1990s the company brought out at least four versions of a portable CD-ROM player, but neither the Data Discman (in several incarnations), the Bookman, nor the MMCD player was accepted by the public. Continuing their string of portable player failures the company famous for its 1980s hit the Walkman, introduced the Sony Reader, an eBook device, in 2006, to resounding silence.
音频 CD 如此迅速地成功是因为索尼和飞利浦控制了技术：所有制造商都采用了单一的统一标准。相反，在 DVD 出现之前，CD 多媒体的发展因多种方法而放缓。除了Apple Macintosh和Microsoft MPC格式以及Sony的努力之外，昔日的竞争者名单还包括Philips的CD-I（1991年推出）、Commodore的CDTV、Tandy的VIS、IBM的Ultimedia以及Sega、Nintendo、Sony的游戏机，和3DO。所有人都没有成功。尽管数百家公司在 20 世纪 90 年代初期纷纷推出基于 CD-ROM 的产品（其中许多产品相当巧妙），但多媒体仍然只是一个梦想，而不是现实。到 1995 年，大多数早期多媒体制作商都因缺乏标准软件而破产。唯一成功的 CD-ROM 类型是游戏和以文本为中心的产品，例如百科全书和参考书。事实上，到 1994 年，光盘版百科全书的销量已经超过了传统书籍形式的百科全书。到了中期，几乎所有这些基于 CD 的参考书都将被基于网络的替代品所取代，因为宽带互联网连接改变了媒体的动态。
The audio CD succeeded so quickly because Sony and Philips controlled the technology: a single uniform standard was adopted by all manufacturers. Conversely, until the advent of DVD, CD multimedia development was slowed by a multiplicity of approaches. In addition to the Apple Macintosh and Microsoft MPC formats and Sony’s efforts, the list of erstwhile contenders included Philips’s CD-I (introduced in 1991), Commodore’s CDTV, Tandy’s VIS, IBM’s Ultimedia, and the game machines of Sega, Nintendo, Sony, and 3DO. All were non-starters. Although hundreds of companies rushed to market in the early 1990s with CD-ROM-based products (many of them quite ingenious), multimedia remained more a dream than a reality. By 1995 most of the early multimedia producers were out of business, doomed by the lack of standard software. The only successful CD-ROM genres were games and text-centric products like encyclopedias and reference works. Indeed, by 1994 more encyclopedias were sold on disc than in traditional book form. By the mid-oughts, nearly all of these CD-based reference works would be superseded by web-based alternatives, as broadband internet connections changed the dynamics of the medium.
CD 的原始规格旨在提供一种可以提供一个多小时未压缩数字音频的产品。* DVD 的设计目的是能够在类似大小的光盘上播放标准的两小时故事片。通过使用波长较短的激光器，工程师能够在同一张光盘上容纳几乎七倍的位数，但正如我们所见，这对于原始视频来说还不够容量。†
The original specification for the CD aimed for a product that could deliver more than an hour of digital audio, uncompressed.* DVD was designed to have the capacity to deliver a standard two-hour feature film on a similar-sized disc. By using a laser with a shorter wavelength engineers were able to fit almost seven times as many bits on the same disc, but as we have seen that is not nearly enough capacity for raw video.†
图 7-6。数字编码。 _ 计算机编码是二进制（基数为 2）、十六进制（基数为 16）和十进制（基数为 10）计数系统的创造性组合。该理论从二进制系统开始，因为每个电路只能表现出两种状态之一：开或关、I 或 0。虽然二进制数字系统对机器来说很容易，但对人类来说却很困难。到 20 世纪 80 年代，业界已经确定了一种标准系统，该系统将二进制“位”（二进制 digITS）组合成八个一组，称为字节。每半个字节（半字节）可以表示最多 16 (2 4 ) 的数字，因此数字可以轻松地用十六进制表示法表示（其中字母 A 到 F 代表阿拉伯十进制系统中没有的数字） ）。八位字节允许 ASCII 系统的 256 个可能值 (2 8 )，该限制足以对罗马字母表的所有字母（大写和小写）、标点符号、数字、重音符号和重音字母进行编码。后来，两字节的Unicode扩大了容量。
Figure 7-6. DIGITAL CODING. Computer coding is an inventive combination of binary (base 2), hexadecimal (base 16), and decimal (base 10) numbering systems. The theory begins with a binary system, since each circuit can exhibit one of only two states—on or off, I or 0. While a binary number system is easy for machines, it is difficult for human beings. By the 1980s, the industry had settled on a standard system which combined binary “bits” (for Binary digITS) into groups of eight, called a byte. Each half of the byte (a nibble) can represent a number up to 16 (24) so numbers can easily be represented in hexadecimal notation (where the letters A through F stand for the digits we don’t have in the Arabic decimal system). The eight-bit byte permitted the 256 possible values (28) of the ASCII system which was a limit sufficient to encode all the letters of the Roman alphabet, both upper- and lower-case, punctuation, numbers, accents, and accented letters. Later, the two-byte Unicode expanded the capacity.
压缩技术对于可行的产品是必要的。这就是有趣的地方。
Compression technology was necessary for a viable product. Here’s where it gets interesting.
压缩算法有两种：“有损”和“无损”。顾名思义，无损压缩忠实地再现了从原始数据中捕获的每个数字值，而有损压缩则不然：它会近似某些值。此外，数字化本身的本质就意味着价值的损失。无论采样率有多高，理论上，步骤之间的值都会丢失。还是有发烧友的他们抱怨 CD 复制的“冷漠”，更喜欢老式的模拟黑胶唱片，尽管它们很脆弱。
Compression algorithms come in two flavors, “lossy” and “nonlossy.” As their names imply, nonlossy compression faithfully reproduces every digital value captured from the original, while lossy compression does not: it approximates some values. Furthermore, the very nature of digitization itself implies a loss of values. No matter how high the sampling rate, theoretically values in between the steps are lost. There are still audiophiles who complain about the “coldness” of CD reproduction, preferring the old-fashioned analog vinyl disks, despite their fragility.
由于 DVD 格式依赖于大量有损压缩，因此 1995 年末作为下一代光盘技术标准而建立的 DVD 格式加剧了这些美观问题。大多数消费者对 DVD 视频的图像质量感到惊讶。事实上，其分辨率和色彩保真度都远远优于通常与 DVD 光盘进行比较的 VHS 磁带。DVD 视频的推出是历史上最成功的消费电子产品推出之一。
Because it depends on heavy, lossy compression, the DVD format established as a standard late in 1995 for the next generation of optical disc technology compounded these esthetic problems. Most consumers marvel at the picture quality of DVD-Videos. Indeed, the resolution and color fidelity are both far superior to the VHS tape with which a DVD disc is usually compared. The DVD-Video launch was one of the most successful introductions of a consumer electronics product in history.
但是，正如 CD 声音对于音响发烧友来说是冰冷且毫无生气的一样，数字图像对于某些视频发烧友来说也过于干净和缺乏空气感。正如罗伯特·勃朗宁所说：“完美的东西终将消亡。”
But, just as CD sound is cold and lifeless for audiophiles, so the digital image is too clean and airless for some videophiles. As Robert Browning put it, “What’s come to perfection perishes.”
这个问题不仅是道德问题，也是审美问题：DVD 视频中的大多数帧根本不存在；他们还没有被记录。并且帧中确实存在的大多数像素也不存在。如果不付出相当大的牺牲，就无法获得 100:1 的压缩率。观众可能会因为 DVD 的清晰度而更喜欢 DVD，而不是 VHS，但同时保留批评该媒体对保真度漠不关心的态度的权利。但是，它们都是原始电影或视频的缩小版，不是吗？
The problem is ethical as well as esthetic: most of the frames in a DVD-Video simply aren’t there; they haven’t been recorded. And most of the pixels in the frames that do exist also aren’t present. You don’t get 100:1 compression without considerable sacrifice. Viewers may prefer DVD to VHS for its clarity while at the same time reserving the right to criticize the medium for its nonchalant attitude toward fidelity. But then, they are all reduced copies of the original films or videos, aren’t they?
全数字图像也给经销商带来了挑战。由于副本是精确的并且不存在世代损失，DVD 存在严重的盗版问题。一旦电影被数字化，它们就像数字文本一样容易复制和传输。这只是带宽的问题。已经提出了各种复制保护方案，但都存在问题。（这些属于“数字版权管理”——DRM 的标题。）
The fully digital image also presents challenges to distributors. Because copies are exact and there is no generation loss, DVDs present serious piracy problems. Once movies are digitized they are just as easy to duplicate and transmit as digital text. It’s only a question of bandwidth. Various copy protection schemes have been proposed, but all are problematic. (These fall under the rubric “Digital Rights Management”—DRM.)
然而，数字海妖的召唤对硬件公司来说是不可抗拒的。MPEG-2 算法还被陷入困境的消费卫星电视行业在 20 世纪 90 年代中期的第二代数字产品中采用，并证明是成功的。到 1998 年，消费电子市场充斥着静态和视频数码相机，胶片摄影受到围攻。早在 1989 年，索尼就尝试推出一款名为 Mavica 的数码相机。1992 年，柯达推出了 Photo CD 格式，以数字方式提供基于胶片的照片。两人都萎靡不振。现在，时机成熟了。从 1997 年 4 月 DVDVideo 推出的那一刻起，模拟就已经死了——至少在营销方面是这样。到了 20 世纪 90 年代中期，基于胶片的消费摄影已经濒临消亡。到 2003 年，家庭视频市场上 DVD 销量超过了 VHS 租金；到 2006 年，VHS 已经消亡。
Yet the call of the digital siren was irresistible to the hardware companies. The MPEG-2 algorithm was also adopted by the floundering consumer satellite television industry for its digital second-generation product in the mid-1990s and proved successful. By 1998 the consumer electronics market was flooded with digital cameras, both still and video, and film-based photography was under siege. Sony had tried to market a digital still camera called Mavica as early as 1989. In 1992 Kodak had introduced the Photo CD format to deliver film-based photos digitally. Both had languished. Now, the time was right. From the moment DVDVideo was introduced in April 1997 analog was dead—at least in marketing terms. By the mid-oughts film-based consumer photography was moribund. By 2003 DVD sales exceeded VHS rentals in the home video market; by 2006 VHS was dead.
图 7-7。Voyager 具有里程碑意义的贝多芬唱片（1989 年）标志着多媒体市场的开始。
Figure 7-7. Voyager’s landmark Beethoven disc (1989) marked the start of the multimedia market.
多媒体的神话
The Myth of Multimedia
考虑到数字化所涉及的巨大技术障碍、混乱的市场和严重的质量问题，经验丰富的电影爱好者对多媒体炒作的愤世嫉俗可能是情有可原的。自电影发明以来，艺术家们一直将文本、图像和声音结合起来。爱迪生是第一个多媒体艺术家，而电影是第一个多媒体。数字化图像和声音使观看者能够真正控制它们，这是一个有用的进步，但是激光光盘（仍然是模拟设备）不是达到了同样的目的吗？
Considering the formidable technical hurdles involved in digitization, the disorganized marketplace, and serious issues of quality, the seasoned cinephile may be excused for reacting cynically to the multimedia hype of the oughts. Artists have been combining text, images, and sounds since the invention of movies. Edison was the first multimedia artist, and film is the first multimedium. Digitizing the images and sounds gives the viewer a real measure of control over them, which is a useful advance, but didn’t the Laserdisc (still an analog device) accomplish much the same end?
从严格的电影角度来看，确实如此。如果我们的目标只是控制观看电影的体验，那么完全计算机化的激光光盘（或 DVD）播放器是解决该问题的一个不错的解决方案。此外，多媒体产业的存在不会以任何重大方式改变电影制片人制作电影的方式。正如制片人乔·梅德贾克（Joe Medjuck）所指出的，好莱坞（以及大多数电影制片人）的艺术优势是线性叙事，这与作为多媒体灵魂的交互性直接相反。电影制片人讲故事：“首先发生这种情况，然后发生这种情况，然后……” 随意访问电影的各个部分可能会破坏它的节奏和存在的理由。
From a strictly cinematic point of view, it does. If our aim is simply to control the experience of watching movies, a fully computerized laserdisc (or DVD) player is a decent solution to the problem. Moreover, the existence of a multimedia industry is not going to change the way filmmakers make films in any significant way. As producer Joe Medjuck has pointed out, the artistic strength of Hollywood (and by extension most filmmakers) is linear narrative, which is directly contrary to the interactivity that is the soul of multimedia. Filmmakers tell stories: “First this happens, then this happens, then….” Random access to the parts of a movie can destroy its rhythms, its reasons for being.
图 7-8。《外形因素》一书。_ _ 自从施乐帕洛阿尔托研究中心的远见者在七十年代初首次描述理想的“Dynabook”以来，老式书籍的形式一直是微型计算机设计师的一个诱人的隐喻。索尼于 1981 年推出了 Typecorder (A)，可以说是第一台笔记本电脑。它除了用四行液晶屏进行文字处理外什么也不做。打字记录在一个普通的微型磁带上。它确实有效，但没有在市场上占据一席之地，并很快被拥有完整操作系统的 Radio Shack 100 所取代。十年后，索尼推出了巧妙的 Data Discman (B)。Data Discman（及其后继者 Bookman）基于封装在塑料盒中的 3 英寸 CD 光盘，看起来像一张厚磁盘，可以存储数百兆字节的文本并将其显示在小屏幕上。它大约有一本大平装书那么大。索尼完整地保留了其在计算机业务中的失败记录：Discman 没有流行起来。
Figure 7-8. THE BOOK “FORM FACTOR.” The form that an old-fashioned book takes has been an alluring metaphor for microcomputer designers ever since the visionaries at Xerox PARC first described the ideal “Dynabook” in the early seventies. Sony introduced the Typecorder (A) in 1981, arguably the first laptop computer. It did nothing but word processing with a four-line LCD screen. The typing was recorded on a common microcassette. It worked, but it gained no position in the market, and was quickly superseded by the Radio Shack 100, which had a full operating system. Sony introduced the ingenious Data Discman (B) ten years later. Based on a 3-inch CD disc enclosed in a plastic case and looking like a fat magnetic diskette, the Data Discman (and its successor the Bookman) could store several hundred megabytes of text and display it on a small screen. It was about the size of a large paperback. Sony kept its record of failure in the computer business intact: the Discman didn’t catch on.
在便携式计算机市场落后多年后，苹果公司于 1991 年 10 月推出的 Powerbook (C) 获得了巨大成功。Powerbook 是合理人体工程学设计的领先典范，迅速成为好莱坞演员和其他人的地位象征。巴里·迪勒将他向数字主义的转变归功于 Powerbook。苹果公司在 1993 年推出的个人数字助理 Newton (D) 上失败了。然而，像 Palm 这样的 PDA 最终变得几乎和手机一样普遍（它们最终与手机合并）。作为专用的通讯器和记事本，牛顿标志着专用设备上单独计算机功能的开始。十一年前的 IXO Telecomputer (E) 就预示了这一点，这是一款黑莓大小的设备，带有一个小屏幕，可以通过电话线以 300 波特率进行通信。IXO 是一个远远超前于时代的有趣想法，但很快就失败了，被无处不在的寻呼机所取代。
After years of lagging in the portable computer market, Apple enjoyed huge success with its Powerbook (C), introduced in October 1991. A leading example of sensible ergonomic design, the Powerbook quickly became the status symbol among Hollywood players and others. Barry Diller credited his conversion to digitalism to the Powerbook. Apple failed with the Newton (D), its Personal Digital Assistant, introduced in 1993. Yet PDAs like the Palm eventually became almost as common as cellphones (with which they eventually merged). As a dedicated communicator and note taker, the Newton marked the beginning of the breakup of individual computer functions on dedicated devices. It had been foreshadowed eleven years earlier by the IXO Telecomputer (E), a Blackberry-sized device with a tiny screen that communicated over telephone lines at 300 baud. An interesting idea, far ahead of its time, the IXO failed quickly, superseded by the ubiquitous pager.
图 7-9。《外形因素》一书继续。_ _ _ 将电子邮件添加到 PDA 后，黑莓 (A) 取代了 Palm。Apple 于 2007 年年中推出的 iPhone (B) 通过优雅的界面统一了 PDA 和手机技术。几个月后出现的亚马逊 Kindle (C) 选择了一条不同的路线：从字面上看，它是一个阅读器，而不是一个交流器。它与之前失败的电子书尝试的不同之处在于它的网络功能。是的，索尼仍在尝试（取得了类似的结果）：他们的电子书阅读器（未显示）于 2006 年底推出。
Figure 7-9. THE BOOK “FORM FACTOR” CONTINUED. Adding email to the PDA, the Blackberry (A) superseded the Palm. Apple’s iPhone (B), introduced in mid-2007, unified the converging PDA and cellphone technologies with an elegant interface. Amazon’s Kindle, which appeared a few months later (C), chose a different route: taking the book form factor literally, it is a reader, not a communicator. What sets it apart from earlier failed eBook attempts is its network capability. And yes, Sony is still trying (with similar results): their eBook Reader (not shown) was introduced in late 2006.
然而，从出版商的角度来看，多媒体的出现几乎与活字印刷术的发明一样具有历史意义。出版商第一次可以使用所有媒体。书籍一直都有插图。有时一张图片胜过一千个文字。那么，动态图片每秒应值 24,000 个单词。
From a publisher’s point of view, however, the advent of multimedia is a historic event nearly equal to the invention of movable type. For the first time, all media become available to the publisher. Books have always had illustrations. Sometimes a picture is worth a thousand words. Moving pictures, then, should be worth 24,000 words per second.
20 世纪 70 年代，微型计算机革命的关键人物之一科学家艾伦·凯 (Alan Kay) 在施乐帕洛阿尔托研究中心 (Xerox PARC) 开发了一种未来计算机模型，他将其称为 Dynabook。（请记住，这是在微型计算机这样的东西出现之前。）凯设想了一种手持式计算机，其“外观和感觉”与您现在拿着的书非常相似（假设您正在阅读《如何》的书籍版本）阅读电影）。他理解这种古老信息格式的价值，并正确地认为，正如计算机人们多年后学会的那样，“如果它没有损坏，就不要修复它。” 多媒体是实现 Dynabook 承诺的重要一步。剩下的就是使其便携、灵活……并且速度更快（并且，当我们这样做时，让我们将分辨率提高四倍）。Kindle 和 iPhone 等设备只是一个开始，但要实现 Dynabook 的理想，我们还有很长的路要走。
In the 1970s at Xerox PARC, scientist Alan Kay, one of the key figures in the microcomputer revolution, developed a model for the computer of the future that he called the Dynabook. (Remember, this was before there was such a thing as a microcomputer.) Kay envisioned a hand-held computer that had much the same “look and feel” as the book you are now holding (assuming you are reading the book version of How to Read a Film). He understood the value of this ancient information format and assumed quite rightly that, as the computer people learned to say years later, “if it ain’t broke, don’t fix it.” Multimedia is an important step in fulfilling the promise of the Dynabook. All that remains is to make it portable, and flexible … and much faster (and, while we’re at it, let’s quadruple the resolution). Devices like the Kindle and the iPhone are a start, but we still have far to go before the ideal of the Dynabook is achieved.
从某种意义上说，这种格式的命名是错误的。由于“多媒体”的主要优点是它统一了我们过去百年发展起来的各种出版媒体，也许“unimedium”是一个更好的名字。这将使我们的注意力集中在手头的工作上：产生统一的体验，交流想法和感受，使用最有效的信息格式。
In a sense, the format is misnamed. Since the main advantage of “multimedia” is that it unifies the various publishing media we have developed over the past hundred years, perhaps “unimedium” would be a better name. This would focus our attention on the job at hand: to produce a unified experience, communicating thoughts and feelings, using whichever information formats work best.
更重要的是，多媒体格式的真正价值与它命名的媒体组合关系不大，而与它的编码系统关系更大。该格式的另一个更好的名称是“数字图书”。正如我们所看到的，数字化给多媒体电影带来了一些严重的问题，但它不亚于对文本的疯狂解放。优点有很多，而且都是真实存在的。
More important, the real value of the format known as multimedia has much less to do with the combination of media for which it is named than it does with its coding system. Another better name for the format would be “digital book.” While, as we have seen, digitization creates some serious problems for multimedia movies, it is no less than deliriously liberating for text. The advantages are several, and they are real.
最重要的是可以轻松检索数字文本。大多数非小说类印刷书籍都有索引，但数字文本允许“全文索引”，这意味着每个单词都是可检索的，这对于小说和非小说几乎同样有用。如果将数字图书的概念延伸到数字图书馆，这种不受限制且轻松的访问方式将成为一种强大的智力工具。早在 90 年代 CD-ROM 和多媒体发展之前，Dialog 和 Lexis 等公司就在 60 年代末和 70 年代初率先推出了商业电子索引。这些在线数据库继续在数字图书领域发挥着核心作用，即使现在它们已经加入了 CD-ROM 上的“便携式”数据库。即使是装满数十张 CD-ROM 的自动点唱机也无法达到 Nexis 或维基百科等集中式数据库的容量，这也是在线技术将继续推动多媒体出版的原因之一。如果没有提供访问万维网的搜索引擎，万维网将是一个难以穿透的数据丛林。
The most important is the ease with which digital text can be retrieved. Most printed nonfiction books have indexes, but digital text allows for “fulltext indexing,” which means that every word is retrievable, and this is nearly as useful with fiction as with nonfiction. If the concept of the digital book is extended to the digital library, this unlimited and easy access method becomes a formidable intellectual tool. Commercial electronic indexing was pioneered in the late sixties and early seventies by companies such as Dialog and Lexis long before the CD-ROM and multimedia developments of the nineties. These online databases continue to perform a central function in the world of digital books, even now that they have been joined by “portable” databases on CD-ROM. Even a jukebox full of dozens of CD-ROMs can’t approach the capacity of centralized databases like Nexis or Wikipedia, which is one of the reasons online technology will continue to drive multimedia publishing. The World Wide Web would be an impenetrable thicket of data were it not for the search engines that provide access to it.
全文索引还允许交叉引用的电子变体，即所谓的超文本。在超文本文档中，用户控制叙述逻辑的流程，扩展或收缩细节水平，随意切线，或概述讨论主题。凭借无处不在的相关信息和插图指针，超文本提供了印刷品无法比拟的对文本体验的一定程度的控制。超文本实现了喜欢脚注的作者的梦想*（和括号）以及莎士比亚变调和圣经索引等文本评论的受人尊敬的编辑，他们感到需要文本叙事的第三个维度。现在他们有了。
Fulltext indexing also allows for the electronic variant of cross-referencing that has come to be known as hypertext. In a hypertext document, the user controls the flow of the narrative logic, expanding or contracting the level of detail, going off on tangents at will, or outlining the subject of discussion. With its ubiquitous pointers to relevant information and illustrations, hypertext provides a level of control over the text experience unmatched in print. Hypertext fulfills the dreams of authors who are fond of footnotes* (and parentheses) as well as the venerable editors of text commentaries like the Shakespeare Variorum and biblical concordances who had felt the need for a third dimension of textual narrative. Now they have it.
图 7-10。《牛津英语词典》是世界上最伟大的出版企业之一，采用传统的二十卷书形式和 CD。CD-ROM 很容易更新，也更容易搜索，而且制造起来几乎无限便宜。（由牛津大学出版社提供。）
Figure 7-10. The Oxford English Dictionary, one of the world’s great publishing enterprises, in its traditional twenty-volume book form and on CD. The CD-ROM is easily updatable as well as being easier to search and almost infinitely cheaper to manufacture. (Courtesy Oxford University Press.)
数字文本还为读者提供了对体验的新控制——对文本及其所在书籍的新程度的所有权。数字文本可以轻松复制、移动、排序和修改。虽然这对读者来说有相当大的好处，但它给出版商带来了一些严重而有趣的问题，我们将很快讨论这些问题。
Digital text also offers the reader new control over the experience—a new degree of ownership of the text as well as the book in which it is housed. Digital text is easily copied and moved, sorted and modified. While this is of considerable benefit to the reader, it poses some serious and interesting problems for the publisher, which we’ll discuss shortly.
数字文本仍然缺乏屏幕分辨率，并且如果可以选择，印刷书籍仍然是体验文本的最佳方式。使用数字图书，您无法轻松地做页边笔记、翻页角或灵活地标记文本，但当我们接近 Dynabook 时，这些问题将得到解决，并且数字图书的控制和可搜索性可以弥补了物理体验的刚性线性。
Digital text still suffers from a lack of screen resolution, and given the choice, a printed book is still the best way to experience a text. With a digital book you can’t make marginal notes as easily, turn down the corners of pages, or mark the text as flexibly, but those problems will be solved as we approach the Dynabook, and the control and searchability of the digital book can make up for the rigid linearity of the physical experience.
也许从出版商的角度来看，数字文本最有价值的特征也是其最平凡的特征：价格。与制作最简单的书籍的成本相比，制作 CD 或可下载文件的成本是微不足道的。而且，图书文件的在线存储和传送几乎是无成本的。没有必要投资大量库存。大多数读者不了解书籍制作的经济学，但出版商必须不断面对这种痛苦的困境。
Perhaps the most valuable feature of digital text from a publisher’s point of view is also its most mundane: its price. The cost of producing CDs or downloadable files is inconsequential when compared to the cost of producing even the simplest of books. Moreover, online storage and delivery of book files are almost costless. It is not necessary to invest in large inventories. Most readers are unaware of the economics of book production, but publishers constantly must confront this painful dilemma.
传统胶印的大部分成本都是前置的。与实际印刷相比，设置印刷机进行印刷需要更多的时间和精力。因此，只打印几份是不经济的。在该技术下，出版商被迫印刷足够数量的副本，以便可以以合理的单位成本方式摊销安装过程中涉及的大量成本。不止一家出版社因维持过多的库存而被摧毁，这是过于雄心勃勃的印刷运作的结果，其目的是让数字发挥作用，而不是服务于市场。自 2000 年以来，“按需打印”技术的持续发展在很大程度上改善了这些笨重的经济效益。
Most of the cost in traditional offset printing is front loaded. It takes more time and effort to set up the presses for a print run than it does to do the actual printing. Thus, it is uneconomical to print just a few copies. Publishers are forced under the that technology to print a sufficient number of copies so that the large costs involved in setup can be amortized in such a way that the unit cost is reasonable. More than one publishing house has been destroyed by maintaining excessive inventories, the result of overly ambitious press runs set to make the numbers work rather than serve the market. Since 2000, the continued development of “print-ondemand” technology has done much to meliorate these unwieldy economics.
与传统书籍印刷的设置成本相比，CD 或 DVD 印刷的设置成本可以忽略不计。例如，一本二十卷的大幅面百科全书可能需要以每套 150 美元的价格印刷至少 1000 册（因为如果印刷的册数较少，单位成本就会太高），可以在一张 CDROM 或 DVD 上制作-ROM 的小得多的版本每份售价 1 或 2 美元。出版商可能需要花费 1,500 美元，而不是 150,000 美元的投资。印刷形式不经济的各种出版事业都可以通过光盘形式实现，极大地扩展了出版的范围。
The setup cost for a printing of CDs or DVDs is negligible when compared to traditional book printing setup costs. For example, a twenty-volume large-format encyclopedia that might require printing a minimum of a thousand book copies at $150 per set (because if fewer copies were printed the unit cost would be too high) can be produced on a single CDROM or DVD-ROM in a much smaller edition for $1 or $2 per copy. Instead of an investment of $150,000 the publisher needs to spend perhaps $1,500. All kinds of publishing ventures that were uneconomical in print form become possible on disc, greatly expanding the range of publishing.
事实上，数字出版的低成本意味着资本雄厚的专业组织可能不再占主导地位。精通电子技术的作者现在掌握了曾经由老牌出版社保留的出版权。通过价值数百美元的软件，作者可以制作一本格式完整、充满插图（彩色、动态）的书。通过访问互联网，他或她可以立即向全世界数百万人提供这本“书”：一种“虚拟出版”。这样的网络作者无法比商业出版社更好地推销这项作品。对于某些类型的出版——学术出版、特殊兴趣出版、私人出版——这可能并不重要。
Indeed, the low cost of digital publishing means that highly capitalized professional organizations may no longer dominate. Electronically sophisticated authors now command the publishing power once reserved to the established publishing houses. With a few hundred dollars worth of software, an author can produce a fully formatted book, replete with illustrations (in color, and in motion). With access to the internet he or she can make the “book” available to millions, worldwide, instantaneously: a kind of “virtual publishing.” What such a cyberauthor can’t do better than a commercial publishing house is market this work. For some types of publishing—academic, special interest, private—this may not matter.
自 2000 年以来，所谓的 pdf 工作流程已经在出版行业占据主导地位。几乎无一例外，出版商现在都提供 Adobepdf 文件到他们的打印机。二十年前，他们发送纸质“复制品”，必须对其进行拍照以制作底片，以制作印刷书籍的印版。十年前，他们发送的申请文件必须由打印机处理并校对。现在，可以将生成印刷书籍的相同 pdf 文件传输到电子书存储库。更重要的是，这些文件可以按需打印。随着数字印刷技术的发展（与 pdf 工作流程同时进行），出版经济已经发生了根本性的转变。“POD”基于基于碳粉的激光打印机技术而不是基于墨水的胶印技术，无需存储库存。现在，只要有适当的 pdf 文件存在并传输到数字图书打印机，任何书籍都不会绝版（除了几分钟）。（作者：检查你的合同！在过去，当一本书绝版时，版权归还给作者。）然后，同样的技术也可供每个人使用。
Since 2000 the so-called pdf workflow has come to dominate the publishing industry. Almost without exception publishers now deliver Adobe pdf files to their printers. Twenty years ago they were sending paper-based “repro” which had to be photographed to create negatives to produce the plates from which the book was printed. Ten years ago they were sending application files which had to be processed by the printer and proofed. Now the same pdf file that produces the printed book can be transmitted to the eBook repository. What’s more, those files can be printed on demand. As digital printing technology has developed (concurrently with pdf workflow) the economics of publishing has been radically transformed. Based on toner-based laser printer technology rather than ink-based offset technology “POD” obviates the need to store inventory. Now, no book is ever out-of-print (except for a few minutes) so long as a proper pdf file exists somewhere to be transmitted to the digital book printer. (Authors: check your contracts! In the past when a book went out of print rights reverted to the author.) Then, too, the same technology is available to everyone.
河流，经过夏娃和亚当，从海岸的拐角到海湾的弯曲，通过康莫迪斯的再循环带我们回到霍斯城堡和周边地区。 riverrun, past Eve and Adam’s, from swerve of shore to bend of bay, brings us by a commodius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs. |
rivverun，经过夏娃和亚当，从海岸的转弯到海湾的弯曲，通过康莫狄乌斯的再循环带我们回到霍斯城堡和周边地区。 rivverun, past Eve and Adam’s, from swerve of shore to bend of bay, brings us by a commodius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs. |
图 7-11。顶部是 Palatino 字体的文本，以每英寸 72 像素的计算机屏幕标准再现。下面是书中出现的相同文本，分辨率约为每英寸 2600 点。（领先 14 分，领先 12 分。）
Figure 7-11. On top, text in the Palatino typeface reproduced at a computer screen standard of 72 pixels per inch. Below, the same text as it appears in a book at approximately 2600 dots per inch. (Set 12 points on 14-point leading.)
在期刊出版领域，变化更为巨大。报纸和杂志现在发现制作网站及其印刷版势在必行。新闻不会像过去那样等待每日或每周的周期，特别是考虑到广播新闻的挑战。将印刷新闻与广播新闻分开越来越困难。一方面，报纸现在定期为其网络版制作音频和视频；另一方面，广播公司现在不再受到其媒体的时间和空间限制：他们的网站可以发布其广播所包含的原声摘要和视频剪辑的冗长印刷备份。事实上，网站常常取代印刷或广播产品。
In the world of periodical publishing the change has been even more dramatic. Newspapers and magazines now find it imperative to produce websites as well as their print editions. The news won’t wait for the daily or weekly cycles that used to pertain, especially considering the challenge from broadcast news. It’s increasingly difficult to separate print news from broadcast news. On the one hand, newspapers now regularly produce audio and video for their web editions; on the other, broadcasters are now no long constrained by the time and space limits of their medium: their websites can publish lengthy print backup to the sound bites and video clips their broadcasts comprise. Indeed, often the website supersedes the print or broadcast product.
此外，自 2000 年以来，我们所谓的“主流媒体”一直受到博客圈的严重挑战——数十万个人评论员和以前的记者（至少到目前为止）拥有与“主流媒体”同等的互联网访问权限。男同性恋者。” 当然，如果他们拥有手机摄像头，他们就可以拍摄视频和打印照片。
Moreover, since 2000 what we have come to call the “Mainstream Media” have been seriously challenged by the Blogosphere—hundreds of thousands of individual commentators and erstwhile reporters who have (at least so far) access to the internet equal to that of the “MSM.” And of course if they own a cellphone camera they can do video as well as print.
这是一个非常不同的媒体世界——即使从九十年代开始也是如此。
This is a very different media world—even from the nineties.
到了二十世纪九十年代中期，网络开始定义自己的娱乐格式。2006 年 6 月，一个名叫“Bree”的 16 岁女孩的视频博客“LonelyGirll5”引起了媒体的关注。几个月之内，它就被揭露为虚构作品，但该系列简短的剧集播出了两年，据报道在此期间获得了 1 亿次观看——即使对于电视节目来说也是值得尊敬的。2007 年 11 月，马歇尔·赫斯科维茨 (Marshall Herskovitz) 和爱德华·兹威克 (Edward Zwick) 在网络连续剧《四分之一生活》中借用了视频博客的概念，讲述了一群二十多岁的年轻人开始他们的职业生涯的故事。（他们的年龄大约是三十多岁的角色的孩子。）这些八分钟的“单卷轴”链接到一个旨在为观众群体服务的网站。
By the mid-oughts the web was beginning to define its own entertainment formats. In June 2006, “LonelyGirll5,” a putative video blog by a sixteenyear-old girl named “Bree,” gained media attention. Within months it was revealed to be a fictional creation, but the series of brief episodes ran for two years and garnered a reported 100 million views during that time—respectable even for a television show. In November 2007, Marshall Herskovitz and Edward Zwick borrowed the video-blog concept for the web series quarterlife, following a group of twentysomethings as they begin their careers. (They are about the right age to be the children of the characters in thirtysomething.) These eight-minute “one-reelers” were linked to a website that had the intention of serving the community of viewers.
也许这一时期最重要的网络电影现象是马特·哈丁的系列电影《马特到底在哪里？》视频。辞掉游戏程序员的工作后，哈丁于 2003 年踏上漫游之旅，环游世界。旅行不久后，他就萌生了拍摄自己在所访问的各个地方跳舞的视频的想法。这段视频和随后的视频经过一起编辑并设置了有趣的配乐，令人惊讶地感人。甚至在 YouTube 出现之前，他就已经拥有了大量的追随者。所有这三个企业的成功都依赖于病毒式宣传。当然，还有其他一些有趣的实验没有出现在搜索引擎列表的顶部。
Perhaps the most significant web-film phenomenon of the period was Matt Harding’s series of “Where the Hell Is Matt?” videos. Having quit his job as a game programmer, Harding set out in 2003 for a wanderjahr, traveling the world. Soon into the trip he had the idea to shoot videos of himself doing a little dance in the various places he visited. Edited together and set to an interesting soundtrack, this video and the ones that followed are surprisingly moving. He gained a large following even before You-Tube. All three of these ventures depended for their success on viral publicity. Certainly there have been other experiments of interest that didn’t bubble to the top of search-engine lists.
目前尚不清楚出版渠道的普及是否完全是积极的。得出合乎逻辑的结论：如果所有内容都被发布，那么就没有什么是集中的。三百年来的艰苦生产和分销过程提供了一个表面上有效的过滤器。想象一下，如果有一千倍——十万倍——那么多的文本需要处理。互联网的最大祸害是多语。我们必须找到一种新方法来区分小麦和谷壳。没有人会否认像维基百科这样看似无穷无尽的信息资源的价值，但这种集体编辑的努力缺乏真正的权威：你永远不能完全相信你所阅读的内容。至少对于印刷百科全书来说，大多数文章都有签名：有人承担责任。现在，而不是真相（即使它具有某种风味）我们有“真实性”。虽然出版工作可能越来越无关紧要，但编辑的重要性却与日俱增。搜索引擎是一个开始，但还需要更复杂的工具。我们敢把所有的编辑工作都交给谷歌吗？
It is not yet clear that universal access to publishing channels is entirely positive. Take it to its logical conclusion: if everything is published, then nothing is focused. The arduous process of production and distribution that pertained for three hundred years provided a filter that, on the face of it, worked. Imagine if there were a thousand times—a hundred thousand times—as many texts to deal with. The great bane of the internet is logorrhea. We will have to find a new way to separate the wheat from the chaff. No one would deny the value of seemingly endless information resources like Wikipedia, but such group-edited efforts lack real authority: you can never fully trust what you read. At least with print encyclopedias most articles were signed: someone took responsibility. Now, instead of truth (even if it was of a certain flavor) we have “truthiness.” While the job of publishing may be increasingly irrelevant, the importance of editing grows each day. The search engines are a start, but much more sophisticated tools are necessary. Do we dare leave all the editing to Google?
图 7-12。尽管互联网作为一种通信媒介呈爆炸性增长，但它还是花了很长时间才发现自己的艺术形式。问题在于带宽：只要网络是静态的，你就无法利用该技术比以前做得更好。到了 20 世纪 90 年代中期，充足的带宽加上廉价的数码相机和社交网络架构，使得 YouTube 立即获得成功，现在已经像谷歌一样无处不在。LonelyGirll5 (A) 于 2006 年 6 月首次亮相，作为一个表面上真实的视频博客。到九月，它被揭露为虚构。（图中是女演员杰西卡·罗斯。）2007 年秋天，资深电影制作人爱德华·兹威克和马歇尔·赫斯科维茨在他们的商业连续剧《四分之一人生》(C) 中采用了视频博客创意。八分钟的片段讲述了一群二十多岁的年轻人的故事。比西·图洛赫 (Bitsie Tulloch) 饰演博主迪伦·克里格 (Dylan Krieger)。更有趣的是 Matt Harding 的“舞蹈”视频系列 (B)，其最初的成功甚至早于 YouTube。马特环游世界，在一些异国情调的地方跳一小段舞，然后继续前进。
Figure 7-12. Despite its explosive growth as a communications medium it took a long while for the internet to discover its own art form. The problem was bandwidth: so long as the web was static there wasn’t much you could do better with the technology than before. By the mid-oughts sufficient bandwidth—combined with cheap digital cameras and the architecture of social networking—allowed the instant success of YouTube, now as ubiquitous as Google. LonelyGirll5 (A) debuted in June 2006 as an ostensibly authentic video blog. By September it had been revealed as fictional. (Actress Jessica Rose is pictured.) In the Fall of 2007 veteran filmmakers Edward Zwick and Marshall Herskovitz adopted the video blog idea for their commercial series quarterlife (C). Its eight-minute segments followed a group of twentysomethings. Bitsie Tulloch played blogger Dylan Krieger. More interesting is Matt Harding’s series of “dancing” videos (B) whose initial success even predated YouTube. Matt travels the world, doing a little dance in some exotic location, then moving on.
这个虚拟出版新世界还有另一个方面需要审视。正如我们之前指出的，由于读者现在对作者的文本有了这样的掌握，传统的版权概念就受到了质疑。数字出版是如此简单，它使我们超越了传统的自我出版，达到了我们所说的重新出版或重新利用。二十年前，大学教师们屈服于复印机的诱惑，制作了他人文本的限量版供课堂使用，而我们其他人现在也加入了这样的行列，他们现在可以制作一份小小的多媒体婚礼请柬，例如，来自杰拉德·曼利·霍普金斯 (Gerard Manley Hopkins) 的几行诗，一点罗恩格林 (Lohengrin) 的诗句，或许还有大卫·霍克尼 (David Hockney) 的诗作背景。与此同时，大学教师放弃了纸质材料，转而制作“电子课程包”，即向学生（以及全世界）在线提供的文本集和文本摘录。课程包中没有的完整文本位于大学图书馆的“eReserve”中，以便全班同学都可以访问一本书。
There is another aspect to this new world of virtual publishing that needs to be examined. As we noted earlier, because the reader now has such a command of the author’s text, the traditional concept of copyright comes into question. Digital publishing is so easy that it leads us beyond traditional self-publishing to what we might call republishing or repurposing. College teachers who succumbed twenty years ago to the siren call of the photocopier, producing limited editions of other people’s texts for classroom use have been joined by the rest of us, who can now whip together a little multimedia wedding invitation, for example, from a few lines of Gerard Manley Hopkins, a little Lohengrin, and perhaps a David Hockney for the background. Meanwhile the college teachers have forgone paper to produce “electronic coursepaks,” sets of texts and excerpts from texts available online to their students (and the world). Complete texts not in the coursepaks are on “eReserve” at the college library so that the entire class has access to a single book.
传统上，版权法律原则保护的不是思想，而是思想的表达。因为数字化将所有文本、图像和声音带入一个统一的环境，所以不仅可以以很少或没有成本障碍复制那些受版权保护的对象，而且还可以修改它们以满足版权的要求。法律，即使不是其精神。引用什么时候会成为抄袭？抄袭何时成为一种致敬，一种新的艺术作品？这些问题已经困扰我们很长时间了，但在数字时代它们变得更加紧迫。与涉及实物财产的法律不同，知识产权的所有权是一个相对较新的概念，其根源可以追溯到十九世纪。它可能不会持续整个二十一世纪。
The legal doctrine of copyright has traditionally protected not ideas, but their expression. Because it brings all texts, images, and sounds into a uniform environment, digitization makes it a simple matter not only to reproduce those copyrightable objects with little or no cost barrier, but also to modify them in such a way as to meet the letter of the law, if not its spirit. When does a quotation become plagiarism? When does plagiarism become an homage, a new work of art? These questions have been with us for a long time, but they gain added urgency in the digital age. Unlike laws dealing with physical property, the ownership of intellectual property is a relatively new concept, with its roots in the nineteenth century. It may not last through the twenty-first century.
采样（即重复使用他人的音乐）在 20 世纪 80 年代首次变得普遍，当时专业人士可以使用数字编辑设备。到 20 世纪 90 年代末，廉价 CD 录音机的出现意味着每个高中生都可以为自己的“混音”配音。MP3 等互联网音频压缩格式的发展使每个硬盘都成为潜在的盗版点唱机。*到 1999 年，音乐产业正处于一场革命的阵痛之中：这不仅仅是普遍盗版的威胁；还有。音乐家现在还可以直接向听众销售。印刷界缓慢发生的事情以互联网的速度在音乐界传播开来。为一个几年来，在 RIAA 的巨大压力下，叛逆的文件共享系统来了又去。Apple 的 iTunes 于 2001 年 1 月推出，为在线音乐发行创建了一个有效的中央市场。
Sampling—the reuse of other people’s music—first became common in the 1980s when professionals gained access to digital editing equipment. By the late 1990s the availability of cheap CD recorders meant that every high-school kid could dub his own “mix.” The development of audio compression formats for the internet like MP3 made every hard disk a potential pirate jukebox.* By 1999, the music industry was in the throes of a revolution: it wasn’t just the threat of universal piracy; it was also that musicians could now sell directly to listeners. What had happened slowly in the print world spread at internet speed through the music world. For a couple of years renegade file-sharing systems came and went, under heavy pressure from the RIAA. Apple’s iTunes, introduced in January, 2001, created an effective central marketplace for online music distribution.
图 7-13。事后看来，文本、图像和声音的融合是不可抗拒的。让-吕克·戈达尔使用了他那个时代可用的技术。《Le Gai Savoir》 （1969 年）中的这四张照片结合了绘画、印刷品、广告、卡通、手写和符号。（框架放大。）
Figure 7-13. With hindsight, the merger of text, images, and sounds was irresistible. Jean-Luc Godard used the technology available in his time. These four shots from Le Gai Savoir (1969), combine drawings, print, ads, cartoons, handwriting, and symbols. (Frame enlargements.)
在线视频的情况有些不同。You Tube 于 2005 年 2 月推出，以惊人的速度成为全球视频分发中心。（二十个月后，在收入微不足道的情况下，它以 16.5 亿美元的价格卖给了谷歌。）这两个近乎垄断的公司之间的区别在于，iTunes 主要分发商业专有知识产权，而 YouTube 几乎接受所有视频上传。诚然，YouTube 的成功在很大程度上是基于专有视频的可用性，但来自商业网络的镜头通常被分成片段和片段，这些镜头很可能属于“合理使用”的范围。此外，与音乐行业的同行不同，该知识产权的商业所有者通常将 YouTube 曝光视为一种有用的促销工具。如果音乐行业没有受到 2000 年 SACD-HD-Audio 格式战争的围困，他们将会已经准备好以新的、更高质量的格式转售他们的目录，并且可能对 Napster 文件共享更加乐观。
The situation with online video was somewhat different. You Tube, introduced in February, 2005, became the worldwide center for video distribution with breathtaking speed. (Twenty months later, with negligible revenues, it was sold to Google for $1.65 billion.) The difference between these two near-monopolies is that iTunes distributes mainly commercial, proprietary intellectual property while YouTube accepts almost any video upload. True, much of YouTube’s success has been based on the availability of proprietary video, but footage from the commercial networks is usually broken up into clips and bits, footage that may well fall into the realm of “fair use.” Moreover, the commercial owners of this intellectual property, unlike their colleagues in the music business, have usually seen YouTube exposure as a useful promotional tool. If the music business had not been sand-bagged by the SACD-HD-Audio format wars of 2000 they would have been ready to resell their catalogues in the new, higher quality format and may have been more sanguine about Napster file-sharing.
显然，百年的版权概念正在迅速瓦解。斯坦福大学法学教授劳伦斯·莱西格（Lawrence Lessig）是先驱。他的知识共享许可概念允许知识产权所有者向公众授予部分权利。这是一个有趣的想法，但这些新方案对作者和创作者来说都没有多大价值，除非网络上的每件知识产权都被标记为“数字版权对象标识符”，并且有一个基础设施可以分流十分之一便士和百分之几便士给创作者。在那之前，这是狂野的西部，作家和创作者最好继续他们的日常工作。
Clearly, the hundred-year-old concept of copyright is breaking down quickly. Stanford University law professor Lawrence Lessig has been a pioneer. His concept of the Creative Commons license allows owners of intellectual property to grant subsets of rights to the public. It’s an interesting idea, but none of these new schemes will have much value to authors and creators until each piece of intellectual property on the net is tagged with a “digital rights object identifier,” and there is an infrastructure to shunt tenths of pennies and hundredths of pennies to the creators. Until then it’s the wild west and authors and creators had better hold on to their day jobs.
事实上，这正是音乐家在应该做的事情，他们的经验可以为其他权利持有者树立榜样。面对CD收入的快速下滑，音乐家们重新将注意力集中在演出收入上。一些摇滚乐队甚至分发免费的 MP3，作为他们音乐会的营销工具。CD 确实可以在音乐会上与 T 恤、纪念品和魔法解码戒指一起出售。这对音乐家来说很容易理解：毕竟，七十五年来，他们几乎免费向广播电台赠送产品，作为一种营销手段。现在作家和电影制片人需要学习这些新经济学。作家只需回顾十九世纪即可获得灵感。当时，在美国还没有信仰版权之前，像查尔斯·狄更斯这样的作家在这个国家经常被盗版。狄更斯的解决方案是利用他的名气进行利润丰厚的巡回演讲。今天，大多数自助作家也这样做。
In fact, that’s just what musicians have done during the oughts and their experience serves as a model for other rightsholders. Confronted with the rapid decline in CD revenue, musicians have focused anew on performance revenue. Some rock groups have even distributed free MP3s—as a marketing tool for their concerts. And CDs do sell, along with T-shirts, memorabilia, and magic decoder rings—at concerts. This was easy for musicians to figure out: after all, they had been giving away their products almost free to radio for seventy-five years as a marketing technique. Now writers and filmmakers need to learn these new economics. Writers need only look back to the nineteenth century for their inspiration. Back then, before the U.S. got the copyright religion, authors like Charles Dickens were regularly pirated in this country. Dickens’s solution was to leverage his celebrity with lucrative lecture tours. Most self-help authors do the same today.
对于电影制片人来说，这是一个新问题，直到最近，他们还通过昂贵的技术来保护自己免受盗版的侵害。但是，仅仅因为新功能在发行后第二天出现在 YouTube 或盗版 DVD 上，并不意味着您无法让粉丝为 3D 影院版本或带有所有附加内容的高清蓝光光盘付费。
This is a new problem for filmmakers, who have until recently been protected from piracy by their expensive technology. But just because a new feature appears on YouTube or pirated DVD the day after its release doesn’t mean you can’t get fans to pay for the 3-D theatrical version, or the high-definition Blu-ray disc with all the extras.
因此，十九世纪的版权概念正在消失，随之而来的是艺术作品具有可以作为知识产权受到保护的独特身份的感觉。预计下一版本的文字处理软件会附带一个翻译器，它将对您选择的借用文本进行足够的修改，以便没有人能够识别它的来源。希望您的多媒体创作工具的下一版本能够为电影做同样的事情。您已经可以购买与字体执行类似功能的字体设计程序。自 1986 年以来，Fontographer 程序不仅允许您对字体进行轻微修改在几秒钟内，还可以合并两个独立且不同的面孔。如果你将赫尔曼·扎普夫（Hermann Zapf）颇具影响力且引起共鸣的帕拉蒂诺（Palatino）与弗雷德里克·古迪（Frederick Goudy）顽固的旧风格结合起来，你对设计师和制作人有何贡献？
So the nineteenth-century concept of copyright is on the way out, and with it the sense that a work of art has a unique identity that can be protected as intellectual property. Expect the next edition of your word-processing software to come with a translator that will modify the borrowed text you select just enough so that no one will be able to identify where it came from. Expect the next edition of your multimedia authoring tool to do the same for movies. You can already buy font design programs that perform a similar function with typefaces. Since 1986 the Fontographer program has allowed you not only to apply slight modifications to a font in seconds, but also to merge two separate and distinct faces. If you combine Hermann Zapf’s influential and resonant Palatino with Frederick Goudy’s obstreperous Old Style, what do you owe to the designers and producers?
可能什么也没有。目前的美国版权法对于字体设计的版权状况尚不明确。自 1976 年版权法颁布以来，国会选择“推迟”对字体设计的保护。换句话说，它决定不决定这些创意企业是否是“作者作品”并因此受版权保护。问题的关键是设计能否与产品的实用性分开存在。1976 年法案宣称，如果不能，它就不受保护。*这导致了一个令建筑师路易斯·沙利文困惑的美学悖论，他在十九世纪坚持“形式服从功能”。根据美国国会的说法，如果你完全遵守这一格言，你就无法将设计与文章分开，因此你不拥有知识产权。你已经达到了设计涅槃——同时也进入了版权地狱。
Probably nothing. Current U.S. copyright law is unclear on the copyright status of typeface designs. Since the Copyright Act of 1976, Congress has chosen to “defer” protection of typeface designs. In other words, it has decided not to decide whether these creative enterprises are “works of authorship” and therefore copyrightable. The crux of the matter is whether the design can exist separately from the utility of the product. If it cannot, the Act of 1976 declares, it is not protectable.* This leads to an esthetic paradox that would have bemused architect Louis Sullivan, who insisted in the nineteenth century that “form follows function.” If you abide by that dictum perfectly, you can’t separate the design from the article, so you own no intellectual property rights—according to the Congress of the United States. You’ve reached design nirvana—and copyright hell.
但显然你盗用了别人的工作。同样明显的是，你自己的投入是微乎其微的。从道德上来说，你已经违法了，即使你不需要承担法律责任。现在假设您花费了一定的时间、精力和才能来修改新字体。什么时候它会成为你自己的作品？什么时候（如果有的话）不再被视为抄袭？
But clearly you’ve appropriated other people’s work. Just as clearly, your own input has been minimal. Morally, you’ve transgressed, even if you are not legally liable. Now suppose you spend a certain amount of time, effort, and talent modifying the new typeface. At what point does it become your own work? At what point—if any—is it no longer considered plagiarism?
这种奇怪的情况并非异常。1991年，在Feist Publications v Rural Telephone Service Co., Inc.一案中，美国最高法院对信息产业具有类似的影响，裁定电话簿等完整且按字母顺序组织的事实数据库不属于该案。受版权法保护。法院裁定，编辑完整数据库所涉及的编辑劳动构成了“作者作品”，因此受到保护。
This curious situation is not an anomaly. In 1991, in Feist Publications v Rural Telephone Service Co., Inc., a case with similar implications for the information industry, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that a factual database that was complete and organized alphabetically, such as a telephone directory, was not protectable under copyright law. The Court decided that it was the editorial labor involved in editing down a complete database that formed the “work of authorship,” which was therefore protectable.
这两项法律裁决在机械时代都足够有效：字体设计师靠铸造厂出售昂贵的青铜矩阵来谋生；字体设计师通过铸造厂出售昂贵的青铜矩阵来谋生；任何印刷清单的价值并不在于它是全面的，而是在于它已被编辑到可管理的大小。但在字体由无限组成的数字时代，这两种裁决都对我们没有好处。可复制的位和字节以及完整的数据库是列表制作者的目标，而不是祸根。
Both of these legal rulings would have worked well enough in the mechanical past: type designers made livings because their foundries sold expensive bronze matrixes; the value in any printed list was not that it was comprehensive but that it had been edited down to manageable size. But neither ruling serves us well in the digital age when fonts are made of infinitely replicatable bits and bytes, and complete databases are the goal, not the bane, of listmakers.
字体是相对简单的知识产权，但相同的模式也适用于文本、图像和电影。事实上，电影业在处理复杂的知识产权问题方面比任何其他行业都拥有更多的经验。当然，电影是一种协作媒介，任何行业律师都熟悉关于谁拥有什么的相互竞争的主张的棘手问题。数十位主要贡献者可以声称拥有电影知识产权的各个部分，从原始素材的作者到数十位电影制片人和演员，再到众多市场的众多发行商。问题在于，好莱坞版权法几乎没有逻辑，因此数字媒体行业将不得不在没有其前身的帮助下制定合理的指导方针。
Typefaces are relatively simple intellectual properties, but the same patterns apply to texts, images, and movies. Indeed, the film industry has more experience than any other in handling complex intellectual property rights issues. Film is, of course, a collaborative medium, and any industry lawyer is familiar with the knotty problems of competing claims as to who owns what. Dozens of major contributors can lay claim to various pieces of the intellectual property that is a movie, from the author of the original source material to dozens of filmmakers and actors to numerous distributors in numerous markets. The trouble is that there is little logic to Hollywood rights law, and so the digital media industry will have to work out reasonable guidelines without the help of its predecessor.
还有一个问题：宪法的制定者从未打算永远保护版权。在某种程度上，知识产权必须进入公共领域，否则我们共同的文化遗产就会被私有化。然而，在过去四十年里，版权法的修订一次又一次地延长了版权的期限——最近一次是 1998 年的《桑尼·波诺法案》——也称为“米老鼠保护法案”。（在缓刑之前，迪士尼对米奇的权利将于 2000 年到期。）曾经旨在保护作者和出版商的做法现在却有利于企业集团——专家杰罗德·斯皮格尔将这一事件转变称为“版权劫持” ”。
There’s one more problem: the framers of the Constitution never intended copyright protection to last forever. At some point intellectual property must enter the Public Domain—otherwise our common cultural heritage is privatized. Yet for the last forty years revisions of the copyright law have been written to extend the duration of copyright again and again—most recently in the Sonny Bono Act of 1998—also known as the “Mickey Mouse Protection Act.” (Before the reprieve, Disney’s rights in Mickey were set to expire in 2000.) What was once meant to protect authors and publishers now inures to the benefit of corporate conglomerates—a turn of events expert Jerrold Spiegel refers to as the “hijacking of copyright.”
最后，如果版权制度能够生存下去，那可能只是因为我们应用了大量的数字处理能力来完成在数百个个人和公司之间分配百分比的任务，这些个人和公司可能以某种方式为多媒体制作做出贡献。该模型将是像 ASCAP 和 BMI 这样的音乐版税组织，或者大英图书馆公共借阅权计划，它们按公式向作者分配一定数量的收入。唯一的选择是完全放弃版权的概念，回到十九世纪之前的体系，在该体系中，艺术品的价值取决于其物理表现，而不是其抽象的智力形式。在虚拟出版的新世界中，每个作者都是出版商，这是不可思议的。数字时代的大多数智力工作根本没有物理表现。
In the end, if the copyright system is going to survive, it may only be because we apply prodigious amounts of digital processing power to the task of allocating percentages among the hundreds of individuals and companies that may contribute in some way to a multimedia production. The model would be music royalty organizations like ASCAP and BMI, or the British Library Public Lending Rights program, that apportion certain amounts of revenue to authors by formula. The only other alternative is to abandon the idea of copyright altogether and return to the system that pertained until the nineteenth century in which the value of a work of art was vested in its physical manifestation, not its abstract intellectual form. In the new world of virtual publishing, where every author is a publisher, this is inconceivable. Most intellectual work in the digital age simply has no physical manifestation.
当我们看着这一新媒体的诞生——500年的印刷、150年的摄影以及100多年的录音和电影的综合体——我们对其中的矛盾感到震惊：
As we watch this new medium struggling to be born—the synthesis of 500 years of print, 150 years of photography, and more than 100 years of audio recording and movies—we are struck with the contradictions:
它与新的电影媒介的关系不大，而与旧的印刷媒体的关系更大。
It has less to do with the new medium of movies than with the old medium of print.
图像、声音和印刷品的数字化比它们的组合更重要。
That image, sounds, and print are digitized is more important than that they are combined.
虽然数字化极大地增强了我们对这些媒体的控制，但目前它也将它们简化为抽象概念，其质量明显低于其模拟前辈电影和印刷品。
While digitization vastly increases our control over these media, it also—for the time being—reduces them to abstractions with notably less quality than their analog predecessors film and print.
数字化的主要优势——即时获取信息及其综合索引——更多地与网络及其数据库的兴起有关，而不是与媒体的结合有关。
The major advantages of digitization—instant access to information and its comprehensive indexation—have more to do with the rise of networks and their databases than with the combination of media.
虽然数字化极大地提高了读者的能力和便利性，但它对我们当前的作者体系所基于的版权概念提出了严峻的挑战。
While digitization vastly increases a reader’s power and facility, it poses serious challenges to the concept of copyright on which our current system of authorship is based.
然而，我们可以感受到多媒体的正确性：这就是我们数百年来一直前进的方向。如果沃尔特·斯科特爵士可以在他的小说中添加幻灯片，他就会这么做。如果查尔斯·狄更斯能够亲自讲述他的非凡故事，他就会这么做（在某种程度上，在他利润丰厚的巡回演讲中也确实这么做了）。如果丹尼尔·笛福能够在《瘟疫之年》杂志中加入一个历史统计的交互式数据库，他就会这么做。如果乔治·梅里爱能让观众与《月球之旅》互动，他就会这么做。如果萧伯纳能够加入《念珠菌》或《人与超人》的辅助文本，他就会这么做（在他的戏剧的出版版本中也确实这么做了）。如果普雷斯顿·斯特奇斯可以把他的电影改编成电视剧，他就会这么做。如果让-吕克·戈达尔能写一本同时也是一部电影的书，他就会这么做。如果弗朗索瓦·特吕弗可以拍一部电影同时也是一本书，他也会这么做。
Yet we can sense the rightness of multimedia: this is where we have been headed for hundreds of years. If Sir Walter Scott could have added slide shows to his novels, he would have. If Charles Dickens could have personally narrated his remarkable stories, he would have (and did, to a certain extent, in his lucrative lecture tours). If Daniel Defoe could have included an interactive database of historical statistics with Journal of the Plague Year, he would have. If Georges Méliès could have allowed his viewers to interact with Voyage to the Moon, he would have. If George Bernard Shaw could have included ancillary texts with Candida or Man and Superman, he would have (and did, in the published versions of his plays). If Preston Sturges could have spunoff his films as television series, he would have. If Jean-Luc Godard could have written a book that was also a movie, he would have. If François Truffaut could have shot a movie that was also a book, he would have, too.
文本、图像和声音已经分离了数百年，只是因为技术落后于我们的想象力。现在它已经迎头赶上了，他们团结在一起，正如他们本来应该的那样：无论好坏，无论疾病还是健康……。
Text and images and sounds have been separated for hundreds of years only because technology has lagged behind our imaginations. Now it has caught up, and they are united, as they were meant to be: for better, for worse, in sickness and in health….
虚拟现实的神话
The Myth of Virtual Reality
艺术家的目标和现有技术的限制之间总是存在着斗争。但现在数字革命为所有形式的媒体提供了一个共同的编码系统，欲望和能力之间的紧张关系正在屈服于一种新的辩证法：道德和审美之间。我们思想史上的这种历史发展与心理学家埃里克·埃里克森著名的个人成长辩证法没有什么不同。在这种情况下，我们扭转了经典生物学家的说法：现在，“系统发育再现了个体发育”——群体的发展呼应了个体的发展。
There is always a struggle between the artist’s aims and the limits of the available technology. But now that the digital revolution provides a common coding system for all forms of media, the tension between desire and capability is yielding to a new dialectic: between ethics and esthetics. This historical development in our intellectual history is not unlike psychologist Erik Erikson’s famous dialectics of personal growth. In this case, we reverse the classic biologists’ saying: now, “phylogeny recapitulates ontogeny”—the development of the group echoes the development of the individual.
一旦图像、声音和文本被数字化，一切皆有可能。我们希望媒体为我们做什么和他们有能力做什么之间的斗争已经结束。或者，至少，斗争是毫无意义的。在模拟世界中存在严格的限制：你只能让一块木头或一把小提琴做它能做的事情。在数字世界中，不存在物理限制：这只是存储容量、处理器速度和通信带宽的问题。*数字革命正在完成数千年前首次将油漆涂在石头上时开始的知识革命。洞穴绘画，就像此后的所有艺术一样，试图提炼自然世界，将其抽象化，使其成为一种想法。现在我们和这个想法之间没有任何物理障碍。
Once images, sounds, and texts are digitized, all things are possible. The struggle between what we want our media to do for us and what they are capable of doing has ended. Or, at least, the struggle is pointless. In the analog world there were strict limits: you could only make a piece of wood or a violin do what it was capable of doing. In the digital world, there are no physical limits: it’s only a question of storage capacity, processor speed, and communication bandwidth.* The digital revolution is completing the intellectual revolution that began thousands of years ago when someone first put paint to stone. Cave paintings, like all art since, sought to distill the natural world, to abstract it, to make of it an idea. Now we have no physical barriers between us and the idea.
这种新的力量令人陶醉，但像所有力量一样，它也带来了道德体系的必要性。戈达尔喜欢引用列宁的名言：伦理是未来的美学。他们都是对的，但方式却是他们无法预见的。既然不存在无法克服的技术限制，既然我们可以让我们的艺术媒介做我们想做的一切，我们需要比以前更好地理解道德限制。从某种意义上说，直到现在，所有的艺术家都处于青少年时期。家长技术的拇指。现在他们必须承担起成年后的道德责任。
This new power is intoxicating, but like all power it brings with it the necessity for a system of ethics. Godard was fond of quoting Lenin’s dictum: ethics is the esthetics of the future. They were both right, but in ways they could not have foreseen. Now that there are no insurmountable technical limits, now that we can make our artistic medium do everything we want, we need to understand the moral limits much better than we have before. In a way, all artists have been adolescents until now, under the thumb of parental technologies. Now they must take on the moral responsibilities of adulthood.
在我们更详细地研究这些职责之前，我们应该看看虚拟现实当前的业务背景。与“多媒体”和“网络空间”一样，“虚拟现实”一直是数字革命的流行语之一。从最狭义的商业意义上来说，虚拟现实旨在将数字技术应用于计算机游戏和娱乐，通过使其更加逼真和更加充分的互动来增加体验的明显真实性。您无需通过敲击键盘或单击鼠标来选择进入哪个房间，而是实际左转或右转：享受步行的所有乐趣，而不会产生有氧运动的后果。
Before we investigate those responsibilities in more detail, we should look at the current business context of virtual reality. Like “multimedia” and “cyberspace,” “virtual reality” has been one of the catchphrases of the digital revolution. In its narrowest commercial sense, virtual reality intends to apply digital technology to computer games and entertainment to increase the apparent reality of the experience by making it both more verisimilitudinous and more fully interactive. Instead of choosing which room to enter by typing on a keyboard or clicking a mouse, you physically turn left or right: all the fun of walking with none of the aerobic consequences.
虚拟现实技术的态度和野心各不相同。二十世纪末，虚拟现实工程师和制片人正在重温一百年前电影诞生的艺术辩证法：该技术应该用来再现现实还是取代现实？占领世界还是发明一个新世界？这是卢米埃尔与梅里爱的又一次较量，但有一个特殊的转折，因为数字记录不会泄露其来源。梅里爱的幻想与卢米埃尔夫妇的现实显然不同。数字图像已经达到了数学抽象的水平，现在使得图像与其他图像无法区分。
Virtual-reality techniques vary in both attitude and ambition. At the end of the twentieth century virtual-reality engineers and producers were reliving the artistic dialectic that characterized the birth of film a hundred years earlier: should the technology be used to reproduce reality or replace it? to capture the world or to invent a new one? It’s Lumière versus Méliès all over again, but with a special twist, for digital records don’t betray their sources. Méliès’s fantasies were clearly different from the Lumières’ realities. Digital imagery has reached a level of mathematical abstraction that now makes the one indistinguishable from the other.
有趣的是，传统现实主义者似乎比幻想主义者从新技术中获得更多：“远程呈现”，即应用各种数字技术来重现遥远的地方，正在产生巨大的科学红利，因为机器将前往“人类从未去过的地方”。 ”
Interestingly, the traditional realists seem to gain more from the new technology than the fantasists: “Telepresence,” the application of various digital technologies to reproduce a distant place, are yielding significant scientific dividends as machines will go “where no man has gone before.”
这些典型的态度差异伴随着野心的差异。一种极端是“全沉浸式”虚拟现实，它尝试全方位的感官印象，包括三维视频、全频音频、触摸。在天平的另一端，我们发现了基本但优雅的应用程序，它们可以让我们控制标准图像的视角。作为一种消费产品，虚拟现实希望利用多感官感知来增加我们的参与度。但我们在这里的意思是从更广泛的意义上理解虚拟现实：作为与多媒体密切相关的增强逼真性和交互性的技术运动。
These classic differences in attitude are accompanied by differences in ambition. At one extreme lies “fully immersive” virtual reality, which attempts a full range of sensory impression, including three-dimensional video, full-range audio, and touch. At the other end of the scale we find basic, yet elegant, applications that simply allow us to control our point of view of standard images. As a consumer product, virtual reality wants to exploit multisensory perception to increase our involvement. But we mean to take virtual reality in its broader sense here: as the technological movement toward increased verisimilitude and interactivity that is closely associated with multimedia.
远程呈现最早的例子之一是网络早期流行的“网络摄像头”：传输天气或某人卧室的实时图像的摄像机。早期网络摄像头中最巧妙的是南加州大学的 Telegarden 项目（1995）。成为该项目成员的网络冲浪者可以发送命令来操作机器人，为 Telegarden 实验室种植的真实花园播种、浇水或施肥。任何人都可以随时收听，了解花园的进展情况。第二年，NBC 在亚特兰大奥运会的十多个场馆安装了多个网络摄像头。电视报道的编辑非常严格（并且通常会延迟），以至于该网站（与 IBM 联合运营）成为体育迷观看比赛的最佳方式。1997 年，火星探路者号探测器的着陆吸引了喷气推进实验室网站观看来自另一颗行星的实时图像的 4500 万次访问量，创下了当时的记录。这些早期的实验提出了远程呈现的一些可能性。
One of the earliest examples of telepresence was the popular “webcam” in the early days of the web: cameras that transmitted live images of the weather or someone’s bedroom. The most ingenious of the early webcams was the Telegarden project at the University of Southern California (1995). Web surfers who became members of the project could send commands to operate a robot to plant seeds, water, or fertilize a real garden that had been planted in the Telegarden lab. Anyone could tune in at any time to see how the garden was progressing. The next year NBC installed a number of webcams at more than a dozen venues for the Atlanta Olympic games. The television coverage was so tightly edited (and usually delayed) that the website (operated in conjunction with IBM) became the best way for sports fans to view the contests. In 1997 the landing of the Mars Pathfinder probe drew a then record 45 million visits to the Jet Propulsion Laboratory website to view live images from another planet. Those early experiments suggested some of the possibilities for telepresence.
图 7-14。完全身临其境的虚拟现实。20 世纪 90 年代末，一位扮演塞伯坦的女性发现自己置身于陀螺仪中间，陀螺仪与头戴式视频显示器和 4 通道音频系统相结合，攻击了她的大部分感官。该系统重 750 磅，需要 80 平方英尺的占地面积。不适合沙发土豆！（由 Straylight 公司提供）
Figure 7-14. FULLY IMMERSIVE VR. In the late 1990s, a woman playing Cybertron finds herself ensconced in the middle of a gyroscope which, combined with a head-mounted video display and a 4-channel audio system, attacks most of her senses. The system weighed 750 pounds and required 80 square feet of floor space. Not for couch potatoes! (Courtesy Straylight Corp.)
到了早期，通勤者可以通过覆盖他们首选路线的数千个交通摄像头来检查拥堵情况，或者调用地图，将数据抽象成颜色，显示每个“拥堵摄像头”位置的平均速度。也许更有影响力的是，气象站点提供对雷达地图和卫星图像的实时访问。
By the early oughts commuters could tune in to thousands of traffic cameras covering their preferred route to check out the jams—or call up maps that abstracted the data into colors that showed average speed at each “jam cam” location. Perhaps even more influential, weather sites offer real-time access to radar maps and satellite images.
远程呈现最非凡的例子之一是伦敦的“钢铁之环”。为了应对九十年代初期爱尔兰共和军恐怖爆炸浪潮，英国政府开始建立可能是世界上最大的数字监控网络。通往伦敦的道路由数百个摄像头组成的网络进行控制和监控，这些摄像头配备了“自动车牌识别”（ANPR）软件，该软件记录了所有进出城市的车牌。环内，超过五十万个闭路电视摄像机记录着公民的一举一动。这种密集的视频监控已经成为伦敦人生活的一部分，闭路电视录像现在已经成为英国警察的常见情节元素。没有恐惧; 大哥来了！
One of the more extraordinary examples of telepresence is London’s “Ring of Steel.” In response to a wave of IRA terrorist bombings in the early nineties the government of the U.K. began to build what may be the world’s largest digital surveillance network. Access roads into London are controlled and monitored by a network of hundreds of cameras equipped with “Automated Number Plate Recognition” (ANPR) software that records all license plates entering and leaving the city. Within the Ring, more than half a million Closed-Circuit TV cameras record the action of citizens. This intensive video surveillance has become so much a part of life for Londoners that CCTV footage is now a common plot element in British policiers. Have no fear; Big brother is here!
图 7-15。简单的虚拟现实。任天堂在 2006 年发布 Wii 后重新夺回了视频游戏市场的主导地位，这就是“少即是多”这一格言真理的一个引人注目的例子。在遥控器上添加加速计，可以用自然手势取代按钮和操纵杆。这是一组混双。
Figure 7-15. SIMPLE VR. In a striking example of the truth of the maxim “less is more” Nintendo regained dominance of the videogame market with the release of the Wii in 2006. Adding accelerometers to the remote control allowed natural gestures to replace buttons and joysticks. Here, a set of mixed doubles.
现在不仅我们所做的一切都会被记录下来；而且我们所做的一切都会被记录下来。而且我们常常不知道它正在发生。电子相机现在已经小到难以察觉。你朋友夹克上的按钮可能会将你的高清电视照片传输到未来版本的Candid Camera或 FBI。
It’s not just that everything we do is now subject to being recorded; it is also that we often don’t know that it is happening. Electronic cameras are now so small as to be undetectable. That button on your friend’s jacket may be transmitting an HDTV picture of you to a future version of Candid Camera—or the FBI.
这种无处不在的现实记录始于近五十年前约翰·F·肯尼迪被刺杀的事件，这一事件被著名的扎普鲁德电影（以及电视直播中假定的刺杀者被杀）所捕捉到。2001年世贸中心袭击事件达到了高潮。根据定义，恐怖袭击的目的与其说是杀死敌人，不如说是通过恐吓幸存者来利用杀戮。你可以想象，基地组织的战略家很早就意识到双子塔提供了一个独特的机会。一旦第一座塔被击中，一千台摄像机就会对准它，从而捕捉到第二座塔被击中的所有惊人细节。（幸运的是，一位法国电影制片人那天早上在附近拍摄一部纪录片，也捕捉到了第一部热门影片。）他们知道这些热门影片的大量镜头将在未来被播放和重播一百万次数月又数年，每一次都加剧了恐怖。我们的媒体直接对他们有利，现在仍然如此。
This ubiquitous reality record began nearly fifty years ago with the assassination of John F. Kennedy, caught on the famous Zapruder film (and the killing of his putative assassin on live TV). It reached a climax in 2001 with the attack on the World Trade Center. By definition, the aim of a terrorist attack is not so much to kill your enemies as to leverage that killing by frightening the survivors. You can imagine that Al Qaeda strategists realized early on that the twin towers offered a unique opportunity. Once the first tower was hit, a thousand cameras would be trained on it and, therefore, capture the second hit live in all its stupendous detail. (As luck would have it, a French filmmaker was shooting a documentary that morning in the neighborhood and caught the first hit, as well.) They knew that the wealth of footage of these hits would be played and replayed a million times in the coming months and years, each time reinforcing the terror. Our media played directly into their hands, and still does.
图 7-16。电子存在。在这里，腕管手术技术的演示展示了该技术如何实现微创手术。插图显示了外科医生看到的图像。（由 3M Health Care 提供。镜框放大。）
Figure 7-16. TELEPRESENCE. Here, a demonstration of carpal tunnel surgical technique shows how the technology permits less invasive surgery. The inset shows the image the surgeon sees.(Courtesy 3M Health Care. Frame enlargements.)
我们接受这些图像为真实的。但越来越难以区分真正的远程呈现或原始录音与发明的虚拟现实之间的区别。当我们观看纯小说时，我们知道，但是当我们观看声称是非虚构的内容时，我们不知道任何特定序列的真实程度。我们接触这些创造性的混合物越多，我们就越无法区分真假。我们需要一个电影和电视标签系统来识别每个序列的逼真程度：
We accept these images as true. But increasingly it’s hard to tell the difference between true telepresence or raw recordings on the one hand and invented virtual reality on the other. We know when we are watching straight fiction, but when we are watching something that claims to be nonfictional we have no clue about the level of verisimilitude of any particular sequence. The more we are exposed to these inventive melanges, the less we are able to distinguish between what’s true and not true. We need a system of tags for film and television that will identify the level of verisimilitude for each sequence:
这个序列是真实的，正如它看起来的那样：它是在我们所说的时间和地点拍摄的。
This sequence is real, exactly as it appears to be: it was shot when and where we say it was.
这个片段有点真实，但经过排练或重新上演。
This sequence is sort of real, but it was rehearsed or restaged.
这个片段是在我们所说的地点拍摄的，但时间不同。
This sequence was shot in the place we say, but at a different time.
这个序列不是真实的：它是重演的。
This sequence is not real: it is a re-enactment.
这个序列不是真实的；它是装饰性的。
This sequence is not real; it is decorative.
无论从哪种意义上来说，虚拟现实都只是延伸了从一开始就成为电影史一部分的主题。二十世纪初期，电影游记为想要回家的旅行者提供了虚拟旅程。正如我们所见，电影制片人自二十年代以来一直在尝试更大的屏幕、3D 和立体声。1953 年，《This Is Cinerama》带领我们集体乘坐过山车，至今仍是体验式电影的典范。*作为一种增加逼真度的技术，虚拟现实延续了这一传统。区别在于它的交互性，即对向观众提供的体验的控制程度。
In either sense of the term, virtual reality simply extends a theme that has been part of film history since the beginning. In the early years of the twentieth century, movie travelogues provided virtual journeys for homebound would-be travelers. As we’ve seen, filmmakers have been experimenting with larger screens, 3-D, and stereo sound since the twenties. In 1953, This Is Cinerama took us on a collective rollercoaster ride that is still the model for experiential cinema.* As a technique to increase verisimilitude, virtual reality continues this tradition. The difference is in its interactivity, the degree of control over the experience that it provides to the viewer.
图 7-17。电子存在。机遇号火星车拍摄的火星维多利亚陨石坑，2006 年 10 月 16 日。相机可以到达“没有人去过的地方”。（美国宇航局。）
Figure 7-17. TELEPRESENCE. Victoria Crater on Mars as photographed by Mars Rover Opportunity, October 16,2006. Cameras can go “where no man has gone before.” (NASA.)
技术在这里可能没有抓住重点。在 1964-65 年纽约世界博览会上，捷克斯洛伐克馆的观众可以投票决定他们正在观看的电影的情节发展。六十年代末七十年代初，一些舞台剧实验为观众提供了昔日的控制权。由于显而易见的原因，这项技术并没有流行起来。《国家讽刺报》在 20 世纪 70 年代中期的短剧中讽刺了对观众的控制，产生了致命的效果。在他们的《等待戈多》版本中，总是迫在眉睫的客人在戏剧开始后仅三十秒就出现了。他和迪迪和戈戈简短地讨论了去哪里吃饭。（据我记得，他们决定选择中文。）
Here the technology may miss the point. At the 1964–65 New York World’s Fair, viewers at the Czechoslovak pavilion could vote to determine plot developments in the movie they were watching. In the late sixties and early seventies, several stage drama experiments offered audiences erstwhile control. The technique did not catch on, for obvious reasons. The National Lampoon satirized audience control with lethal effect in a mid-1970s skit. In their version of Waiting for Godot, the always imminent guest shows up only thirty seconds after the play begins. He and Didi and Gogo briefly discuss where to eat. (As I remember it, they decided on Chinese.)
作为一种应用于游戏而不是电影的技术，虚拟现实显示出了更多的前景。电脑游戏的本质是交互性，因此虚拟现实提供的逼真度有助于增强体验。龙与地下城游戏的基本概念是多线程的情节矩阵，而战斗游戏的效果则取决于令人肾上腺素飙升的挑战节奏。在这两种情况下，虚拟现实都增强了效果。但也许它的最大价值在于那些重复体验的游戏，例如飞行模拟器。事实上，与其说模拟器是游戏，不如说它们是虚拟现实体验的原型，而且它们的伟大前景是具有教育意义的。也许我们还没有准备好相信虚拟现实实验室对外科医生的培训，但许多其他工艺和技术可以从模拟器中受益多年来一直为航空公司飞行员提供良好服务的方法。虚拟现实（除了游戏之外）的第一个成功在于“如何做”业务，CAD 程序使我们能够想象（尽管是粗略的）如果我们按照设计的方式构建新牌组，它会是什么样子。2007年，在一个名为“虚拟伊拉克”的项目中，美国国防部开始测试修改后的VR战争游戏，作为治疗患有创伤后应激障碍的退伍军人的方法。
As a technique applied to games rather than cinema, virtual reality shows more promise. The essence of a computer game is its interactivity, so the increased verisimilitude offered by virtual reality is useful to enhance the experience. The basic concept of a dungeons-and-dragons game is a multithreaded matrix of plots, while a battle game depends for its effect on the adrenaline-boosting rhythm of challenges. In both cases, virtual reality enhances the effect. But perhaps its greatest value is with that class of games that duplicate experience, such as flight simulators. Indeed, simulators are less games than they are prototypes for virtual reality experience, and their great promise is educational. Perhaps we are not quite ready yet to trust the training of our surgeons to a virtual-reality lab, but numerous other crafts and techniques can benefit from the simulator approach that has served airline pilots well for many years. The first successes of virtual reality (apart from games) have been in the “how to” business, with CAD programs that allow us to envision—albeit roughly—how the new deck will look if we build it the way we’ve designed it. In 2007, in a program called “Virtual Iraq,” the U.S. Department of Defense began testing modified VR war games as treatment for veterans suffering from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.
2006 年，曾经是视频游戏领头羊但当时仅落后于索尼和微软的第三位的任天堂凭借 Wii 系统击败了竞争对手，改变了视频游戏世界。任天堂并没有在现实性和幻想性方面与两个强大的竞争对手竞争，而是只是在手持控制器上添加了一个加速计，为不太复杂的游戏引入了新水平的物理交互性。一年后，苹果公司在 iPhone 上采用了该设备。有时少即是多。
In 2006, Nintendo, once the videogame leader but by then a poor third to Sony and Microsoft, trumped its rivals with the Wii system and transformed the videogame universe. Rather than competing with its two powerful rivals on realism and fantasy, Nintendo simply added an accelerometer to the hand-held controller, introducing a new level of physical interactivity to far less complex games. Apple adopted this device for the iPhone a year later. Sometimes less is more.
虚拟现实的两个关键要素——逼真性和交互性——都会引发伦理问题。
Both key elements of virtual reality—verisimilitude and interactivity—raise ethical questions.
只有在自己的背景下进行判断时，数字图像和声音才更加真实。当今市售的计算机屏幕还没有能够接近正确投影的 35 毫米胶片的分辨率，更不用说 Showscan 和 IMAX 等超级电影技术了。（同样，没有电子屏幕可以与印刷精美的书籍的质量相媲美。）虽然 CD 使数字声音成为新标准，但正如我们已经指出的，一些发烧友仍然更喜欢旧的模拟技术。他们只是审美的勒德分子吗？
Digital images and sounds are more true-to-life only when judged in their own context. No computer screen commercially available today comes close to the resolution of properly projected 35 mm film, to say nothing of superfilm technologies like Showscan and IMAX. (Similarly, no electronic screen can match the quality of a well-printed book.) And while the CD has made digital sound the new standard, some audiophiles still prefer the older analog technology, as we have already noted. Are they simply esthetic Luddites ?
数字再现的声音或图像的清晰度取决于两个数学因素：样本的数量和每个样本的精度（或深度）。对于动态图片，添加第三个因素：帧速率。理论上，为了匹配模拟再现的精度，数字采样率需要接近无穷大。幸运的是，实际情况并非如此。正如我们在第二章中看到的，电影本身的发明取决于人类感知的局限性。我们只需要在可测量的误差范围内超出这些限制即可。此外，模拟再现技术本身还远非完美。数字模型暂时只需要匹配或超过其模拟前辈即可。
The acuity of a digitally reproduced sound or image depends on two mathematical factors: the number of samples and the precision—or depth—of each sample. For moving pictures, add a third factor: the frame rate. Theoretically, to match the accuracy of analog reproduction, digital sampling rates would need to approach infinity. Luckily this is not the case in practice. As we have seen in Chapter 2, the invention of film itself depended on limitations of human perception. We only need to exceed those limitations by a measurable margin for error. Moreover, analog techniques of reproduction are themselves far from perfect. Digital models need only match or exceed their analog predecessors—for the time being.
问题是他们还没有。虽然音频 CD 标准是否足够接近还有待商榷，并且高端计算机视频驱动器上可用的 1600 万种颜色可能足够精确，但屏幕的分辨率以及必要的巨大妥协尽管压缩技术迅速进步，但存储电影仍然存在很大的局限性。
The problem is that they don’t, yet. While it is arguable that the audio CD standard is close enough, and it is likely that the 16 million colors available on a high-end computer video driver are sufficiently precise, the resolution of the screen, and the prodigious compromises necessary to store motion pictures still impose significant limitations, despite rapid advances in compression technology.
图 7-18。从更广泛的意义上来说，虚拟现实在我们给它命名之前就已经存在了很长时间。也许 1963 年 11 月约翰·肯尼迪遇刺标志着一个转折点。整个国家在一部电视剧中团结在一起。此处，杰克·鲁比现场拍摄李·哈维·奥斯瓦尔德。（由摄影节提供。）
Figure 7-18. In the broader sense of the term, virtual reality existed a long time before we gave a name to it. Perhaps the assassination of John Kennedy in November 1963 marked a turning point. The nation was united in a television drama. Here, Jack Ruby shoots Lee Harvey Oswald, live. (Courtesy Photofest.)
据说，在六十年代，英格玛·伯格曼因其所选择的媒介固有的不诚实而感到内疚。伯格曼对这样一个事实深思熟虑：超过 50% 的时间他的观众都在观看完全空白的屏幕。想象一下他在面对数字图像时的痛苦，这使电影的奇异技巧复杂化了一千倍！
In the sixties, the story goes, Ingmar Bergman suffered from guilt over the inherent dishonesty of his chosen medium. Bergman brooded over the fact that more than 50 percent of the time his audience was watching a perfectly blank screen. Imagine his distress when confronted with digital imagery, which compounds that singular trick of the movies a thousandfold!
在 4.7 兆字节 DVD 上播放两小时故事片所需的极端压缩技术带来了许多质量问题。与 VHS 相比，大多数 DVD 消费者对媒体的分辨率印象深刻，以至于他们忽视了这些非常现实的问题。（问题还延伸到了 HDTV，它使用与 DVD 相同的编解码器 MPEG-2。）由于声音信号存储在光盘上的单独块中，因此无法保证音频与视频同步。由于压缩理论家认识到我们对色度的关注多于对亮度的关注，因此 MPEG-2 标准对颜色的处理快速且松散，从而大大降低了其精度和范围。由于该技术依赖于定义大多数帧“预测”的像素块的概念，因此 MPEG-2 视频经常散布着块状伪影，使图像看起来像乳胶已滑落的古老无声印刷品。而且，这种压缩视频的质量在很大程度上取决于管理该过程的技术人员的才能，并且不同机器的播放效果也有所不同。*
The extreme compression techniques required to fit a two-hour feature film on a 4.7 megabyte DVD come with numerous failures in quality. Most DVD consumers are so impressed with the resolution of the medium—as compared to VHS—that they discount these very real problems. (And the problems extend to HDTV, which uses the same codec—MPEG-2—as DVD.) Because the sound signal is stored in separate blocks on the disc, there is no guarantee that audio will sync with video. Because the compression theorists realized we pay less attention to chrominance than to luminance, the MPEG-2 standard plays fast and loose with color, drastically reducing both its precision and its range. Because the technology depends on the concept of defining blocks of pixels which are “predicted” for most frames, MPEG-2 video is often littered with blocky artifacts that make the image look like an ancient silent print where the emulsion has slipped. Moreover, the quality of such compressed video depends in large part on the talent of the technician managing the process, and also varies in playback from machine to machine.*
对于 HDTV（相对于基于光盘的媒体）而言，又增加了一系列复杂性：美国 HDTV 技术标准非常广泛，理论上，它包含多达 60 种不同的垂直和水平分辨率、宽高比、像素的可能组合。形状、逐行/隔行扫描和帧速率。信号的“监管链”从制作者开始，经过分销商、网络和有线电视系统，一直延伸到您的电视。其中任何一项都可以决定做出改变。
For HDTV (as opposed to disc-based media) add a further set of complications: The U.S. technical standard for HDTV is so broad that, theoretically, it comprises as many as sixty different possible combinations of vertical and horizontal resolution, aspect ratio, pixel shape, progressive/interlaced scanning, and frame rate. And the “chain of custody” for the signal stretches from the producer through distributor, network, and cable system, to your TV. Any one of these can decide to make changes.
这些压缩系统所采用的逻辑技术的创造性令人惊叹，而且过于复杂，无法在此描述。可以这么说，你所看到和听到的——无论多么令人印象深刻——都是原始图像和声音的最微弱的回声。我希望在英格玛·伯格曼去世之前没有人向他解释 MPEG-2。
The logical technology that has gone into these systems of compression is breathtaking in its inventiveness—and far too complex to describe here. Suffice it to say that what you see and hear—no matter how impressive—is the faintest echo of the original images and sounds. I hope no one explained MPEG-2 to Ingmar Bergman before he died.
虚拟现实的交互元素提出了另一个伦理问题。当我们让观众转变为用户参与艺术决策过程时，我们可能会免除作者的责任。虚拟现实多媒体环境的丰富性可能会产生误导。我们越是尝试复制现实，我们为用户创造的操纵和控制这个环境的自由就越大，我们似乎离这一切的意义就越远。我们越接近现实的全面再现，我们就越失去艺术与其主题之间的辩证关系。毕竟，“虚拟现实”一词是一个矛盾的说法。在物理学中，真实的就是真实的，虚拟的不是真实的。结果是，就像2001年底的 David Bowman 一样，虚拟现实用户发现自己身处一个笼子里——一个美丽的笼子，但仅仅因为它看起来是开放的，就显得更加狭窄。
The interactive element of virtual reality presents an additional ethical problem. As we involve the viewer-turned-user in the artistic decision-making process we may abrogate the responsibility of authorship. The very richness of the virtual-reality multimedia environment can be misleading. The more we attempt to duplicate reality, the more freedom we create for the user to manipulate and control this environment, the farther away we seem to get from the point of it all. The closer we come to the full reproduction of reality, the more we lose the dialectic between art and its subject. The term “virtual reality” is, after all, an oxymoron. In physics, what is real is real, what is virtual is not real. The result is that, like David Bowman at the end of 2001, virtual reality users find themselves in a cage—a beautiful cage, but all the more constricting just because it appears to be open.
与吸毒经历进行比较是恰当的。正如披头士乐队所说：
A comparison with the drug experience is apt. As The Beatles put it:
没有什么是真实的
，也没有什么值得挂念的……
[“永远的草莓地”，© 1967 Northern Songs Ltd.]
Nothing is real
And nothing to get hung about….
[“Strawberry Fields Forever,” © 1967 Northern Songs Ltd.]
我们已经注意到精神活性化学品和传统的插件药物之间的相似之处。完全身临其境的虚拟现实是电子超级药物：“永远的草莓地”。
We’ve already noted the parallels between psychoactive chemicals and our traditional plug-in drugs. Fully immersive virtual reality is the electronic superdrug: “Strawberry fields forever.”
图 7-19。虚拟家具。_ 虽然我们可能很容易认为虚拟现实是技术发展的产物，但也许有潜在的经济动机：在一个过度拥挤的世界中，没有足够的真实现实可供使用，因此我们中的许多人将不得不凑合着使用合成现实。过去 35 年里，家具也发生了很多同样的事情。几个世纪以来，世界各地的家具都是由木材通过机械连接（槽口、榫眼、燕尾榫）和胶合而成。工业革命带来了金属螺钉取代了钉子，但细木工的基本理念并没有改变。近年来，这种传统已被一种依赖仿木的建筑方法所取代，这种建筑方法将建筑的负担从木匠转移到了用户身上，就像在 VR 娱乐中一样，用户获得了一种巧妙的技术，使建筑工作变得简单。看起来更容易，尽管事实并非如此。结果是虚拟产品似乎符合我们的标准，但寿命极短。或许 VR 媒体也是如此。
Figure 7-19. VIRTUAL FURNITURE. While we might easily assume that virtual reality is a product of developing technology, perhaps there are underlying economic motivations: in an overcrowded world, there isn’t enough real reality to go around, so many of us are going to have to make do with synthetic reality. Much the same has happened to furniture in the last 35 years. For many centuries, the world over, furniture was constructed of lumber joined mechanically—rabbet, mortise and tenon, dovetails—and glued. The industrial revolution brought the metal screw to replace the peg, but the basic philosophy of joinery didn’t change. That tradition has been superseded in recent years by a method of construction that relies on imitation wood and shifts the burden of construction from the carpenter to the user who—just as in VR entertainment—is provided with an ingenious technology that makes the work of construction appear easier, even though it isn’t. The result is a virtual product that appears to meet our criteria—but has an exceedingly short lifespan. Perhaps the same will prove true with VR media.
虽然虚拟现实的哲学提出了这些道德问题，但在更实际的层面上，某些虚拟现实技术显示出了立竿见影的前景——而且是以一种我们可能没有预料到的方式。
While the philosophy of virtual reality raises these ethical questions, on a more practical level, certain virtual-reality technologies show immediate promise—and in a way we might not have expected.
苹果的 QuickTime VR 就是其中之一。最初的 QuickTime 首次亮相三年后，QTVR 及其竞争对手在 1994 年 6 月的数字世界展会上进行了预览，彻底颠覆了电影技术。VR 使用与数字环境中的电影类似的相同底层算法，允许用户改变视角，随意游览空间。鼠标的移动决定相机的视角，点击鼠标控制相机的位置。在拍摄对象空间的一个或多个位置拍摄的全景静态照片存储在光盘上。QuickTime VR 处理这些完整但扭曲的记录，从角度呈现比例适当的静态图像。查看用户所选择的。用户可以根据自己的喜好进行缩放和平移。如果空间中的多个位置被记录，用户可以从一点移动到另一点。如果不存在 360° 全景记录，单独的 VR 预处理器将从一系列粗糙的静态图像中创建一个。该技术还允许用户跟踪一个对象——与在空间中平移相反。
Apple’s QuickTime VR is one of these. Previewed at the Digital World show in June 1994, three years after the debut of the original QuickTime, QTVR and its competitors turn that movie technology on its head. Using the same underlying algorithms that approximate movies in a digital environment, VR permits the user to change point of view, to tour a space at will. The movement of the mouse determines the camera’s point of view, and a click of the mouse controls the position of the camera. Panoramic still photographs taken at one or more locations in the subject space are stored on disc. QuickTime VR processes these complete but distorted records to present a properly proportioned still image from the point of view the user has chosen. Users can zoom and pan as they like. If more than one position in the space has been recorded, users can move from point to point. If no 360° panoramic record exists, a separate VR preprocessor will create one from a series of rough stills. The technology also allows the user to track around an object—the reverse of panning around a space.
现在这几乎不是虚拟现实梦想家所梦想的东西。没有试图压倒感官；用户仍然处于控制之中。QuickTime VR 技术的天才在于其简单性。它优雅而直观地利用了数字电影相对于模拟电影的独特优势：通过插入旧图像来近似新图像的能力，这是压缩技术的遗产，必须开发该技术来处理数字电影的强大数字要求。数字影院。QuickTime VR 是艺术中经典模式的最新例子：媒体的局限性决定了其基本实用性。数字电影的主要缺点已成为新技术的引擎。
Now this is hardly the stuff that virtual-reality visionaries dream of. There is no attempt to overwhelm the senses; the user remains in control. The genius of the QuickTime VR technology is in its simplicity. It elegantly and intuitively capitalizes on the singular advantage that digital films have over their analog predecessors: the ability to approximate new images by interpolating old ones, which is the heritage of the compression techniques that had to be developed to deal with the formidable numerical requirements of digital cinema. QuickTime VR is the latest example of a classic pattern in the arts: the limitations of the medium yield its essential utility. The main disadvantage of digital movies has become the engine of a new technology.
当然，这项新技术不是电影，而是电影。“静止”可能是一个更好的词。它创造了一个地方，而不是一个叙述。它否认场景调度和蒙太奇。它用气氛代替节奏，用环境代替性格。但随着它的成熟，它将满足一些与电影相同的需求。就像电影一样，“静止图像”将用他们自己的方式带我们进入别人的世界。这种优雅简单的技术不会将那些世界与我们自己的世界混淆。
Of course, this new technology is not movies; “stillies” might be a better term. It creates a place, not a narrative. It denies both mise-en-scene and montage. It replaces rhythm with atmosphere and character with environment. But as it matures it will serve some of the same needs that film has served. In their own way, “stillies” will take us to other people’s worlds just as the movies have done. What this elegantly simple technology will not do is confuse those worlds with our own.
网络空间的神话
The Myth of Cyberspace
数字革命的早期远见者几乎对新技术的通信可能性着迷，就像他们对新技术再现现实和融合多种媒体的能力一样着迷。与此同时，微型计算机分散了办公室的权力，将个体工人从计算机房中傲慢的技术牧师中解放出来，新的通信技术正在适应电话网络，将数以百万计的个人智能工具相互连接并与集中数据库连接。
The early visionaries of the digital revolution were almost as fascinated by the communications possibilities of the new technology as they were by its capacity to reproduce reality and fuse together multiple media. At the same time that the microcomputer decentralized power in the office, liberating individual workers from the haughty priests of technology in the computer room, new communications techniques were adapting the telephone network to connect millions of these personal intellectual tools with each other and with centralized databases.
图 7-20。Apple 于 1995 年推出的 QuickTime VR 将电影彻底颠覆。在这里，艺术家给你空间或物体，你选择如何观看它。如果电影是绘画，那么 QuickTime VR 既是建筑又是雕塑。这些帧来自“Balcony”QTVR，这是该技术的第一个发布的演示。三十三个静态照片被拼接成一个连续的全景图，用户可以随意浏览。（由苹果电脑公司提供）
Figure 7-20. QuickTime VR, introduced by Apple in 1995, turned movies inside out. Here, the artist gives you the space or the object, and you choose how to view it. If movies are paintings, QuickTime VR is both architecture and sculpture. These frames are from the “Balcony” QTVR, the first released demo of the technology. Thirty-three stills were stitched together into a continuous panorama which the user can navigate at will.(Courtesy Apple Computer, Inc.)
Dialog 是第一个主要的在线数据库，于 1965 年投入使用。它最初是由洛克希德公司设计的，作为太空计划的工具。Lexis 是第一个综合性专业数据库，于 1973 年将整个法律图书馆上线。Arpanet（后来被称为互联网的网络网络的前身）于 1969 年上线。英国 Prestel 系统于 1976 年启用，证明了在线计算机信息网络对消费者和专业人士都有用。Prestel 在商业上从未取得过成功，但它的电视兄弟 Ceefax 和 Oracle 在 20 世纪 80 年代成为英国人生活的一部分。法国 Minitel 系统在技术上比 Prestel 更加复杂，从 1985 年开始成为法国文化不可分割的一部分。
Dialog, the first major online database, opened for business in 1965. It was originally designed by Lockheed as a tool for the space program. Lexis, the first comprehensive professional database, put an entire law library online in 1973. Arpanet, the predecessor to the network of networks that later became known as the internet, went online in 1969. The British Prestel system opened in 1976, demonstrating that online computer information networks could be useful to consumers as well as professionals. Prestel was never a commercial success, but its television-based cousins, Ceefax and Oracle, became part of British life in the 1980s. The French Minitel system, more technically sophisticated than Prestel, became an integral part of French culture beginning in 1985.
Minitel 系统与 Prestel 的根本不同在于它是一个分布式系统。它不是将数以万计的用户连接到一台中央主机，而是提供了一个交换网络将他们连接到数千个较小的独立主机。这种架构的有益优势之一是它分散了开发和运营的成本。数以千计的迷你电讯服务迅速涌现。他们中的许多人主持了聊天会议。在电子邮件出现之前的时代，这种新形式的即时消息传递更加独特。在线数据库很有用，但是在线数据库很重要，主要是当数据库太大或更新太频繁而无法有效驻留在本地磁盘上时。
The Minitel system differed radically from Prestel in that it was a distributed system. Instead of linking tens of thousands of users to one central host computer, it provided a switching network to link them to thousands of smaller, independent hosts. One of the salubrious advantages of this architecture was that it decentralized the costs of development and operations. Thousands of Minitel services quickly sprang up. Many of them hosted chat sessions. In an age before email this new form of instant messaging was all the more unique. The online databases were useful, but that a database was online was important mainly if it was too large or too frequently updated to be effective resident on a local disk.
很快人们就发现，沟通是在线系统的真正灵魂。聊天被证明是一种真正的人类互动新形式，因为一个人可以同时拥有多个单独的私人空间对话。这相当于老式书面信件的实时通信，但事实证明，即时速度与打字消息的匿名性以及与世界各地数以万计的陌生人的接触相结合，是一种令人上瘾的组合。到 20 世纪 80 年代末，Minitel 已在法国实现制度化：随着营销人员找到了一种建立直接联系客户的新途径，数以千计的日常产品列出了 Minitel 号码。迷你电讯为互联网和万维网的发展提供了清晰的模型：所有元素都在那里。事实上，它的效果非常好，以至于 20 世纪 90 年代法国的互联网服务增长非常缓慢：消费者对旧的、更简单的、更方便的系统感到满意。
Communication, as quickly became evident, was the real soul of an online system. Chat proved to be a genuinely new form of human interaction, as a single individual could hold multiple simultaneous separate private conversations. It was a realtime equivalent of old-fashioned written correspondence, but the instantaneous speed combined with the anonymity of typed messages and access to tens of thousands of strangers the world over quickly proved to be an addictive combination. By the late 1980s, the Minitel had been institutionalized in France: thousands of everyday products listed their Minitel numbers as marketers found a new way to build a direct path to their customers. Minitel served as a clear model for the development of the internet and the World Wide Web: all the elements were there. It worked so well, in fact, that internet services grew very slowly in France in the 1990s: consumers were satisfied with the older, simpler, and more convenient system.
虽然小型电信在 20 世纪 80 年代取得了成功，但美国的许多类似实验都失败了，主要原因是对此类服务的市场误解。有些实验，例如奈特·里德和《时代镜报》的实验，选择在电视上播出，从而混淆了这种媒体及其绰号“视频文本”。*这不仅对一对一的通信媒体强加了中央集权，而且还受到普通电视屏幕无法复制文本的影响。其他公司，如 IBM 和 Sears 的 Prodigy，依赖于过时的网络模型（同样是大型中央主机，尽管这次有附属主机）和同样过时的图形系统。NAPLPS 是北美表示层协议标准，于 20 世纪 80 年代初设计，作为美国和加拿大对英国开创性的 Prestel 图形语言和 Minitel 的 Teletel 协议的回应。Prodigy 采用 NAPLPS 仅仅两年后，更复杂的图形用户界面就在国家微型计算机上变得无处不在。
While Minitel was succeeding during the 1980s, a number of similar American experiments failed, mainly due to misunderstanding of the market for such services. Some, such as Knight-Ridder’s and Times-Mirror’s experiments, chose to broadcast on television, confusing the medium with its sobriquet, videotext.* Not only did this impose a centralized authority on what was meant to be a one-to-one communications medium, it also suffered from the inability of the average television screen to reproduce text. Others, like IBM’s and Sears’s Prodigy, relied on an outdated network model (again, the massive central host, although this time with subsidiary masters), and a graphics system that was equally out of date. NAPLPS, the North American Presentation Level Protocol Standard, had been devised in the early 1980s as America’s and Canada’s answer to Britain’s pioneering Prestel graphics language and Minitel’s Teletel protocol. Prodigy adopted NAPLPS just two years before much more sophisticated graphical user interfaces became ubiquitous on the nation’s microcomputers.
在线图形的简史非常有趣。英国邮局工程师 Sam Fedida 在 20 世纪 70 年代初提出了 Prestel 的基本概念。目的是为消费者创建一个在线系统。从一开始，基本图形就成为服务的一部分——当时还没有微型计算机和分时技术终端（当时的终端）是严格基于字符的。Prestel（以及后来的 Minitel）图形字符集巧妙地解决了通过电话线传输图形的问题。（他们使用高位 ASCII 字符集来生成马赛克图形格式的元素。）基本颜色和形状极大地提高了字符和简单绘图显示的有效性，而无需尝试重新创建摄影图像的艰巨任务。
The brief history of online graphics is quite interesting. An engineer for the British Post Office named Sam Fedida had come up with the basic concept of Prestel in the early 1970s. The aim was to produce an online system for consumers. From the beginning, basic graphics were to be a part of the service—this at a time when microcomputers didn’t exist and time-sharing terminals, their equivalent at that time, were strictly character-based. The Prestel—and later Minitel—graphics character sets were ingenious solutions to the problem of transmitting graphics over telephone lines. (They used the upper-ASCII character set to produce elements for a mosaic graphics format.) The basic colors and shapes greatly added to the effectiveness of the display of characters and simple drawings without attempting the then-arduous task of re-creating photographic imagery.
图 7-21。这是法国 Minitel 的最新型号，于 1981 年首次推出。为了节省空间，键盘可以折叠起来。设计目标是占用比电话簿更小的“足迹”。(JM)
Figure 7-21. This is a late model of the French Minitel, first introduced in 1981. To save space, the keyboard folds up. The design goal was to occupy a smaller “footprint” than a telephone directory. (JM)
NAPLPS 雄心勃勃地尝试将这一想法扩展到更复杂的矢量图形。事实证明，这种野心是狂妄的，因为像麦金塔这样的基于像素的图形用户界面很快就确立了自己的地位。Prodigy（唯一使用 NAPLPS 的持续运行系统）的工程师们像父亲一样专注于中央主机的图形职责，忽视了他们周围正在发生的革命。随着微型计算机的普及，计算能力的总体财富增加了一百万倍，就此而言，不再需要 NAPLPS 或 IBM 的大型机。
NAPLPS, ambitiously, attempted to extend the idea to more complex vector graphics. The ambition proved hubristic, as pixel-based graphical user interfaces like the Macintosh quickly established themselves. The engineers at Prodigy (the only ongoing system ever to use NAPLPS), focusing paternally on the graphic responsibilities of the central host computer, had ignored the revolution going on around them. As microcomputers spread, increasing the general wealth of computing power a million-fold, there was no longer any need for NAPLPS—or IBM’s mainframes, for that matter.
尽管 Prodigy 在财务上并不成功，但在 1988 年推出后的 5 年内，仍然积累了约 200 万用户。 与此同时，在美国，Compuserve 是一种简陋但有利可图的在线系统，已被计算机行业采用为它自己的论坛，以及一家创意初创公司美国在线，已经积累了三百万人。到 1993 年，随着微型计算机变得更容易使用，在线行业主导了商业页面，因为“信息“高速公路”已成为克林顿政府国家战略的一部分。八十年代网上所称的“寻找生意的行业”终于找到了一个。随着互联网开始迅速崛起，AOL 成功地从专有服务转型。到 1996 年，AOL 会员数量已接近 1000 万，并扩展到欧洲。1997 年，AOL 收购了 Compuserve，使其受众数量突破了 1200 万。到二十世纪末，这一数字已突破 2000 万。美国在线似乎势不可挡。2000 年 1 月，可以说是最幸运的老牌媒体公司时代华纳同意与 AOL 合并，只获得了交易的 45%。新旧媒体的象征性联姻于 2001 年 1 月网络泡沫破灭之际完成。从那时起，随着经济关系从访问转向搜索，美国在线拖累了时代华纳的盈利。
Although it was not a financial success, Prodigy nevertheless accumulated some two million users during the five years after its introduction in 1988. At the same time in the U.S., Compuserve, the stodgy but profitable online system that had been adopted by the computer industry as its own forum, and America Online, a creative startup, had accumulated three million others between them. By 1993, as microcomputers became easier to use, the online industry dominated the business pages, as the “Information Superhighway” had become part of the Clinton administration’s national strategy. The “industry in search of a business,” as online was known throughout the eighties, had finally found one. As the internet began its rapid rise, AOL successfully made the transition from a proprietary service. By 1996 AOL was approaching 10 million members and expanding into Europe. In 1997 AOL acquired Compuserve, boosting its audience past 12 million. By the end of the twentieth century it was pushing 20 million. AOL appeared unstoppable. In January 2000, Time Warner, arguably the most auspicious of the old media companies, agreed to merge with AOL, taking just 45 percent of the deal. This symbolic marriage of old and new media was consummated in January 2001 just as the dot-com bubble was bursting. From that point on, AOL was a drag on Time Warner’s earnings as the economic nexus shifted from access to search.
自 20 世纪 70 年代末首次亮相以来，Compuserve 就完全以角色为基础。AOL 通过集成基于客户端的图形元素抢占了领先地位，每当用户登录到网络时，就会下载更新并存储在本地。20 世纪 90 年代初的先锋在线用户不断抱怨等待 AOL 图形到达时浪费的时间。（大约在同一时间，Compuserve 开发了 GIF 格式，这是一种无处不在的照片压缩算法。）到 1995 年互联网开始迅速发展时，个人电脑已经足够强大，调制解调器也足够快，以至于可以下载图形元素如所须。不再需要提前存储它们。万维网先驱们也不断哀叹等待这些图形所浪费的时间。在世纪之交，该行业仍然是一个狂野的边疆，早期的定居者所忍受的条件对于他们东部更文明的表兄弟来说是无法接受的。没有其他媒体能如此迅速地建立自己的地位：也没有其他媒体对出版商和制作人提供的控制如此之少。想象一下 20 世纪 50 年代初的电视，如果每台电视机接收的广播信号都不同，有时甚至根本没有。因为很大程度上取决于浏览器软件，万维网的情况仍然如此。
Compuserve had been entirely character-based since its debut in the late 1970s. AOL stole the lead by integrating client-based graphic elements, updates to which were downloaded and stored locally whenever a user logged on to the network. Pioneer online users in the early 1990s constantly bemoaned the time lost waiting for AOL graphics to arrive. (At about the same time, Compuserve developed the GIF format, a compression algorithm for photos that became ubiquitous.) By the time the internet started to mushroom in 1995, PCs were powerful enough and modems were fast enough so that graphic elements could be downloaded as needed. It was no longer necessary to store them in advance. World Wide Web pioneers constantly bemoaned the time lost waiting for these graphics, too. At the turn of the century, the industry was still a wild frontier, and the early settlers put up with conditions that would have been unacceptable to their more civilized cousins back east. No other medium established itself so quickly: and no other medium offered so little control to publishers and producers. Imagine television in the early 1950s if every set received the broadcast signal differently, and sometimes not at all. Because so much depends on the browser software, that’s still the case with the World Wide Web.
像美国在线这样的大型集中式商业网络将前媒体时代的电视网络作为其架构模型。他们本打算成为一般公共服务机构，试图为所有人提供一切服务，但很快就感受到了这一责任的沉重。娱乐可能是我们共同分享的东西，但信息——这些服务的核心——是极其私密的。我们每个人都有不同的要求。该模式应该是杂志出版，而不是广播电视。在法国，这在一定程度上是偶然的。出于政治原因，法国政府一开始就颁布法令，所有 Minitel 服务均由现有的印刷出版商运营。因此，许多早期的服务都遵循了其印刷祖先的特殊兴趣模式，并很快找到了忠实的受众。美国的服务运营商必须经历惨痛的教训才能认识到这一点。*
The large, centralized commercial networks like AOL took as their architectural model the television networks of the previous media age. Intending to be general public services, they tried to be all things to all people but quickly felt the weight of this responsibility. Entertainment may be something that we share communally, but information—the heart of these services—is profoundly private. Each of us has different requirements. The model should have been magazine publishing, not broadcast television. In France, it was—partly by accident. For political reasons, the French government had decreed at the beginning that all Minitel services were to be operated by existing print publishers. As a result, many of the early services followed the special-interest model of their print progenitors, and quickly found committed audiences. Service operators in the United States had to learn this the hard way.*
图 7-22。Microsoft 的Cinemania CD-ROM 于 1992 年首次发行，是多媒体参考作品的早期示例之一。关键词索引与图片和声音一样有价值。网络上的参考作品，例如互联网电影数据库 (IMDB.com)，提供的带宽和独立性比 CD 少，但能够即时、持续更新。
Figure 7-22. Microsoft’s Cinemania CD-ROM, first published in 1992, was one of the early examples of a multimedia reference work. The keyword indexing is just as valuable as the pictures and sounds. Reference works on the web, such as the Internet Movie Database (IMDB.com), offer less bandwidth and independence than CDs, but are capable of being instantly and continuously updated.
部分是为了满足这一需求，到 1994 年，互联网已成为媒体关注的在线焦点。互联网是国防部阿帕网的后裔，它提供了一个由世界各地互连的主机组成的庞大网络，因此似乎是提供无限多种特殊利益服务的完美途径。什么是更重要的是，它是“免费的”，因为政府和大学仍在为其维护做出贡献。*这种转变发生的速度比任何熟悉互联网悠久历史的人所能预测的都要快。与之前的传真一样，网络在其兴起时已有二十多年的历史。大多数观察家将其从政府、科学和军事网络的超级网络转变为具有空前力量的国际商业在线媒体的转变归功于“万维网”技术的发展。
Partly as a response to this need, by 1994 the internet had become the online focus of attention in the press. Descendent of the Defense Department’s Arpanet, the internet provided a massive network of interconnected host computers around the world, and therefore what appeared to be a perfect path to an infinite variety of special-interest services. What’s more, it was “free,” since the government and the universities were still contributing to its upkeep.* This transition happened more quickly than anyone familiar with the long history of the internet could have forecast. Like fax before it, the Net was a technology with more than a twenty-year history behind it when it took off. Most observers credited its metamorphosis from a super-network of government, scientific, and military networks to an international commercial online medium of unprecedented power to the development of the technology known as the “World Wide Web.”
瑞士欧洲粒子物理中心（CERN）工作的英国人蒂姆·伯纳斯·李于 1989 年首次提出万维网的概念，并于 1990 年开发了基本的超文本技术。这是基于他所做的工作早在 1980 年，超文本链接的想法就不是什么新鲜事了。但连接到互联网上任何地方的野心具有深远的影响。想象一下一个图书馆，只要您想索取任何一本书（实际上是任何书中的任何一页），它都会立即出现在您的面前。现在想象一下该页面始终来自最新版本，并且可以使用音频和视频以及静态图片进行说明（并且这些插图不必驻留在页面上；它们可以存在于任何地方）。这就是万维网的愿景。（当然，你不再需要想象这样一个世界，因为你生活在其中——所以如果可以的话，想象一个没有互联网的世界。）
Tim Berners-Lee, an Englishman working at the European Center for Particle Physics (“CERN”) in Switzerland first suggested the concept of the World Wide Web in 1989 and developed the basic hypertext technology in 1990. It was based on work he had done as early as 1980. The idea of hypertext linking was not new; but the ambition of linking to anywhere on the internet had profound implications. Imagine a library where any book—indeed any page in any book—appears instantly in front of you whenever you think to request it. Now imagine that that page is always from the latest edition, and that it can be illustrated with audio and video as well as with still pictures (and those illustrations do not have to reside on the page; they can exist anywhere). That was the vision of the World Wide Web. (Of course, you no longer have to imagine such a world because you live in it—so imagine a world without the internet, if you can.)
在最初的几年里，万维网主要是欧洲的项目——这并不奇怪，因为在线开发一直由法国和英国的项目主导，而美国则远远落后。然后，在 1993 年 9 月，伊利诺伊大学/厄巴纳-香槟分校的国家超级计算应用中心 (“NCSA”) 发布了 Mosaic，这是第一个功能齐全的网络浏览器（或客户端软件）。（当时二十岁出头的学生马克·安德森（Marc Andreessen）普遍认为 Mosaic 是他的功劳。）几个月之内，人们对网络的兴趣爆发了，将互联网狂热放大了十倍。1993 年 1 月，有 130 万台主机连接到互联网；到 1996 年 1 月，这个数字猛增至 950 万。十八个月后，这一数字翻了一番多，达到 19.5百万。到 1999 年 7 月，这一数字已达 5600 万。九年后，域名数量接近 6 亿。*
For the first few years, the World Wide Web was mainly a European project—not surprising, since online development had been dominated by French and British projects, while Americans lagged far behind. Then, in September 1993, the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (“NCSA”) at the University of Illinois/Urbana-Champaign, released Mosaic, the first fully functional browser (or client software) for the web. (Marc Andreessen, then a student in his early twenties, is generally given credit for Mosaic.) Within months, interest in the web exploded, magnifying internet mania tenfold. In January 1993 1.3 million hosts were connected to the internet; by January, 1996, that number had mushroomed to 9.5 million. Eighteen months after that it had more than doubled to 19.5 million. By July 1999 the count was 56 million. Nine years later the count of domains was approaching 600 million.*
图 7-23。政治分裂。_ 九十年代东欧国家结构的解体揭示了最初造成它们的政治分裂。正如分形数学被用来从小的设计中构建出复杂的图形一样，按照相反的顺序，较大的政治单位会分解成越来越小的组成部分，直到邻居拿起武器反对邻居。
Figure 7-23. POLITICAL FRACTALIZATION. The disintegration of national structures in Eastern Europe in the nineties revealed the political fractalization that created them in the first place. Just as fractal mathematics are used to build complex figures out of small designs, so, in reverse order, larger political units break down into smaller and smaller components until neighbor takes up arms against neighbor.
到 1994 年中期，数百家美国公司开设了“网站”；一年后，又有数千家公司开设了“网站”。这些网站大多数都致力于营销信息和广告——就在几个月前，这还令互联网“网民”深恶痛绝。到 1995 年中期，在美国上映的商业电影都没有其相关网站。1995 年 8 月 Netscape——16 个月前，马克·安德森 (Marc Andreessen) 和硅谷企业家吉姆·克拉克 (Jim Clark) 创立了这家公司，并以当时历史上最成功的首次公开募股方式上市。华尔街对该公司的估值为 29 亿美元。*互联网股票狂热已经开始。
By mid-1994 hundreds of American corporations had opened “Web Sites”;a year later, thousands had. Most of these sites were devoted to marketing information and advertising—anathema to internet “netizens” just a few months earlier. By mid-1995 no commercial movie opened in the U.S. without its associated website. In August 1995 Netscape—the company founded 16 months earlier by Marc Andreessen and Silicon Valley entrepreneur Jim Clark—went public in the most successful initial offering in history until that time. Wall Street valued the company at $2.9 billion.* Internet stock mania had begun.
老牌媒体纷纷在网络上寻找立足点。鲁珀特·默多克 (Rupert Murdoch) 的新闻集团 (News Corp.) 从 MCI 获得了 20 亿美元的投资，带动了互联网的发展。NBC 与微软达成协议。到 1996 年，所有主要报纸或电视网络都出现在万维网上。更重要的是，世界各地涌现了十万个网站（截至 1996 年 1 月），其中绝大多数不是由广播或印刷媒体巨头运营，而是由个人、小公司和公共组织运营。
The established media rushed to find a foothold on the web. Rupert Murdoch’s News Corp. took a $2 billion investment from MCI with an internet fillip. NBC made a deal with Microsoft. By 1996 no major newspaper or television network was without a presence on the World Wide Web. More important, one hundred thousand websites had bloomed around the world (as of January 1996), the vast majority operated not by the media giants of broadcasting or print but by individuals, small companies, and public organizations.
事实证明，搜索引擎公司几乎与浏览器公司 Netscape 一样有价值。1996年雅虎上市时，其估值为3亿美元。这在互联网上看起来似乎并不多，但请记住，当时它的员工还不到 30 名。由于互联网上有大量可用材料，对世界各地的网站进行索引和排序的搜索引擎成为非官方的入口点。因此，他们很快就获得了大部分很快开始流动的广告收入。到 1998 年，此类吸引人的网站已被称为“门户网站”，老牌媒体公司竞相收购它们。在接下来的 18 个月里，迪士尼收购了 Infoseek；Excite 被 @Home 收购（背后有 AT&T）；Lycos 是 Barry Diller 的 USA Networks 的目标（尽管交易失败了）。几年之内，所有这些曾经著名的搜索引擎都被 1998 年成立的新秀 Google 消灭了。只有雅虎幸存下来并挑战 Google。
Search engine companies proved to be almost as valuable as Netscape, the browser company. When Yahoo went public in 1996 it was valued at $300 million. This may not seem like a lot in internet dollars, but—remember—it had fewer than 30 employees at the time. Because of the vast amount of material available on the internet, the search engines, which indexed and sorted the world’s websites, served as unofficial entry points. As such, they quickly garnered much of the advertising revenue that soon began to flow. By 1998 such magnet sites had been dubbed “portals” and the established media companies rushed to acquire them. In the next 18 months Disney bought Infoseek; Excite was acquired by @Home (with AT&T behind them); Lycos was the target of Barry Diller’s USA Networks (although the deal fell through). Within a few years all these once-famous search engines were wiped out by Google, the new kid on the block, founded in 1998. Only Yahoo survived to challenge Google.
到 1998 年底，很明显，网络不仅已成为主要市场，而且已成为经济的虚拟引擎。这是二十一世纪推动美国经济的一系列极端泡沫中的第一个。例如，Priceline 是一家销售折扣机票的初创公司，其市值超过了顶级航空公司的总市值。尽管网络正在认真切入消费者娱乐时间的有限份额，但它尚未在消费者娱乐收入中占据一席之地。这种情况即将改变。到 1998 年，每一个高点拥有带宽的中学生和大学生（大多数人都拥有带宽：1995 年之后带宽成为学院和大学的主要招募点）开始获取和交易 MP3 音乐文件。这种音频压缩技术为媒体世界指明了道路，在这个世界中，版权将与所写的纸张一样有价值。自 20 世纪 70 年代末以来，盗版一直是困扰音乐和视频发行商的一个棘手问题，但由于媒体的数字化和互联网连接带宽的增加，盗版现在即将成为常态而不是例外。
By late 1998 it was clear that the web had established itself not only as major market, but also as the virtual engine of the economy. It was the first of a series of extreme bubbles that have driven the U.S. economy in the twenty-first century. Priceline, a startup that sold discount airline tickets, had a market value in excess of the total for the top airlines, for example. Although the web was seriously cutting into the limited pie of consumer entertainment time, it had not yet found its share of consumer entertainment dollars. That was about to change. By 1998 every high school and college student who had the bandwidth (and most did: bandwidth was a major recruiting point for colleges and universities after 1995) was into acquiring and trading MP3 music files. This audio compression technology pointed the way to a media universe where copyright was going to be about as valuable as the paper it was written on. Piracy, a nagging problem for music and video distributors since the late 1970s, was now about to become the norm rather than the exception, thanks to the digitization of the media and the increasing bandwidth of internet connections.
在短短五年内，万维网现象对信息产业、广告和娱乐业产生了重大影响。但与网络“电子商务”的潜力相比，这些影响就显得相形见绌了。大量的数字神经节集合迅速改变了知识产权的商业价值。在世纪之交，凭借高效市场和简化销售渠道的诱惑，网络有望改变我们相互开展业务的基本方式。
In just five years the phenomenon of the World Wide Web had had a significant impact on the information industry, advertising, and the entertainment business. But these effects were dwarfed by the web’s potential for “e-commerce.” This vast collection of digital ganglia had quickly altered the commercial value of intellectual property. At the turn of the century, with its lure of efficient markets and simplified sales channels, the web was poised to change the basic way we do business with each other.
你说你想要一场革命？
You say you want a revolution?
媒体圈
The Mediasphere
1980 年， 《如何阅读电影》第二版以关于媒体民主的注释结尾，指出虽然新技术扩展了我们创造媒体的能力，但印刷品、电影和电视的发行仍然集中在相对集中的领域。手数少：
In 1980, the second edition of How to Read a Film concluded with a note on democracy in the media which observed that, while new technology had extended our power to create media, distribution of print, film, and television was still concentrated in a relatively small number of hands:
自乔治·奥威尔 (George Orwell) 1984 年的愿景以来，媒体的普及一直是科幻小说中的一个常见主题： “电幕这种仪器可以调暗，但没有办法完全关闭它。” 但事实值得重复：我们仍然选择称之为“现实”的东西现在很大程度上是由我们决定的。不仅仅是其他人在讲述我们的故事，还有他们所讲述的故事类型。
The pervasion of the media has been a common theme in science fiction ever since George Orwell’s vision of 1984: “The instrument, the telescreen, could be dimmed but there was no way of shutting it off completely.” But the facts bear repeating: what we still choose to call “reality” is now largely determined for us. It is not only that someone else is telling our stories—it’s also the kinds of stories they’re telling.
然后，我们建议传播渠道也即将拓宽，并列出了一系列即将出现的技术，从电子邮件到视频点播，从在线数据服务到光纤电缆，从直接到户卫星广播到计算机每个家庭。所有这些创新以及更多创新现已成为我们日常生活的一部分生活。但有一件事是明确的：数字革命从根本上改变了我们处理现实的方式——无论是谁决定的。
We then suggested that the channels of distribution were about to broaden, too, and listed a litany of imminent technologies from electronic mail to video on demand, from online data services to fiber optic cable, from direct-to-home satellite broadcasting to computers in every home. All of these innovations—and much more—are now part of our daily lives. But one thing is clear: the digital revolution has radically altered the way we deal with reality—no matter who determines it.
我的孩子们是在《如何阅读电影》首次出版之后出生的，在我 1999 年读到第三版之前已经长大了，他们享受着 1980 年之前未知的丰富媒体。他们这一代人是互联网、电视、电影和电影的巨大消费者。视频、CD、电脑游戏、软件和戏剧电影，以及（也许令人惊讶的是，考虑到新媒体的丰富性）对印刷文字并不陌生——即使它更多地是在屏幕上而不是在页面上传递的。
My children, who were born after How to Read a Film first appeared and who largely grew up before I got around to the third edition in 1999, have enjoyed a wealth of media unknown before 1980. Their generation are prodigious consumers of internet, television, video, CDs, computer games, software, and theatrical movies, and (perhaps surprisingly, considering the wealth of new media) are not unfamiliar with the printed word—even if it is far more often delivered on the screen rather than on the page.
比他们消费的大量媒体更重要的是他们生产的同样惊人的数量。他们拥有一系列可供使用的软件工具，这些工具在二十年前会让任何专业作家、电影制片人或画家感到惊讶。奥威尔时代已经过去了。（我们忘记了谁赢得了超级碗，但我们记得广告。） 关于媒体控制的警告似乎不像十五年前那么尖锐。现在，我们大多数人都如此陶醉于我们生产和传播媒体（各种媒体：多媒体、单媒体、超媒体、超媒体、视觉媒体、文本媒体和传统媒体）的新力量，以至于我们可能不在乎谁拥有旧媒体-时尚媒体。伟大的新闻评论家 AJ Liebling 在半个世纪前指出，“新闻自由属于拥有新闻自由的人”。现在我们都拥有了一个电影实验室和一个录音室。但我们该如何处理它们呢？
More important than the vast quantities of media they consume is the equally remarkable quantity they produce. They have at their disposal a range of software tools that would have astonished any professional writer, filmmaker, or painter twenty years ago. The Orwellian year has come and gone. (We’ve forgotten who won the Super Bowl, but we remember the commercial.) The warnings about control of the media seem less pointed than they did fifteen years ago. We are now, most of us, so intoxicated with our new power to produce and to distribute media (media of all sorts: multi, uni, ulti, hyper, visual, textual, and traditional) that we might care less who owns the old-fashioned media. A. J. Liebling, the great press critic, noted a half-century ago that “freedom of the press belongs to those who own one.” We are now at the point where we all own one—and a film lab, and a recording studio. But what do we do with them?
过去二十年来分发带宽的显着增加导致了媒体的政治停滞，这既令人沮丧又值得欢迎。大多数观点都得到表达。在脱口秀、博客或列表服务中，所有社会或政治问题都会得到解决。问题是，虽然我们不停地说话，但我们却彼此不说话。相反，我们大喊大叫——而且我们大喊大叫是为了我们自己船员的利益。在某种程度上，这一直都是事实。当我还是个孩子的时候，纽约有七份报纸。（在大多数城市至少有两个。）你可以选择你的意见。但在二十世纪后半叶，广播网络充当了一股团结的力量。现在，问题不再是在七份报纸中进行选择，而是在七千个博客和网站中进行选择。
The significant increase in distribution bandwidth in the last twenty years resulted in a political stasis in the media that is as frustrating as it is welcome. Most points of view get expressed. No social or political problem is left untreated in talkshows, blogs, or listservs. The trouble is that although we talk incessantly, we don’t talk with each other. Instead we yell—and we yell for the benefit of our own crew. To a certain extent, this has always been true. When I was a boy there were seven newspapers in New York. (In most cities there were at least two.) You could choose your shade of opinion. But for the last half of the twentieth century the broadcast networks served as a unifying force. And now it’s not a question of choosing among seven newspapers, but seven thousand blogs and websites.
应该见证了我们通信架构的真正革命。博客（一对多）、社交网络（多对多）、手机（一对一）都有助于增强我们的虚拟社区。但这些群体是虚拟的，而且关注范围狭窄：它们是社区兴趣，而不是位置。它们将孤立的人们聚集在一起，但也进一步加剧了群体的分离。
The oughts have witnessed a true revolution in the architecture of our communications. Blogs (one to many), social networking (many to many), cellphones (one to one) have all worked to enhance our virtual communities. But these groupings are virtual, and narrowly focused: they are communities of interest, not location. They bring isolated people together—but they further the separation of groups.
值得注意且令人不安的是，在民主传播取得巨大飞跃的这十年里，我们也经历了有史以来最具奥威尔式的政治，充满了新话流行语、还原论的原声片段和令人着迷的照片（“任务完成”）。
It is remarkable—and disturbing—that in this decade when democratic communication took a quantum leap forward we’ve also experienced the most Orwellian politics—ever—replete with Newspeak catchphrases, reductionist soundbites, and mesmerizing photo ops (“Mission Accomplished”).
有两种方法可以解释这个难题：
There are two ways to explain this conundrum:
1. 在博客和社交网络全面发挥作用之前，关于“应该”的新话很早就流行了（在这种情况下，我们很快就会达到一个转折点，政治话语的性质将在青少年中发生根本不同）。
1. The Newspeak of the oughts took hold early on, before the full effect of blogs and social networks took hold (in which case we will soon reach a tipping point and the nature of political discourse will be radically different in the teens).
2. 如果不咨询赫胥黎，你就永远无法读到奥威尔的作品：这些看似强大的新通讯工具只不过是分散弱者注意力的索玛而已。
2. You can never read Orwell without consulting Huxley: these apparently powerful new communications tools amount to no more than soma to distract the powerless.
无论这两种解释中的哪一种对于我们的政治话语来说是正确的，研究这场通信革命如何影响我们的社会契约都同样重要：我们在媒体领域的联系越紧密，我们在所使用的内容中就越孤立来呼唤现实世界。有了 iPhone、Blackberry 和 GPS，您就可以完全独立于周围的物理环境。您不需要知道自己在哪里或要去哪里：您的 GPS 可以。您不需要记住母亲的电话号码（甚至她的名字），只需“拨打妈妈电话”即可。只要按照 Blackberry 或 iPhone 日历的指示去做，您就能度过这一天。并且，请尝试忽略所有那些侵入您空间的讨厌的人类。
Whichever of these two explanations turns out to be true about our political discourse it is as least as important to examine how this communications revolution has affected our social contract: the more connected we are in the mediasphere, the more isolated we are in what we used to call the real world. Armed with your iPhone, your Blackberry, and your GPS you are supremely independent of your physical surroundings. You don’t need to know where you are or where you are going: your GPS does. You don’t need to remember your mother’s phone number (or even her name), just “Dial Mom.” Just do what your Blackberry or iPhone calendar tells you and you’ll get through the day. And, please—try to ignore all those pesky human beings who invade your space.
我的朋友弗雷德讲了这样一个故事：最近，他和妻子在一家餐馆吃饭。附近的一张桌子上有一个女人，带着两个正在疯狂奔跑的孩子。他们的叫喊和尖叫是可以理解的：他们玩得很开心。但这让弗雷德很难听清妻子在说什么。
My friend Fred tells this story: recently, he was having dinner in a restaurant with his wife. There was a woman at a table near by with two kids who were running wild. Their yells and screams were understandable enough: they were having fun. But it made it difficult for Fred to hear what his wife was saying.
用餐结束后，当他们离开时，弗雷德和他的妻子温柔地向带着两个野孩子的女人建议，她可能会施加更多的家长控制。
At the end of the meal, as they were leaving, Fred and his wife gently suggested to the woman with the two wild kids that she might have exerted a bit more parental control.
她愤怒地回击：“这是公共场所！！我可以做我想做的事！！”
She shot back irately: “This is a public place!! I can do what I want!!”
[灯泡！]
[Lightbulb!]
在文明世界，一个私人的地方就是你可以做你想做的事的地方。公共场所是你做你应该做的事情的地方。在我们的新私有化的世界，公共场所属于你。唯一禁止进入的地方也许是别人的私人地方。
In the civilized world, a private place was where you could do what you want. A public place was where you did what you should. In our new privatized world the public place belongs to you. The only place off limits is perhaps someone else’s private place.
图表问：公共空间——“我们的空间”——不再存在：“我的空间”已经侵占了它。
DIAGRAM Q. The public space—“our space”—no longer exists: “My space” has usurped it.
我们使媒体民主化的速度比我们想象的更快、更彻底。现在我们有权力了。但是，随着我们自己的力量在现实生活中的人类世界（我们可以称之为“社会圈”）中增强，盘旋在我们所有人头上的媒体圈的力量、影响力和普遍性也随之增强。
We have democratized the media more quickly and more thoroughly than we ever dared hope. Now we have the power. But as our own powers have increased in the real-life human world which we might call the “sociosphere,” so have the power, reach, and pervasiveness of the mediasphere that hovers over us all.
雷蒙德·威廉姆斯 (Raymond Williams) 在《通讯》 (1976)中观察到：
Raymond Williams observed in Communications (1976):
在英国和美国这样的社会中，大多数观众在一周或一个周末观看的电视剧数量超过了之前任何历史时期一年甚至一生观看的电视剧数量。对于大多数观众来说，每天定期观看多达两三个小时的各种类型的戏剧并不罕见。人们几乎没有开始考虑这一点的影响。显然，先进工业社会的独特特征之一是，戏剧作为一种体验现在已成为日常生活的固有组成部分，其数量水平比任何先例都要大得多，以至于似乎发生了根本性的质变。
In societies like Britain and the United States, more drama is watched in a week or a weekend by the majority of viewers, than would have been watched in a year, or in some cases a lifetime in any previous historical period. It is not uncommon for the majority of viewers to see, regularly, as much as two or three hours of drama, of various kinds, every day. The implications of this have scarcely begun to be considered. It is clearly one of the unique characteristics of advanced industrial societies that drama as an experience is now an intrinsic part of everyday life, at a quantitative level which is so very much greater than any precedent as to seem a fundamental qualitative change.
威廉姆斯谈论的是电视时代；在互联网时代，“两到三个小时”似乎是一个节俭的预算，而在广播剧的体验中，我们必须添加新闻娱乐、视频游戏、iPod、DVD和电子邮件提供的不间断音乐，聊天、博客、列表服务器和网络。（不要忘记手机的时间要求。）
Williams was talking about the television age; in the internet age, “two to three hours” seems like a frugal budget, and to the experience of broadcast drama we must add news-as-entertainment, video games, the constant music track provided by the iPod, DVDs, and email, chat, blogs, listservs, and the web. (And don’t forget the time demands of the cellphone.)
一个暗示开始变得清晰：我们正在失去现实的基础。我们正在前往大卫·鲍曼可怕的牢笼的路上。我们在媒体领域花费的时间越多，我们对过去的社会契约的认识就越少。当你父亲说话时离开房间是不礼貌的；当克里夫·赫克斯泰布尔说话时离开房间并不是不礼貌的。社会契约被辐射削弱得越多从媒体领域转移到媒体空间的注意力越多，而没有转移到媒体空间或从媒体空间反映出来的注意力就会增加对自我的关注。
And one implication is beginning to become clear: we are losing our grounding in reality. We are well on our way to David Bowman’s fearful cage. The more time we spend in the mediasphere the less sense we have of the social contract that used to pertain. It is impolite to leave the room when your father is talking; it is not impolite to leave the room when Cliff Huxtable is talking. The more the social contract is weakened by the radiation from the mediasphere the more attention is diverted to the media space, and what is not diverted to it—or reflected from it—increases attention to self.
图R.媒体圈叠加在社会圈之上，包括公共空间和私人空间。（这里没有画出：我们都是生态圈的一部分。）
DIAGRAM R. The mediasphere superimposes itself on the sociosphere, both public and private spaces. (Not pictured here: the ecosphere of which we are all a part.)
正如雷蒙德·威廉姆斯所预见的那样，我们已经屈服于媒体圈的虚构和真实。然而，过去二十年数字化转型最重要的一个特征并不是主流媒体的日益普及——尽管这一点令人震惊；而是主流媒体的日益普及。这是技术赋予我们每个人的媒体力量。“新闻自由属于那些拥有新闻自由的人，”乔·利布林说。你现在做。随着九十年代互联网的发展，你也拥有了传播的力量。（不，您没有主流媒体的营销资金，但这种优势在网络上可能不那么重要。）
As Raymond Williams foresaw, we have given ourselves over to the fictions and truthiness of the mediasphere. Yet the single most important characteristic of the digital transformation of the last twenty years is not the increased pervasiveness of the Mainstream Media—as striking as that has been; it is the media power that the technology bestows on each of us individually. “Freedom of the press belongs to those who own one,” Joe Liebling said. Now, you do. And with the growth of the internet in the nineties and oughts, you also have the power to distribute. (No, you don’t have the marketing dollars of the Mainstream Media, but that advantage may be less important on the web.)
所以不要责怪媒体：承担责任：你有权力。现在，我们必须关注我们的人才和技术的用途。仅仅知道如何阅读电影已经不够了。现在我们还必须深刻地理解如何使用电影。
So don’t blame the media: take responsibility: you have the power. Now, we must focus on the uses to which our talents and technologies are put. It is no longer sufficient to know how to read a film. Now we must also understand, in a profound way, how to use a film.
[请选择一个结局。]
[Please choose an ending.]
图 7-24。执行救援任务的尼奥混淆了矩阵。比较形而上学的图2-24。（画面放大，《黑客帝国：重装上阵》，2003 年。）
Figure 7-24. Neo on a rescue mission mixes up the matrix. Compare Figure 2-24, metaphysically. (Frame enlargement, The Matrix Reloaded, 2003.)
1
1
最重要的是，我们需要记住，除了电影、媒体、多媒体之外，仍然存在着现实的痕迹。
And most important, we need to remember that there is still a vestige of reality beyond film, beyond media, beyond multimedia.
在这方面，我们有一个指南。1947 年秋天，散文家 EB 怀特 (EB White) 在《纽约客》上撰文，几乎在乔治·奥威尔 (George Orwell) 描绘他对未来的黑暗愿景的同时，他推断出一个与我们所处的媒体世界惊人相似的世界。《荒谬的寓言：体育的衰落》滑稽地暗示了一个“超音速时代的第三个十年”的国家沉迷于游戏，被喧闹和五花八门的媒体包围，并被高速公路（混凝土类型）所束缚。
In this, we have a guide. Writing in The New Yorker in the autumn of 1947 at about the same time George Orwell was sketching his dark vision of the future, essayist E. B. White extrapolated a world of media uncannily like our own. “Preposterous Parables: The Decline of Sport” drolly suggests a nation “in the third decade of the supersonic age” obsessed with games, besieged by loud and multifarious media, and laced breathless with superhighways (the concrete kind).
他指出，由于发烧，“唱片就像大风天熟透的苹果一样掉落”。“习俗和礼仪发生了变化，每周工作五天的时间减少到四天，然后减少到三天，以便让每个人都有更好的机会记住分数。” 在这个世界上，就像在我们的世界一样，没有人满足于一次观看一件事件，“而且由于广播和电视的魔力，没有人必须这样做。” 他们在球场上看不到的东西，他们会在视频记分牌上观看，或者通过植入的收音机收听，或者在袖珍电视上观看。就像艺术家布鲁斯·麦考尔的后超现实主义幻想一样，怀特的寓言在轻微的荒谬中找到了温暖的安慰。
Because of the fever, “records fell like ripe apples on a windy day,” he notes. “Customs and manners changed, and the five-day business week was reduced to four days, then to three, to give everyone a better chance to memorize the scores.” In this world, as in our own, no one is content to take in one event at a time, “and thanks to the magic of radio and television nobody had to.” What they don’t see on the field, they watch on the video scoreboard, or listen to on implanted radios, or watch on pocket televisions. Like the postsurrealist fantasies of artist Bruce McCall, White’s parable finds warm comfort in mild absurdity.
事实证明，这个媒体泡沫即将破裂。在怀特的梦中，1975 年中西部地区的经典沙尘暴比赛标志着一个转折点，当时一名橄榄球运动员被心怀不满的观众开枪射击，随后在体育场和高速公路上引发了一系列其他灾难。“总而言之，整个下午的运动夺去了 20,003 人的生命。一项记录，”怀特报道道。
As it turns out, this media bubble is about to burst. In White’s dream, the Midwest’s classic Dust Bowl game of 1975, when a football player is shot by a disgruntled spectator, marks the turning point, beginning a chain of other disasters in the stadiums and on the highways. “All in all, the afternoon of sport cost 20,003 lives. A record,” White reports.
从那天起，体育运动就衰落了。在漫长的、非竞争性的周六下午，体育场陷入了沉睡。就连公园大道也被废弃了，因为驾车者重新发现了古老而曲折的道路的魅力，这些道路穿过主要街道，经过谷仓，拥堵程度轻微，气味宜人。
From that day on, sport waned. Through long, noncompetitive Saturday afternoons, the stadia slumbered. Even the parkways fell into disuse as motorists rediscovered the charms of old, twisty roads that led through main streets and past barnyards, with their mild congestions and pleasant smells.
是时候让我们再次踏上那些曲折的道路了。
It’s time for us to hit those twisty roads again.
图 7-25。在《2001太空漫游》的结局中，大卫·鲍曼在他的虚拟笼子里看到了巨石。（框架放大。）
Figure 7-25. David Bowman is visited by the monolith in his virtual cage at the conclusion to 2001: A Space Odyssey. (Frame enlargement.)
2
2
最重要的是，我们需要记住，除了电影、媒体、多媒体之外，仍然存在着现实的痕迹。
And most important, we need to remember that there is still a vestige of reality beyond film, beyond media, beyond multimedia.
在这方面，我们有一位老师。现代运动的创始人和有力的观察者格特鲁德·斯坦因明确表示：
In this, we have a teacher. Gertrude Stein, a founder of the modern movement and cogent observer of it, made it clear that
玫瑰是玫瑰是玫瑰是玫瑰。
Rose is a rose is a rose is a rose.
正如她在诗《神圣的艾米丽》（1913）中所说的那样。（也许她会觉得第三章很乏味。）对于斯坦因来说，诗歌并不是翻译中丢失的东西，而是“真正热爱任何事物的名字”。她因其巴黎沙龙和她的文学艺术而被人们所铭记，这是正确的，因为日常生活对她来说和文学一样重要。就像她当时的许多同事和朋友一样，从毕加索到海明威，她的生活是一件艺术品——一部独立的自传。在文艺复兴时期，意大利语中描述这种品质的词是“sprezzatura”，是一种对原始、未成形的存在的不耐烦。斯坦因知道艺术与生活之间的适当平衡。
as she put it in her poem “Sacred Emily” (1913). (She would have found Chapter 3 tedious, perhaps.) For Stein, poetry isn’t what gets lost in translation, it is “really loving the name of anything.” She is as well remembered for her Paris salon as for her literary art, and rightly so, for everyday life was as important to her as literature. Like so many of her colleagues and friends at the time, from Picasso to Hemingway, her life was a work of art—a separate autobiography. In the Renaissance, the Italian word for this quality was “sprezzatura,” a kind of impatience with raw, unformed existence. Stein knew the proper balance between art and life.
我们用了七章的时间来研究前者。格特鲁德·斯坦因对后者给出了答案。在历史上最伟大的临终台词之一中，她在临终前惊呼道：
We have spent seven chapters investigating the former. Gertrude Stein had the answer to the latter. In one of the great exit lines in history, she exclaimed on her deathbed:
答案是什么？
What is the answer?
过了一会儿，她得出结论：
A few moments passed before she concluded:
有什么问题啊！这就是答案。
What is the question! That was the answer.
然后她就走了。
Then she was gone.
图 7-26。法国多尔多涅省拉斯科洞穴壁画主圆形大厅的细节，大约公元前 15,000 年：非常真实的图像，来自前柏拉图时代的阴影，让我们回到了起点。（贝特曼档案馆/UPI。）
Figure 7-26. Details from the Main Rotunda of the Lascaux cave paintings, Dordogne, France, circa 15,000 BC: very real images, shadows from a pre-Platonic time that bring us back to the beginning. (Bettman Archives/UPI.)
3
3
最重要的是，我们需要记住，除了电影、媒体、多媒体之外，仍然存在着现实的痕迹。
And most important, we need to remember that there is still a vestige of reality beyond film, beyond media, beyond multimedia.
在这方面，我们有一个模型。在事业的鼎盛时期，威廉·莎士比亚辞去了剧作家的职业，回到了家乡。他的最后一部戏剧《暴风雨》是二十多年来充满全球观众的有意识的特使。这是关于戏剧，他的媒介，但这与其说是一种庆祝，不如说是一种逃避。在戏剧的戏剧岛之外还有一个真实的世界，《暴风雨》和普洛斯彼罗（我们可以推断，还有莎士比亚）的目的是抛开魔法，回到现实。最后，普洛斯彼罗请求我们允许：
In this, we have a model. At the height of his career, William Shakespeare quit the playwrighting business to return to his home town. His last play, The Tempest, was a conscious envoi to the audiences that had filled the Globe for more than twenty years. It was about theater, his medium, but it is not a celebration so much as an escape. There is a real world outside the theatrical island of the play, and the aim of The Tempest and of Prospero (and of Shakespeare, we may infer) is to leave the magic behind and return to that reality. At the end, Prospero asks our leave:
现在我的魅力全部消失了，
我拥有的力量是我自己的，
这是最微弱的。
* * *
你温柔的呼吸我的帆
必须充满，否则我的项目就会失败，
这是令人高兴的。现在我想要
精神来强化，艺术来迷惑；
我的结局是绝望，
除非我能通过祈祷得到缓解，
祈祷会刺穿
仁慈本身并消除所有过错。
正如您宽恕犯罪一样，
让您的宽容让我自由。
出口。
Now my charms are all o’erthrown,
And what strength I have’s mine own,
Which is most faint.
* * *
Gentle breath of yours my sails
Must fill, or else my project fails,
Which was to please. Now I want
Spirits to enforce, art to enchant;
And my ending is despair
Unless I be reliev’d by prayer,
Which pierces so that it assaults
Mercy itself and frees all faults.
As you from crimes would pardon’d be,
Let your indulgence set me free.
Exit.
。。。
背景问题
. . .
backmatter
1916–1930: Silent Film, Radio, and Sound Film
1931–1945: The Great Age of Hollywood and Radio
1946–1960: The Growth of Television
1981–1999: The Digital Transition
“男人赚了数百万美元，没有什么比所有权的改变更实质性的了。”
“Men made millions, producing nothing more substantial than changes in ownership.”
约瑟夫·海勒，《关门时间》
Joseph Heller, Closing Time
至 1895 年：史前时期
To 1895: Prehistory
130
130
亚历山大的托勒密发现了视觉暂留现象。
Ptolemy of Alexandria discovers the phenomenon of persistence of vision.
1250
1250
莱昂·巴蒂斯塔·阿尔贝蒂 (Leon Battista Alberti) 发明了暗箱的前身。
Leon Battista Alberti invents forerunner of the camera obscura.
第1456章
1456
8 月 24 日。海因里希·克莱默 (Heinrich Cremer) 完成了第一本古腾堡圣经的装订，这是第一本采用活字印刷术印刷的书籍。
August 24. Heinrich Cremer finishes binding the first Gutenberg bibles, first books to be printed with movable type.
1700年代
1700s
报纸和期刊的兴起。
Rise of newspapers and journals.
1800年代
1800s
英国和欧洲其他地方普遍识字的发展，以及书籍、杂志和报纸等大众媒体文化的发展。
Development of widespread literacy in England and elsewhere in Europe, and development as a consequence of mass media culture of books, magazines, and newspapers.
1810
1810
国王的蒸汽动力印刷机。
König’s steam-powered printing press.
1827年
1827
3 月 16 日。第一份非裔美国人报纸《弗里曼日报》问世。
March 16. The first African-American newspaper, Freeman’s Journal, appears.
1834年
1834
西洋镜，基于一项古老的发明，已获得专利。
Zoetrope, based on an ancient invention, patented.
1839年
1839
宣布推出 Daguerreotype 和 Talbottype。
Daguerreotype and Talbottype announced.
莫尔斯电报。
Morse’s telegraph.
1846年
1846
锄氏轮转印刷机。
Hoe’s rotary press.
1850年
1850
摄影幻灯幻灯片投入使用。
Photographic magic lantern slides come into use.
1867年
1867
肖尔斯发明了打字机，并被雷明顿利用。
Sholes invents typewriter, to be exploited by Remington.
1873年
1873
迈布里奇的实验始于运动摄影。1877年，他获得了成功。
Muybridge’s experiments begin in photography of motion. He is successful in 1877.
1874年
1874
法国工程师埃米尔·博多 (Émile Baudot) 因其 5 单元电报码获得了专利，这是对莫尔斯电码的巨大改进，并为一百年后的数字世界奠定了基础。
Émile Baudot, French engineer, receives a patent for his 5-unit telegraph code—a great improvement over Morse code, and a foundation for the digital world of a hundred years later.
1876年
1876
贝尔的电话。
Bell’s telephone.
1877年
1877
爱迪生的留声机。
Edison’s phonograph.
雷诺运动镜。
Reynaud’s Praxinoscope.
1880年
1880
New York Graphic印刷了第一张半色调照片。
New York Graphic prints the first halftone photographs.
1884年
1884
伊士曼的卷纸照相介质。
Eastman’s roll paper photographic medium.
梅根塔勒的排字机。
Mergenthaler’s Linotype.
Nipkow 光盘引入了扫描的概念。
The Nipkow disc introduces the concept of scanning.
1886年
1886
亨利·詹姆斯聘请苏格兰人亚历山大·波洛克·瓦特来管理他的事务。“他拿走了他为我得到的 10%，”詹姆斯写道，“但我听说他的有利行动……” 。。足以弥补这一点。” 瓦特因此成为第一位文学经纪人。
Henry James hires Scotsman Alexander Pollock Watt to manage his affairs. “He takes 10% of what he gets for me,” writes James, “but I am advised that his favorable action . . . more than makes up for this.” Watt thus becomes the first literary agent.
1888年
1888
海因里希·赫兹的实验表明，电磁波可以传播一定距离，其速度相当于光速。
Heinrich Hertz’s experiments show that electromagnetic waves can travel over some distance and that their speed is equivalent to the speed of light.
1889年
1889
开发伊士曼用于摄影的柔性胶卷介质。
Development of Eastman’s flexible roll film medium for photography.
迪克森向爱迪生演示电影放映机。
Dickson demonstrates Kinetophone to Edison.
1891年
1891
开发活动电影放映机私人观看器。
Development of the Kinetoscope private viewer.
1895年
1895
12 月 28 日。Lumirèes 在巴黎 Boulevard des Capucines 的 Grand Café 首次公开放映 Cinématographe 电影。
December 28. Lumirèes’ first public showing of Cinématographe films at Grand Café, Boulevard des Capucines, Paris.
Max Skladänowsky 完成了 Bioskop 投影仪。
Max Skladänowsky completes Bioskop projector.
美国Mutscope and Biograph公司成立；最初被称为 KMCD Syndicate（以其创始人 EB Koopman、Henry N. Marvin、Herman Casler 和 WKL Dickson 命名）。
American Mutoscope and Biograph Company founded; originally known as the K.M.C.D. Syndicate (after its founders, E. B. Koopman, Henry N. Marvin, Herman Casler, and W. K. L. Dickson).
1896-1915：电影的诞生
1896–1915: The Birth of Film
1896年
1896
4 月 23 日，爱迪生在纽约 Koster 和 Bial 音乐厅举行首场演出。
April 23. Edison’s first show at Koster and Bial’s Music Hall, New York.
9 月 2 日。马可尼在英国展示无线电报。
September 2. Marconi demonstrates wireless telegraphy in England.
1897年
1897
爱迪生开始专利侵权诉讼。
Edison begins patent infringement suits.
可能。慈善义卖市场 (Bazar de la Charité) 放映电影时发生火灾，导致 140 人丧生。
May. Fire at film showing at Bazar de la Charité takes 140 lives.
埃德温·波特加入爱迪生的公司。
Edwin Porter joins Edison’s company.
1899年
1899
詹姆斯·斯图尔特·布莱克顿 (James Stuart Blackton) 创立了 Vitagraph 公司。
James Stuart Blackton founds Vitagraph Company.
1900年
1900
在巴黎国际博览会上，展示了原型彩色和有声电影系统。
At the International Exposition in Paris, prototypical color and sound film systems are demonstrated.
丹麦电话工程师 Valdemar Poulsen 获得了“telegraphone”专利，这是一种有线录音系统。
Danish telephone engineer Valdemar Poulsen patents “telegraphone,” a wire recording system.
1901年
1901
马可尼首次跨大西洋无线传输，从英格兰到纽芬兰。维多利亚女王的葬礼通过电影进行了报道。
First transatlantic wireless transmission, by Marconi from England to Newfoundland. Queen Victoria’s funeral reported via film.
费森登开始进行语音传输实验。
Fessenden begins experiments in voice transmission.
1902年
1902
梅里爱的月球之旅。
Méliès’s Voyage to the Moon.
TL Tally 电子剧院在洛杉矶开业。
T. L. Tally’s Electric Theatre opens in Los Angeles.
第一个伊林工作室由威尔·巴伯 (Will Barber) 在伦敦西郊建造。
The first Ealing studio is built in the western suburbs of London by Will Barber.
百代在万塞讷开设工作室。
Pathé opens studio at Vincennes.
1903年
1903
波特的《美国消防员的一生》和《火车大劫案》。
Porter’s The Life of an American Fireman and The Great Train Robbery.
Biograph 迁至纽约东 14 街的室内工作室，这是第一家完全依赖人造光的工作室。
Biograph moves to an indoor studio on New York’s East 14th Street, first studio to rely exclusively on artificial light.
1905年
1905
赫普沃斯被罗弗救出。
Hepworth’s Rescued by Rover.
1906年
1906
De Forest 发明了三极管真空管。
De Forest invents Audion vacuum tube.
1907年
1907
格里菲斯开始以演员的身份从事电影工作。
Griffith begins work in film as an actor.
埃米尔·科尔（法国）和温莎·麦凯（美国）开始从事动画工作。
Émile Cohl (in France) and Winsor McKay (in the U.S.) begin work in animation.
百代引领行业放弃直接销售电影，转而采用租赁方式。
Pathé leads industry in abandoning outright sales of film in favor of rentals.
艺术电影运动始于法国。
Film d’art movement begins in France.
六月。《美国传记》聘请了 DW Griffith。
June. American Biograph hires D. W. Griffith.
8 月 17 日。埃米尔·科尔发行了《幻想曲》，通常被认为是第一部全动画电影。
17 August. Émile Cohl releases Fantasmagorie, generally considered first fully animated film.
1909年
1909
电影专利公司成立，随后通用电影公司（发行商）成立。专利大战开始。
The Motion Picture Patents Company is founded, soon followed by the General Film Company (distributors). Patent wars begin.
1910年
1910
格里菲斯和他的公司开始在洛杉矶过冬。未来几年内，主要电影活动的地点将从纽约转移到洛杉矶。
Griffith and his company begin wintering in Los Angeles. The locus of major film activity shifts from New York to Los Angeles within the next few years.
1911年
1911
制作了麦克森内特的第一部梯形喜剧。
Mack Sennett’s first Keystone comedy produced.
1912年
1912
阿姆斯特朗的再生电路开发出来。
Armstrong’s regenerative circuit developed.
华纳兄弟开始制作电影；福克斯公司和环球公司成立。
Warner brothers begin producing films; Fox company and Universal formed.
英国电影审查委员会成立。
British Board of Film Censors formed.
第一份粉丝杂志出现。
First fan magazines appear.
1913年
1913
意大利史诗《Quo Vadis？》和卡比里亚提出了长片的价值。
Italian epics Quo Vadis? and Cabiria suggest value of feature-length films.
1915年
1915
格里菲斯的《一个国家的诞生》标志着电影史上新时期的开始。
Griffith’s The Birth of a Nation signals beginning of new period in film history.
瓦切尔·林赛的《电影的艺术》出版。
Vachel Lindsay’s The Art of the Moving Picture published.
1916 年至 1930 年：无声电影、广播
和有声电影
1916–1930: Silent Film, Radio,
and Sound Film
1916年
1916
格里菲斯的不宽容。
Griffith’s Intolerance.
明斯特伯格的《摄影剧：一项心理学研究》出版。
Münsterberg’s The Photoplay: A Psychological Study published.
1917年
1917
UFA 在德国成立。
UFA formed in Germany.
库列绍夫的工作室在苏联成立。
Kuleshov’s workshop begins in Soviet Union.
1918年
1918
阿姆斯特朗的超外差电路使无线电成为商业可能。
Armstrong’s Superheterodyne circuit makes radio a commercial possibility.
联美公司成立。明星制在电影界占据主导地位。
United Artists formed. Star system dominant in film industry.
通用电气创建美国无线电公司以接管美国马可尼公司的垄断地位。
General Electric creates Radio Corporation of America to take over monopoly of American Marconi Company.
苏联电影业国有化。
Soviet film industry nationalized.
Tri-Ergon 电影声音系统在德国获得专利。
Tri-Ergon sound-on-film system patented in Germany.
卡里加里博士维恩的内阁。德国表现主义运动开始。
Wiene’s Cabinet of Dr. Caligari. German Expressionist movement begins.
1920年
1920
美国在世界电影业中占据主导地位，这在一定程度上要归功于第一次世界大战。
Thanks in part to World War I, America dominates world film industry.
电影制片人开始移民好莱坞。
Immigration of filmmakers to Hollywood starts.
KDKA 开始在匹兹堡广播。
KDKA begins broadcasting in Pittsburgh.
1922年
1922
8 月 28 日下午 5:15。第一个广播广告：Mr. Blackwell，在纽约 AT&T 的 WEAF 上为 Queensboro Corp. 制作的广告。
August 28. 5:15 pm. The first radio commercial: Mr. Blackwell, for the Queensboro Corp. on AT&T’s WEAF in New York.
朗的马布斯博士。
Lang’s Dr. Mabuse.
维尔托夫的《电影真理报》。
Vertov’s Kino-Pravda.
弗莱厄蒂的《北方的纳努克》。
Flaherty’s Nanook of the North.
BBC 在英国以非正式形式开始运营。
BBC begins informally in Britain.
1923年
1923
斯蒂勒的《戈斯塔柏林传奇》，葛丽泰·嘉宝主演。
Stiller’s Saga of Gösta Berling, starring Greta Garbo.
斯特罗海姆的《贪婪》，当代现实主义的先驱。
Stroheim’s Greed, forerunner of contemporary realism.
《时代》 ——第一本“新闻杂志”——开始出版。
Time—first “newsmagazine”—begins publication.
1924年
1924
哥伦比亚影业成立，米高梅合并。
Columbia Pictures founded, MGM consolidated.
莱热的机械芭蕾舞剧。
Léger’s Ballet Mécanique.
1925年
1925
伦敦电影协会成立；电影研究在法国得到发展。
London Film Society founded; film study develops in France.
爱森斯坦的战舰波将金号。
Eisenstein’s Battleship Potemkin.
七月。斯科普斯审判由威廉·卡伦·布莱恩特和克拉伦斯·达罗主演，是美国首次通过芝加哥 WGN 清晰频道在广播中播出的审判。约翰·斯科普斯 (John Scopes) 负责教授进化论。HL 门肯 (HL Mencken) 对《巴尔的摩太阳报》的审判进行了著名报道，将其描述为“猴子审判”，并对当地人表示极大的蔑视，他将他们描述为“乡巴佬、乡巴佬和巴比特”。
July. The Scopes trial, starring William Cullen Bryant and Clarence Darrow, is the first U.S. trial to be broadcast on radio via clear-channel WGN, Chicago. John Scopes has been charged with teaching evolution. H. L. Mencken famously covers the trial for The Baltimore Sun, characterizing it as “the Monkey trial,” and heaping scorn on the locals whom he characterizes as “hill-billies, yokels, and Babbits.”
1926年
1926
8 月 6 日，Vitaphone（录音）首演：《唐璜》。
August 6. Vitaphone (sound-on-record) premiere: Don Juan.
11 月 15 日晚上 8 点至凌晨 12:25，NBC 在纽约华尔道夫酒店屋顶开始网络广播，节目由纽约交响乐团、纽约清唱剧协会、威尔·罗杰斯、韦伯与菲尔兹和文森特主演洛佩兹。21个城市的25个电视台播出了该节目。
November 15. 8 pm to 12:25 am NBC begins network broadcasting with a program from the roof of the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York featuring the New York Symphony, the New York Oratorio Society, Will Rogers, Weber & Fields, and Vincent Lopez. Twenty-five stations in 21 cities broadcast the program.
布多夫金的《电影技术》出版。
Pudovkin’s Film Technique published.
鲁道夫·瓦伦蒂诺去世。
Rudolph Valentino dies.
1927年
1927
英国电影法规定了配额制度。
British Cinematograph Act provides for a quota system.
BBC 特许。
BBC chartered.
美国《无线电法》创建了联邦无线电委员会（后来的 FCC）。
U.S. Radio Act creates Federal Radio Commission (later FCC).
Roxy Theatre opens in New York.
四月。福克斯电影音新闻开始使用电影声音系统。
April. Fox Movietone News begins, using sound-on-film system.
10 月 6 日，华纳兄弟出品的《爵士歌手》，配以音乐和几段谈话片段，首次获得流行声音的成功。
October 6. Warner Brothers’ The Jazz Singer, with music and several talking sequences, first popular sound success.
哥伦比亚广播公司成立。
CBS formed.
1 月 1 日。NBC Blue 网络开始播出。
January 1. NBC’s Blue network begins broadcasting.
奥地利工程师 Fritz Pfleumer 设计了磁带录音系统。
Austrian engineer Fritz Pfleumer devises magnetic tape audio recording system.
1928年
1928
RKO Radio Pictures Corporation 由 GE/Westinghouse/RCA 组建，旨在利用 RCA 的电影声音专利。
RKO Radio Pictures Corporation formed by G.E./Westinghouse/R.C.A. to exploit R.C.A.’s sound patents in film.
约翰·洛吉·贝尔德 (John Logie Baird) 在伦敦展示的电视节目。
Television demonstrated by John Logie Baird in London.
向声音的大规模转变导致银行利益对电影制作的影响力增加。
Massive transition to sound leads to increased influence of banking interests in film production.
克罗斯利无线电调查收视率开始。1930 年首次出版。
Crossley Radio Survey ratings begin. First published 1930.
第一张“会说话”的图片：纽约之光
First “all-talking” picture: Lights of N.Y.
德雷叶的《圣女贞德受难记》。
Dreyer’s Passion de Jeanne d’Arc.
维尔托夫的《拿着摄影机的人》。
Vertov’s Man with a Movie Camera.
达利和布努埃尔的《一条安达卢狗》。
Dali and Buñuel’s Un Chien Andalou.
1929年
1929
希区柯克的勒索，第一部英国对话电影。
Hitchcock’s Blackmail, first British dialogue film.
马穆利安的掌声，最早成功的音乐剧之一。
Mamoulian’s Applause, one of the first successful Musicals.
马克思兄弟的第一部电影《椰子》预示着百老汇人才将大量涌入好莱坞。
Marx Brothers’ first film, The Cocoanuts, presages massive exodus of Broadway talent to Hollywood.
《阿莫斯与安迪》成为 NBC 首部受欢迎的网络连续剧。
Amos ’n’ Andy becomes first popular NBC network series.
转换为有声电影使票房收入在两年内增加了近两倍（1927 年：6000 万入场人次；1929 年：1.1 亿人次）。
Conversion to sound has resulted in nearly twofold increase in box-office admission in two years (1927: 60 million admissions; 1929: 110 million).
无线电转录引入了电子转录。
Electrical transcription introduced to radio.
1930年
1930
制定了《生产法》，但执行不严。
Production Code instituted, but laxly enforced.
出口外语版本的必要性导致第二波欧洲人才涌入好莱坞。
Necessity of foreign-language versions for export results in second wave of influx of European talent to Hollywood.
克莱尔的《Sous les toits de Paris》，第一部法国有声电影。
Clair’s Sous les toits de Paris, first French sound film.
冯·斯滕伯格的《蓝色天使》，与玛琳·黛德丽合作。
Von Sternberg’s Blue Angel, with Marlene Dietrich.
迪士尼第一部《愚蠢的交响曲》。
Disney’s first Silly Symphony.
美国对 RCA 及其专利盟友提起反垄断诉讼。
U.S. brings antitrust suit against RCA and its patent allies.
格里森、罗塔、赖特和詹宁斯参与了英国纪录片运动。
Grierson, Rotha, Wright, and Jennings involved in British documentary movement.
1931-1945：好莱坞和广播的伟大时代
1931–1945: The Great Age of
Hollywood and Radio
1931年
1931
赫克特和麦克阿瑟的戏剧《头版》由刘易斯·迈尔斯通拍摄。它标志着报纸作为文化媒介的重要性持续增长。
Hecht and MacArthur’s play The Front Page is filmed by Lewis Milestone. It marks the continued growth in importance of newspapers as a cultural medium.
威尔曼的《公敌》标志着黑帮类型的兴起。
Wellman’s Public Enemy marks rise of Gangster genre.
卓别林的《城市之光》以纯音乐配乐拍摄。
Chaplin’s City Lights filmed with music-only soundtrack.
德古拉和弗兰肯斯坦，恐怖类型的象征。
Dracula and Frankenstein, emblems of the Horror genre.
穆尔瑙和弗莱厄蒂合作拍摄半纪录片《禁忌》。
Murnau and Flaherty collaborate on semidocumentary Tabu.
1932年
1932
霍克斯、休斯和赫克特合作拍摄了一部主要的黑帮电影《疤面煞星》 。
Hawks, Hughes, and Hecht collaborate on Scar face, major Gangster film.
后期配音技术的付诸实践，极大地方便了有声电影的拍摄。
Postdubbing techniques put into practice, greatly facilitating the shooting of sound films.
无线电城音乐厅 (Radio City Music Hall) 是终极电影宫殿，在洛克菲勒中心 (RCA) 所在地无线电城综合大楼内开业。
Radio City Music Hall, the ultimate movie palace, opens in the Radio City complex, home of RCA, in Rockefeller Center.
首届威尼斯电影节开幕。
Venice Film Festival—first of its kind—begins.
刘别谦的《天堂里的麻烦》证实了派拉蒙近十年来精致喜剧的风格。
Lubitsch’s Trouble in Paradise confirms the Paramount style of sophisticated comedy for the decade.
1933年
1933
阿斯泰尔和罗杰斯在《飞向里约》中确立了一种都市精致的风格，标志着 20 世纪 30 年代的许多娱乐节目。
Astaire and Rogers in Flying Down to Rio establish a style of urbane sophistication that marks much entertainment of the 1930s.
库珀和舍德萨克的《金刚》唤起了种族恐惧，从而建立了一个流行的神话。
Cooper and Schoedsack’s King Kong evokes racial fears to establish a popular myth.
巴斯比·伯克利 (Busby Berkeley) 为《42 街》所做的编舞为 1930 年代的音乐剧奠定了风格。
Busby Berkeley’s choreography for 42nd Street establishes a style for the Musical of the 1930s.
阿恩海姆的《电影作为艺术》出版。
Arnheim’s Film as Art published.
纳粹控制下的德国电影业。
German film industry under Nazi control.
英国电影学院成立。
British Film Institute founded.
阿姆斯特朗开发了调频收音机。
Armstrong develops FM radio.
罗斯福总统首次利用无线电媒体进行“炉边谈话”。
First “Fireside Chats” by President Roosevelt utilize radio medium.
1934年
1934
约瑟夫·布林 (Joseph Breen) 根据《生产法》加强了审查制度。
Joseph Breen strengthens censorship under Production Code.
卡普拉的《一夜发生》是早期主要的怪诞喜剧，还有霍克斯的《二十世纪》。
Capra’s It Happened One Night, major early Screwball Comedy, along with Hawks’s Twentieth Century.
里芬斯塔尔的《意志的胜利》颂扬了纳粹的神秘色彩。
Riefenstahl’s Triumph of the Will celebrates Nazi mystique.
英国政府参与资助纪录片。
British government involved in financing documentaries.
弗莱厄蒂完成了《阿兰号》。
Flaherty completes Man of Aran.
1934 年的《通信法》承认电话、电报和广播（和电视）广播的相互依赖性，但对旧媒体与新广播行业的对待不同。电话和电报被视为自然垄断，并被指定为“公共运营商”，必须按照联邦通信委员会规定的费率提供服务。然而，广播被认为是一种竞争性活动。公开原则无线电波的所有权得到承认：联邦通信委员会将向广播公司颁发有限的许可证并管理其活动的性质。
The Communications Act of 1934 recognizes the interdependency of telephone, telegraph, and radio (and television) broadcasting but treats the older media differently from the new radio industry. Telephone and telegraph are seen as natural monopolies and designated as “common carriers” that must furnish service as requested at rates governed by an organization to be called the Federal Communications Commission. Broadcasting, however, is considered a competitive activity. The principle of public ownership of the airwaves is recognized: the FCC will issue limited licenses to broadcasters and govern the nature of their activities.
1935年
1935
特艺彩色三带工艺投入使用。
Technicolor three-strip process comes into use.
德罗什蒙的《时间进行曲》系列纪录片开始播放。
De Rochemont’s March of Time series of documentaries begins.
“听力计”——无线电广播收视率设备——发明。
“Audimeter”—device for radio broadcast ratings—invented.
1936年
1936
BBC 开始电视服务（因战争而中断）。
BBC begins television service (to be interrupted by the war).
法国电影资料馆由亨利·朗格卢瓦、乔治·弗兰朱和让·米特里创立。
Cinémathèque Française founded by Henri Langlois, Georges Franju, and Jean Mitry.
卓别林的《摩登时代》。
Chaplin’s Modern Times.
卡普拉的《德兹先生进城》标志着美国民粹主义电影的周期。
Capra’s Mr. Deeds Goes to Town marks cycle of American populist films.
雷诺阿的《兰格犯罪》。
Renoir’s Le Crime de M. Lange.
《生活》杂志创刊。
Life magazine debuts.
1937年
1937
雷诺阿的大幻觉。
Renoir’s Grand Illusion.
推出 Arriflex 轻型 35 毫米相机——第一款配备反射快门的相机。
Arriflex lightweight 35 mm camera—the first with reflex shutter—introduced.
1938年
1938
爱森斯坦的亚历山大·涅夫斯基。
Eisenstein’s Alexander Nevsky.
迈克尔·巴尔肯 (Michael Balcon) 接管伊灵工作室 (Ealing Studios) 的制作工作。
Michael Balcon takes over production at Ealing Studios.
10 月 31 日。威尔斯的世界大战广播。
October 31. Welles’s War of the Worlds radio broadcast.
1939年
1939
加拿大国家电影委员会成立。
National Film Board of Canada founded.
好莱坞最伟大的一年：塞尔兹尼克的《乱世佳人》和米高梅的《绿野仙踪》（均由维克多·弗莱明执导）成为娱乐奇幻的经典之作。
Hollywood’s greatest year: Selznick’s Gone With the Wind and MGM’s The Wizard of Oz (both directed by Victor Fleming) become classics of entertainment fantasy.
约翰·福特的《驿马车》，经典西部片。
John Ford’s Stagecoach, classic Western.
雷诺阿的《游戏规则》。
Renoir’s The Rules of the Game.
4 月 30 日。罗斯福总统出现在纽约世界博览会的电视转播中，标志着美国常规电视服务的开通
April 30. President Roosevelt appears in a telecast at the World’s Fair in New York marking the inauguration of regular television service in the U.S.
6 月 19 日，Simon & Schuster 部分控股的一家新公司 Pocket Books 在梅西百货和曼哈顿的一些报摊上出售十本袖珍平装书，每本售价 25 美分。平装书革命开始了。
June 19. Pocket Books, a new company partly owned by Simon & Schuster, puts ten pocket-size paper-covered books priced at 25 cents each on sale at Macy’s and a few Manhattan newsstands. The paperback revolution begins.
8 月 26 日。第一场大联盟棒球电视转播：布鲁克林道奇队和辛辛那提红队之间的双打比赛。
August 26. First major-league baseball telecast: a doubleheader between the Brooklyn Dodgers and the Cincinnati Reds.
1940年
1940
1 月 12 日。美国第一电视网在纽约 WNBT-TV 和斯克内克塔迪 WRGB-TV 播出。
January 12. First American television network broadcast on WNBT-TV, New York, and WRGB-TV, Schenectady.
八月。哥伦比亚广播公司 (CBS) 展示了由彼得·戈德马克 (Peter Goldmark) 开发的彩色电视系统。
August. CBS demonstrates their color television system, developed by Peter Goldmark.
希区柯克搬到好莱坞。
Hitchcock moves to Hollywood.
闪电战期间默罗在伦敦的广播戏剧化地体现了广播的新闻价值。
Murrow’s broadcasts from London during the Blitz dramatize news value of radio.
1941年
1941
雷诺阿搬到好莱坞。
Renoir moves to Hollywood.
福特的《愤怒的葡萄》，来自斯坦贝克的小说。
Ford’s The Grapes of Wrath, from Steinbeck novel.
休斯顿的《马耳他之鹰》奠定了他、鲍嘉和侦探类型的声誉。
Huston’s The Maltese Falcon establishes his reputation, Bogart’s, and the Detective genre.
威尔斯的《公民凯恩》， “伟大的美国电影”。
Welles’s Citizen Kane, “the great American movie.”
诺埃尔·考沃德的《我们为之服务》标志着英国电影在战争期间的矛盾复兴。
Noël Coward’s In Which We Serve marks paradoxical revitalization of British film during the war.
卡普拉的《我们为何而战》系列证明了有效的纪录片宣传。
Capra’s Why We Fight series proves effective documentary propaganda.
1943年
1943
玛雅·黛伦的《午后的网格》标志着美国前卫艺术的重新发展。
Maya Deren’s Meshes of the Afternoon marks renewed development of the American avant garde.
第一个用于军队的有线录音机。
First wire sound recorders in use in the military.
由于反垄断诉讼，ABC 创建了 NBC 的第二个电视网。
Due to antitrust suit, ABC created out of NBC’s second network.
由马塞尔·勒比尔 (Marcel L'Herbier) 创立的高级电影摄影研究所。
Institut des Hautes Études Cinématographiques founded by Marcel L’Herbier.
1944年
1944
Technicolor Monopack 系统首先用于功能。
Technicolor Monopack system first used for features.
1945年
1945
罗西里尼的《罗马》、《不设防的城市》和德斯卡的《擦鞋店》标志着新现实主义。
Rossellini’s Rome, Open City and De Ska’s Shoeshine mark Neorealism.
德罗什蒙在《92 街之家》中采用了半纪录片风格的小说风格。
De Rochemont applies semidocumentary style to fiction in The House on 92nd Street.
艾德·默罗从布痕瓦尔德集中营进行了戏剧性的报道。
Ed Murrow reports dramatically from Buchenwald.
德国录音机被缴获。
German tape recorders captured.
奥利维娅·德哈维兰成功起诉华纳兄弟，解除了她的合同，为演员建立了重要的新权力。当时，规则允许制片厂将演员的合同延长相当于他们停职的期限（通常是由于他们拒绝接受任务）。因此，制片厂可以永远与不听话的演员签订合同。（贝蒂·戴维斯在三十年代曾试图推翻这一规则，但没有成功。）
Olivia de Havilland successfully sues Warner Bros, to release her from her contract, establishing important new power for actors. At the time, rules permitted studios to extend actors’ contracts for a period equal to their suspension (usually due to their refusing an assignment). Thus studios could keep recalcitrant actors under contract forever. (Bette Davis had tried unsuccessfully to overturn this rule in the thirties.)
1946 年至 1960 年：电视的发展
1946–1960: The Growth of Television
1946年
1946
2 月 14 日。陆军部宣布 ENIAC 的开发（去年 11 月完成）。电子速度首次应用于数值任务。该设备——电子数值积分分析仪和计算机——覆盖宾夕法尼亚大学摩尔电子工程学院 15,000 平方英尺的地下室。
February 14. The War Department announces the development of ENIAC (completed the previous November). For the first time, electronic speed is applied to numerical tasks. The device—the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer—covers 15,000 square feet of the basement of the Moore School of Electronic Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania.
美国电影业票房最好的一年：收入 17 亿美元。
American film industry’s best year at the box office: $1.7 billion in receipts.
戛纳电影节创办。
Cannes Film Festival founded.
盛田昭夫创立索尼公司。
Sony Corporation founded by Akio Morita.
派拉蒙反垄断诉讼开始。
Paramount antitrust suit begins.
美国电视网络开始播出；BBC 恢复。
American television networks begin broadcasting; BBC resumes.
霍克斯的《长眠不醒》预示着黑色电影类型。
Hawks’s The Big Sleep presages Film Noir genre.
惠勒的《我们生命中最美好的岁月》是对战争影响的流行研究。
Wyler’s The Best Years of Our Lives, popular study of the effects of war.
希区柯克《臭名昭著》。
Hitchcock’s Notorious.
6 月 8 日。米尔顿·伯利 (Milton Berle) 的第一部电视节目。他将被称为“先生”。电视。”
June 8. Milton Berle’s first television show. He will become known as “Mr. Television.”
6 月 19 日。第一个电视网络赞助商：吉列，观看乔·路易斯 (Joe Louis) 与比利·康恩 (Billy Conn) 拳击比赛。
June 19. First television network sponsor: Gillette, for the Joe Louis vs. Billy Conn boxing match.
10 月 1 日。 Bing Crosby 主持的Philco Radio Hour是第一次录音、延迟的广播节目。
October 1. The Philco Radio Hour with Bing Crosby is the first taped, delayed radio broadcast.
10 月 20 日。众议院非美活动委员会 (HUAC) 开始就“共产主义在好莱坞的影响力”举行听证会；HUAC 传唤了 19 名好莱坞名人，以证明他们了解或可能参与共产党活动。
October 20. House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) begins hearings on “Communist influence in Hollywood”; nineteen Hollywood personalities are subpoenaed by HUAC to testify about their knowledge of or possible involvement in Communist Party activities.
11 月 24 日。在纽约华尔道夫酒店举行的臭名昭著的会议上，东方银行家告知工作室高管，如果工作室不与 HUAC 合作，投资资金将被削减。工作室很快就投降了，并通知员工拒绝合作意味着他们将被终止雇佣关系。
November 24. At notorious meeting at New York’s Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, Eastern bankers inform studio executives that investment funds will be curtailed if the studios do not cooperate with HUAC. The studios quickly capitulate, informing employees that a refusal to cooperate means that they will have their employment terminated.
演员工作室由罗伯特·刘易斯、谢丽尔·克劳福德和埃利亚·卡赞于 1948 年创立，由李·斯特拉斯伯格经营。该工作室是“方法”的发源地，这是一种基于康斯坦丁·斯坦尼斯拉夫斯基概念的表演技巧。
Actors Studio founded by Robert Lewis, Cheryl Crawford, and Elia Kazan and run by Lee Strasberg from 1948. The studio was home of the “method,” an acting technique based on the concepts of Constantin Stanislavski.
《电影评论》由评论家和理论家安德烈·巴赞与雅克·多尼奥尔-瓦尔克罗兹共同创立。四年后，它更名为电影手册。
La Revue du Cinéma founded by critic and theorist André Bazin, along with Jacques Doniol-Valcroze. Four years later it is renamed Cahiers du Cinéma.
卡普拉的《生活多美好》是民粹主义传统的最后一部。
Capra’s It’s a Wonderful Life, last in populist tradition.
晶体管是贝尔实验室发明的。
The transistor is invented at Bell Labs.
1948年
1948
Astruc 关于“Caméra-Stylo”的文章发表。
Astruc’s essay on “Caméra-Stylo” published.
霍华德·休斯 (Howard Hughes) 收购雷电华 (RKO)。
Howard Hughes buys RKO.
黑人广播电台开始广播。
Black radio stations begin broadcasting.
米尔顿·伯利的德士古明星剧院开始推出电视喜剧形式。
Milton Berle’s Texaco Star Theatre begins television comedy format.
埃德·沙利文的《小镇吐司》开始电视综艺节目形式。
Ed Sullivan’s Toast of the Town begins television variety format.
6月21日，Goldmark的LP唱片揭幕。
June 21. Goldmark’s LP record unveiled.
1949年
1949
多南和凯利的《城里》：新风格音乐剧。
Donen and Kelly’s On the Town: new-style Musical.
第一个电视问答节目“停止音乐”首次亮相。
Stop the Music, first TV quiz show, debuts.
平装书的销量首次超过精装书。
For the first time, more paperback books are sold than hardcovers.
六月。音乐界的圣经《公告牌》杂志不再将黑人音乐称为“种族”唱片。从现在开始，它是“节奏蓝调”。
June. Billboard magazine, the bible of the music industry, stops referring to Black music as “race” records. From now on, it’s “rhythm ’n’ blues.”
1950年
1950
广播电视黑名单正如火如荼地进行。
Blacklist in radio and television in full swing.
推出 Eastmancolor 股票。特艺彩色失去了垄断地位。
Eastmancolor stock introduced. Technicolor loses its monopoly.
科克托的俄耳甫斯。
Cocteau’s Orpheus.
奥菲尔斯的《La Ronde》。
Ophüls’s La Ronde.
怀尔德的日落大道。
Wilder’s Sunset Boulevard.
席德·凯撒、伊莫金·科卡开始你的表演秀。
Sid Caesar, Imogene Coca begin Your Show of Shows.
1951年
1951
默罗和弗兰德利开始“立即观看”系列。
Murrow and Friendly begin See It Now series.
派拉蒙签署反垄断诉讼同意令。
Paramount signs consent decree on antitrust suit.
露西尔·鲍尔的《我爱露西》为电视情景喜剧树立了典范；它的成功表明电影可以在电视上发挥作用。
Lucille Ball’s I Love Lucy sets the model for television situation comedy; its success indicates film can work in television.
杰克·韦伯的《天罗地网》首映，为电视警察节目树立了典范。
Jack Webb’s Dragnet premieres, setting the model for television cop shows.
NBC 的“今日”节目开始，混合新闻和专题。
NBC’s Today program begins, mixing news and features.
尼比的《怪形》是近十年来第一部偏执科幻电影。
Nyby’s The Thing among first paranoid Science-Fiction films of the decade.
Kurosawa’s Rashomon successful at Venice Film Festival.
电影手册开始。
Cahiers du Cinéma begins.
首次通过 AT&T 的同轴电缆进行从东海岸到西海岸的电视广播。
First coast-to-coast television broadcast via AT&T’s coaxial cable.
1952年
1952
有线电视的前身社区天线电视诞生。
Community Antenna television, precursor of cable, begins.
凯利和多南的《雨中曲》。
Kelly and Donen’s Singin’ in the Rain.
齐尼曼的《正午》， “成人”西部片。
Zinnemann’s High Noon, “adult” Western.
迪卡收购环球影业。
Decca purchases Universal.
索尼在日本开发立体声广播。
Sony develops stereo broadcasting in Japan.
全景电影首次亮相。
Cinerama debuts.
尼克松的电视“跳棋”演讲。
Nixon’s televised “Checkers” speech.
1953年
1953
1 月 19 日。小德西·阿纳兹 (Desi Arnaz Jr) 出生的同一天，电视剧《我爱露西》中他虚构的另一个自我的诞生也在同一天播出。
January 19. Desi Arnaz Jr is born the same day that the episode of I Love Lucy in which his fictional alter ego is born is telecast.
RKO 被所有者 General Tire Corp. 清算。
RKO liquidated by owner, General Tire Corp.
推出 CinemaScope 和 3-D。
CinemaScope and 3-D introduced.
希区柯克的《后窗》。
Hitchcock’s Rear Window.
查耶夫斯基在固特异电视剧场饰演的马蒂标志着现场电视剧的鼎盛时期。
Chayefsky’s Marty on Goodyear Television Playhouse signals the heyday of live television drama.
1954年
1954
1 月 1 日。NBC 以彩色方式播放玫瑰节游行：首个网络彩播。
January 1. NBC broadcasts Festival of Roses parade in color: first network colorcast.
1 月 1 日 NTSC 标准彩色广播在美国开始
January 1. NTSC standard color broadcasting begins in the U.S.
一月。特吕弗的文章《法国电影的某种趋势》发表在《电影手册》上。
January. Truffaut’s essay “Une certaine tendance du cinéma français” published in Cahiers du Cinéma.
费里尼的《La Strada》在国际上取得了成功。
Fellini’s La Strada, international success.
喀山的《海滨》巩固了马龙·白兰度作为 20 世纪 50 年代标志性明星的地位。
Kazan’s On the Waterfront reinforces Marlon Brando’s position as the emblematic star of the 1950s.
默罗关于麦卡锡参议员的“立即观看”广播具有重大的政治影响。
Murrow’s See It Now broadcast about Senator McCarthy has significant political effect.
电视转播的陆军-麦卡锡听证会导致了麦卡锡的耻辱，并开始了黑名单的终结。
Televised Army-McCarthy hearings result in McCarthy’s disgrace and beginning of the end for the blacklist.
迪士尼和华纳兄弟签订了为 ABC 制作的合同。
Disney and Warner Bros, contract to produce for ABC.
1955年
1955
萨蒂亚吉特·雷 (Satyajit Ray) 的帕瑟·潘查利 (Pather Panchali)将印度电影介绍给西方。
Satyajit Ray’s Pather Panchali introduces Indian film to West.
商业（ITV）频道开始在英国播出
Commercial (ITV) channel begins broadcasting in U.K.
尼古拉斯·雷的《无因的反叛》为五十年代末奠定了基调。
Nicholas Ray’s Rebel Without a Cause sets the tone for the late fifties.
詹姆斯·迪恩 (James Dean) 因车祸去世，年仅 24 岁。
James Dean dies in car crash, age 24.
乡村之声成立。它将成为 20 世纪 60 年代反主流文化的主要力量。
The Village Voice founded. It will be a major force in the counterculture through the 1960s.
美国人口普查局报告称，67% 的美国家庭拥有电视。到年底，电视收入超过广播收入。
U.S. Census Bureau reports that 67 percent of all U.S. homes have television. TV revenue surpasses radio revenue by the end of the year.
R&B 艺术家拉文·贝克 (Lavern Baker) 因“翻唱”贝克的热门歌曲《Tweedlee Dee》而起诉白人歌手乔治亚·吉布斯 (Georgia Gibbs)，但未获成功。她还游说国会（未成功）停止“翻唱”唱片的做法。尽管“翻唱”一词如今被用作“版本”或“演绎”的同义词，但它最初特指白人歌手抄袭黑人歌手的热门歌曲。由于当时黑人歌手的播放量很少，因此白人歌手的“翻唱”收入总是要高得多。
R&B artist Lavern Baker unsuccessfully sues white singer Georgia Gibbs over her “cover” of Baker’s hit, “Tweedlee Dee.” She also lobbies Congress (unsuccessfully) to stop the “cover” record practice. Although the term “cover” is used today as a synonym for “version” or “rendition,” it originally referred specifically to white singers’ rip-offs of Black singers’ hit songs. Because Black singers at the time got little airplay, the white singer’s “cover” always earned far more.
数百部 1948 年之前的故事片在电视上的上映标志着电影与广播业之间的新关系。
Release of hundreds of pre-1948 feature films to television signals the new relationship between film and broadcasting industries.
福特的《搜索者》是他最复杂的西部片。
Ford’s The Searchers, his most complex Western.
伯格曼的《第七封印》在国际上取得了成功。
Bergman’s The Seventh Seal, internationally successful.
IBM 推出磁盘作为计算机数据的存储介质。
IBM introduces the magnetic disk as a storage medium for computer data.
IBM 与司法部签署了一项同意令，迫使这家占主导地位的计算机公司将其计算机服务业务与其他业务分开。
IBM enters into a consent decree with the Justice Department forcing the dominant computer company to segregate its computer services business from its other operations.
11 月 30 日。首次在电视中使用录像带：哥伦比亚广播公司 (CBS)新闻频道道格拉斯·爱德华兹 (Douglas Edwards) 在西海岸的节目。
November 30. First use of videotape in television: the West Coast feed of Douglas Edwards with the News, CBS.
1957年
1957
RKO 工作室出售给 Desilu 进行电视制作。
RKO studios sold to Desilu for television production.
推出袖珍晶体管收音机。
Pocket transistor radios introduced.
1958年
1958
立体声唱片和留声机首次上市。
Stereophonic records and phonographs first marketed.
希区柯克的眩晕。
Hitchcock’s Vertigo.
1959年
1959
希区柯克的《西北偏北》。
Hitchcock’s North by Northwest.
新浪潮的诞生：特吕弗的《四百击》，雷乃的《广岛》，我的爱。
Birth of the New Wave: Truffaut’s The 400 Blows, Resnais’s Hiroshima, mon amour.
费里尼的《甜蜜生活》以及今年上映的其他电影标志着世界电影的转折点。
Fellini’s La Dolce Vita, together with other films released this year, marks a turning point in world cinema.
卡索维茨的《影子》暗示了美国电影更加个性化的可能性。
Cassavetes’s Shadows suggests the possibility of a more personal American cinema.
Decca/Universal 与 MCA 人才经纪公司合并。
Decca/Universal merges with MCA talent agency.
第一个常规系列彩色广播：Bonanza、 NBC。
First regular series color broadcasts: Bonanza, NBC.
集成电路由德州仪器 (TI) 和飞兆半导体 (Fairchild Semiconductor) 推出。它将很快赋予这十年的“晶体管姐妹”力量。
The Integrated Circuit is introduced by Texas Instruments and Fairchild Semiconductor. It will soon empower the “transistor sisters” of the decade.
1960年
1960
戈达尔的处女作是《屏息》。
Godard debuts with Breathless.
赖斯的《周六晚间》和《周日早晨》是英国第一部重要的工人阶级电影。
Reisz’s Saturday Night and Sunday Morning, first major British working-class film.
希区柯克的《惊魂记》。
Hitchcock’s Psycho.
录像带现在普遍用于广播。
Videotape now in general use in broadcasting.
休斯飞机公司首次演示激光装置
First demonstration of laser device, by Hughes Aircraft Co.
3 月 1 日。Haloid 公司发货第一台 Xerox 复印机。
March 1. Haloid Corporation ships the first Xerox photocopier.
Leacock-Pennebaker 的Primary首部大型直接电影制作，为纪录片指明了新的方向。
Leacock-Pennebaker’s Primary first major Direct Cinema production, indicates new directions for documentary.
克拉考尔的《电影理论：物理现实的救赎》出版。
Kracauer’s Theory of Film: The Redemption of Physical Reality published.
安东尼奥尼的奇遇。
Antonioni’s L’Avventura.
鲁什的《Chronique d'un été》，第一部真实电影。
Rouch’s Chronique d’un été, first film of cinéma vérité.
航空公司推出的机上电影。
In-flight movies introduced on airlines.
演员工会向好莱坞发起进攻，以获取出售给电视的电影的剩余版权份额。这种模式将持续五十年：随着制片厂找到可以利用的新技术，演员、编剧和导演将不得不为自己的份额而战。
Screen Actors Guild strikes Hollywood to gain share of residual rights for films sold to television. The pattern will last for fifty years: as studios find new technologies to exploit, actors, writers, and directors will have to fight for their share.
1961-1980：媒体世界
1961–1980: The Media World
1961年
1961
布努埃尔的《Viridiana》标志着他重返欧洲。
Buñuel’s Viridiana marks his return to Europe.
伯格曼的三部曲以《穿过黑暗的玻璃》开始。
Bergman begins his trilogy with Through a Glass Darkly.
接受过电视培训的导演转向电影。
Directors trained in television move into film.
九月。NBC在周六电影之夜将院线电影引入黄金时段，推出了《如何嫁给百万富翁》 。
September. NBC introduces theatrical movies into prime-time scheduling with How to Marry a Millionaire, on Saturday Night at the Movies.
1962年
1962
特吕弗的朱尔斯和吉姆。
Truffaut’s Jules and Jim.
诺博士（泰伦斯·杨饰）开始了詹姆斯·邦德系列，这是有史以来最长的系列。订阅电视实验在加利福尼亚州开始。
Dr. No (Terrence Young) begins James Bond series, the longest running franchise ever. Subscription television experiments begin in California.
约翰尼·卡森 (Johnny Carson) 接管 NBC 深夜脱口秀节目；在接下来的四十年里，这种类型的节目变得越来越重要。
Johnny Carson takes over NBC’s late-night talkshow; this type of programming grows in importance throughout the next forty years.
富有创造力的电视喜剧演员厄尼·科瓦奇 (Ernie Kovacs) 去世，享年 42 岁。
Ernie Kovacs, inventive television comedian, dies at age 42.
7 月 10 日。Telstar 1 推出。
July 10. Telstar 1 launched.
费里尼的8 1/2。
Fellini’s 8 1/2.
FCC 的全频道规则生效，要求在美国销售的所有电视机都必须配备接收 UHF 的功能。
All-Channel rule of the FCC goes into effect, requiring all television sets sold in the U.S. to be equipped to receive UHF.
德国年轻电影制片人在奥伯豪森短片节上发布“Autorenkino”宣言。
Young German filmmakers issue “Autorenkino” manifesto at the Oberhausen Short Film Festival.
1963年
1963
库布里克的《奇异博士》的爱情。
Kubrick’s Dr. Strange love.
瑞典电影学院成立。
Swedish Film Institute founded.
全息术演示由 Ein Leith 和 Juris Upatnieks 基于 Dennis Gabor 于 1947 年的工作而开发。
Holography demonstrated, developed by Ein Leith and Juris Upatnieks, based on work by Dennis Gabor in 1947.
美国航空公司的 SABRE（“半自动业务研究环境”）自 1960 年开始开发，是第一个计算机化预订系统，也是未来在线数据库系统的模型。美国航空公司声称这为他们节省了 30% 的人员成本。
American Airlines’ SABRE (“Semi-Automatic Business Research Environment”), under development since 1960, is the first computerized reservation system, and the model for future online database systems. American Airlines claims it saves them 30 percent in personnel costs.
克利奥帕特拉是一场臭名昭著的金融灾难。
Cleopatra is a notorious financial disaster.
飞利浦推出了盒式录音带格式。
Philips introduces the audiocassette format.
1964年
1964
戈达尔的《已婚女人》将电影发展为散文。
Godard’s A Married Woman develops cinema as essay.
麦克卢汉的《理解媒体》出版。
McLuhan’s Understanding Media published.
安东尼奥尼的红色沙漠。
Antonioni’s Red Desert.
莱斯特的《与披头士乐队的艰难一天一夜》帮助建立了新的摇滚音乐。
Lester’s A Hard Day’s Night with The Beatles helps establish the new rock music.
四月。IBM 推出 360，开创了新一代大型计算机的先河。
April. IBM introduces the 360, founding a new generation of mainframe computers.
1965年
1965
面向业余市场推出的 Super-8 毫米胶片格式。
Super-8 mm film format introduced for amateur market.
4 月 6 日，“早鸟”卫星 Intelsat I 发射升空。它是第一颗商业通信卫星，也是第一颗地球同步通信卫星。
April 6. “Early Bird” satellite, Intelsat I, is launched. It is the first commercial communications satellite and also the first geosynchronous communications satellite.
哥伦比亚广播公司 (CBS) 加入全国广播公司 (NBC) 成为全彩网络。几个月后，ABC 完成了黑白转换。
CBS joins NBC as an all-color network. ABC follows a few months later marking completion of conversion from black-and-white.
洛克希德公司的 Dialog 开始营业，这是第一个在线数据库。
Lockheed’s Dialog opens for business, first online database.
Digital Equipment Corporation 的 PDP-8 被认为是第一台小型计算机。
Digital Equipment Corporation’s PDP-8 is regarded as the first minicomputer.
1966年
1966
我对戈达尔了解的关于她的两三件事。
Godard’s 2 or 3 Things That I Know About Her.
罗西里尼继续在电视剧《路易十四的崛起》中工作。
Rossellini continues work in television with The Rise to Power of Louis XIV.
伯格曼的《假面》和安东尼奥尼的《放大》给电影带来了新的知识兴趣。
Bergman’s Persona and Antonioni’s Blow-Up draw new intellectual interest to film.
洛奇的电视电影《凯茜回家》导致英国住房法发生变化。
Loach’s television film Cathy Come Home results in changes in British housing laws.
海湾+西部公司收购派拉蒙。
Gulf + Western buys Paramount.
FCC 的裁决要求对 FM 电台进行单独编程。FM在接下来的几年里发展迅速，借鉴了新的摇滚音乐。
FCC ruling requires separate programming on FM stations. FM develops rapidly in the next few years, drawing on the new rock music.
1967年
1967
《世界日报论坛报》是一份由至少七家报纸合并而成的纽约报纸，一年多后就消亡了。
The World-Journal-Tribune, a New York newspaper that was the result of a merger of no less than seven papers, dies after little more than year.
七艺收购华纳兄弟
Seven Arts buys Warner Bros.
成立公共广播公司以发展公共电视网络。
Corporation for Public Broadcasting formed to develop Public Television network.
泛美公司收购联美公司。
Transamerica Corporation buys United Artists.
新线电影院 (New Line Cinema) 由罗伯特·沙耶 (Robert Shaye) 和迈克尔·林恩 (Michael Lynne) 在格林威治村创立。在四十年的经营过程中，新线将被证明是最成功的“非主要”工作室。
New Line Cinema founded in Greenwich Village by Robert Shaye and Michael Lynne. During their forty-year run New Line will prove to be the most successful “non-major” studio.
多轨录音技术日趋完善。
Multitrack recording techniques are perfected.
弗雷德里克·怀斯曼 (Frederick Wiseman) 的职业生涯始于国家教育电视台的纪录片制作人。
Frederick Wiseman begins his career as documentarist for National Educational Television.
斯莫瑟斯兄弟为美国电视喜剧引入了新的复杂性和相关性。
Smothers Brothers introduce a new sophistication and relevance to U.S. television comedy.
BBC 的《福尔赛传奇》在接下来的几年里在世界范围内取得了成功，并将电视小说确立为一种强大的新形式。
BBC’s The Forsyte Saga becomes a worldwide success over the next few years and establishes the televised novel as a powerful new form.
闪光技术的引入显着扩大了胶片的宽容度。
Flashing techniques are introduced that significantly expand latitude of filmstock.
佩恩大学的《邦妮与克莱德》树立了一种贯穿七十年代的反英雄模式。
Penn’s Bonnie and Clyde sets a pattern of antiheroes that continues through the seventies.
莱斯特的佩图利亚调查了六十年代新发展的意识。
Lester’s Petulia investigates the newly developing consciousness of the sixties.
斯约曼的《我好奇——黄色》在性活动的描述方面开辟了新天地，并激起了审查机构的愤怒。
Sjöman’s I Am Curious—Yellow breaks new ground in the depiction of sexual activities and excites censorship furor.
美国电影学院成立。
American Film Institute founded.
白南准在纽约霍华德怀斯画廊展出视频作品。
Nam June Paik exhibits video works at the Howard Wise Gallery, New York.
1968年
1968
拍摄法国五月和六月政治事件期间讨论的重要舞台。
Film an important arena for discussion during the political events of May and June in France.
电视报道八月份在芝加哥举行的民主党全国代表大会上的“警察骚乱”同样具有影响力。示威者高呼“全世界都在看着”。
Television coverage of “police riots” at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago in August equally influential. “The whole world is watching,” the demonstrators chant.
捷克电影的复兴因苏联入侵捷克斯洛伐克而中断。
Czech film renaissance cut short by Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia.
Laugh-In尝试新形式的电视喜剧。
Laugh-In experiments with new form of television comedy.
库布里克的《2001太空漫游》开创了许多新的特效技术，包括正投影。
Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey pioneers many new special effects techniques, including front projection.
柯达推出 5254 色库存。
Kodak introduces 5254 color stock.
侯麦凭借他的《道德故事》《莫德之夜》赢得了国际观众的喜爱。
Rohmer reaches international audiences with his “Moral Tale,” My Night at Maud’s.
克里斯蒂安·梅茨的《电影意义随笔》出版。
Christian Metz’s Essais sur la signification au cinéma published.
FCC 的“Carterfone”决定允许电话客户将自己的设备连接至贝尔线路。
FCC’s “Carterfone” decision allows telephone customers to hook up own equipment to Bell lines.
1969年
1969
作为可供个人和小团体使用的“即时”打印系统，复印和胶印的发展仍在继续。
Growth of photocopying and offset as “instant” printing systems available to individuals and small groups continues.
照排术发展加快。
Development of phototypesetting accelerates.
随着特殊兴趣杂志的快速增长，大众兴趣杂志继续下降。
General-interest magazines continue to decline as special-interest magazines experience rapid growth.
《芝麻街》首映，利用电视广告技巧教授基本技能。
Sesame Street premieres, utilizing TV commercial techniques to teach basic skills.
华纳兄弟七艺术公司被金尼国家服务公司收购。
Warner Brothers-Seven Arts purchased by Kinney National Services, Inc.
柯克·科克里安 (Kirk Kerkorian) 首次收购米高梅 (MGM)。
Kirk Kerkorian purchases MGM for the first time.
彼得·沃伦 (Peter Wollen) 的《电影中的符号和意义》出版。
Peter Wollen’s Signs and Meaning in the Cinema published.
希尔的《虎豹小霸王》标志着六十年代女性角色的持续下降，并预示着七十年代电影中大量男性友谊的出现。
Hill’s Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid marks the continued decline in women’s roles in the sixties and presages a raft of male bonding friendships in films of the seventies.
霍珀的《逍遥骑士》标志着短命青年电影类型的爆发。
Hopper’s Easy Rider marks the explosion of the short-lived genre of youth films.
佩金帕的《狂野家族》预测电影中的暴力行为将会增加。
Peckinpah’s The Wild Bunch forecasts increasing violence in film.
格劳伯·罗查 (Glauber Rocha) 的安东尼奥·达斯·莫特斯 (Antonio Das Mortes)标志着人们对第三世界电影产生了新的兴趣。
Glauber Rocha’s Antonio Das Mortes signals new interest in Third World Cinema.
科斯塔-加夫拉斯的《Z》为政治情节剧树立了新风格。
Costa-Gavras’s Z sets a new style for political melodrama.
美国广播公司 (ABC) 播出哈罗德·罗宾斯 (Harold Robbins) 的第一部电视小说《幸存者》(The Survivors) 。
ABC telecasts Harold Robbins’s The Survivors, first novel-for-television.
十一月。副总统斯皮罗·阿格纽攻击电视新闻机构是“喋喋不休的消极主义大佬”。
November. Vice President Spiro Agnew attacks television news establishment as “nattering nabobs of negativism.”
国防部的阿帕网已上线，这是第一个网络中的网络，也是互联网的鼻祖。
The Defense Department’s Arpanet is online, first network of networks, progenitor of the internet.
1970年
1970
经济衰退加剧了美国电影产量逐年减少的趋势。
The economic recession reinforces the trend toward fewer American films produced each year.
美国利益集团最近为英国电影业提供了高达 90% 的资本，但由于经济衰退而急剧退出。英国电影制片人移民美国或转向电视行业。
American interests—which had recently provided as much as 90 percent of the capital for the British film industry—pull out precipitously due to the recession. British filmmakers emigrate to the U.S. or turn to television.
克鲁格、法斯宾德、施隆多夫在世界银幕上打造了《新电影》。电视联合制作是一个重要元素。
Kluge, Fassbinder, Schlöndorff establish Neue Kino on world screens. Television coproduction is an important element.
玛丽·泰勒·摩尔秀标志着情景喜剧的复兴。
The Mary Tyler Moore Show marks renaissance of situation comedy.
《菲利普·威尔逊秀》是第一部由非裔美国人主演的喜剧综艺节目。
The Flip Wilson Show is the first comedy-variety show to star an African-American.
特德·特纳 (Ted Turner) 购买了亚特兰大当地的一个超高频电台。它将成为TBS超级电视台。
Ted Turner buys a local UHF station in Atlanta. It will become superstation TBS.
罗伯特·奥特曼通过《MASH》（后来成为热门电视连续剧）巩固了自己的声誉。
Robert Altman consolidates his reputation with M.A.S.H.—later a popular television series.
沃德利的伍德斯托克音乐剧为音乐会音乐剧树立了新的风格。
Wadleigh’s Woodstock sets a new style for concert Musicals.
美国电影研究开始加速增长
The growth of film study begins to accelerate in the U.S.
可能。米高梅拍卖其道具和服装遗产，为科克里安筹集现金。
May. MGM auctions its heritage of props and costumes to raise cash for Kerkorian.
索尼销售 Portapak 半英寸便携式录像带系统。视频运动开始。
Sony sells Portapak half-inch portable videotape system. Video movement begins.
FCC 制定了“Fin-Syn”规则，禁止电视网络从事经济利益和联合运营。
FCC institutes the “Fin-Syn” rule prohibiting television networks from financial interest and syndication operations.
1971年
1971
范·皮布尔斯的《Sweet Sweetback》中的《Baadasssss》标志着黑人电影的诞生。
Van Peebles’s Sweet Sweetback’s Baadasssss Song signals the establishment of the Black film.
马塞尔·奥菲尔斯（Marcel Ophüls）的《悲伤与遗憾》（最初是一个电视节目）激起了人们对作为个人文章的纪录片采访形式的新兴趣。
Marcel Ophüls’s The Sorrow and the Pity (originally a television program) excites new interest in the documentary interview form as personal essay.
Cable television systems, supplying nonbroadcast product, continue rapid expansion.
《全家福》改编自英国连续剧，是诺曼·李尔的第一部成功电视作品。
All in the Family, based on a British series, is Norman Lear’s first television success.
FCC 制定了黄金时段访问规则，表面上限制网络在黄金时段每晚只能播放三个小时的节目。
FCC institutes Prime Time Access rule, ostensibly limiting networks to three hours of programming per evening in prime time.
十一月。英特尔推出首款微处理器芯片 4004。
November. Intel introduces the 4004, first microprocessor chip.
每个计算机存储芯片可容纳 1 KB（1,024 位）信息。
Computer memory chips can hold 1 kilobit (1,024 bits) of information each.
IBM 推出了用于数据存储的“软盘”磁盘。
IBM introduces the “floppy” magnetic disc for data storage.
FCC 授权“专业公共运营商”与 AT&T 竞争，为客户提供长途专线。
FCC authorizes “specialized common carriers” to compete with AT&T in providing long-distance private lines to customers.
文字处理计算机开始对办公程序产生影响。
Word-processing computers begin to have an effect on office procedures.
1972年
1972
推出四声道光盘系统。公众的反应微乎其微。
Quadraphonic disc system introduced. The public response is minimal.
《生活》杂志停止定期出版。
Life magazine ceases regular publication.
贝托鲁奇的《巴黎最后的探戈》被认为是对性的成熟处理，是改变道德态度的里程碑。
Bertolucci’s Last Tango in Paris is considered a mature treatment of sex, a landmark in changing moral attitudes.
戈达尔和戈林用Tout va bien完成了 Dziga-Vertov 实验。戈达尔转向视频。
Godard and Gorin finish Dziga-Vertov experiments with Tout va bien. Godard turns to video.
Intel 的 8008 是第一个 8 位微处理器。
Intel’s 8008 is first 8-bit microprocessor.
加拿大第一颗国产通信卫星 Anik I 发射升空。
Canada’s Anik I is launched, first domestic communications satellite.
FCC 批准公共运营商卫星服务。
FCC approves common carrier satellite services.
科波拉的《教父》成为迄今为止最赚钱的电影。
Coppola’s The Godfather becomes the most profitable film of all time, to date.
Xerox 演示了 Alto 图形用户界面。
Xerox demonstrates the Alto graphical user interface.
诺兰·布什内尔 (Nolan Bushnell) 的 Pong 街机游戏取得了成功，Magnavox 的 Odyssey 视频游戏机也进入了家庭。
Nolan Bushnell’s Pong arcade game is a success and Magnavox’s Odyssey video-game machine invades the home.
1973年
1973
第一次石油危机大大加速了公民乐队（CB）广播的发展。
Growth of Citizens Band (CB) radio greatly accelerated by first oil crisis.
华纳兄弟的《驱魔人》标志着人们对电影震撼效果的重新兴趣。
Warners’ The Exorcist marks renewed interest in shock effect of film.
迈克尔·克莱顿 (Michael Crichton) 的《西部世界》利用计算机生成的图形并预示了二十年后虚拟现实的问题。
Michael Crichton’s Westworld utilizes computer-generated graphics and presages the problems of virtual reality twenty years hence.
在线法律图书馆 Lexis 开业。
Lexis, a law library online, opens for business.
Micral 微型计算机（André Truong Trong Thi 和 François Gernelle）在法国推出，是最早的基于微处理器的非套件个人计算机。
The Micral microcomputer (André Truong Trong Thi and François Gernelle) is introduced in France, earliest non-kit personal computer based on a microprocessor.
1974年
1974
米高梅首次选择退出电影业务，出售工作室、布景和服装。
MGM opts out of film business for the first time, sells studio, sets, and costumes.
Home Box Office 是一个付费电视频道，通过有线电视系统进行营销。
Home Box Office, a pay-television channel, is marketed through cable systems.
罗珀民意调查显示，电视首次超过报纸成为大多数人的主要新闻来源。
A Roper poll shows that, for the first time, television is the prime source of news for most people, having surpassed newspapers.
水门事件听证会进行电视转播。
Watergate hearings televised.
伊士曼推出 5247 色料。
Eastman introduces 5247 color stock.
女性开始集体涉足电影和视频领域。
Women begin moving into film and video en masse.
计算机内存芯片现在容量为 4 kbit。
Computer memory chips now hold 4 kilobits.
伯格曼执导了六集的电视剧《婚姻场景》。
Bergman directs six-part Scenes from a Marriage for television.
美国第一颗国产通信卫星Westar 发射。
Westar, the first U.S. domestic communications satellite, is launched.
1975年
1975
一月。Altair 8800 是美国第一台向公众销售的个人电脑
January. The Altair 8800 is the first personal computer offered for sale to public in U.S.
推出杜比电影音响系统。
Dolby film sound system introduced.
法国电视台重组为三个网络，其中两个接受广告。
French television reorganized into three networks, two of which accept advertising.
Networks agree on self-censorship “Family Time” provision.
HBO 开始以高价向有线系统运营商卫星分发其节目，建立了第一个全国性有线网络。
HBO begins satellite distribution of its programming for cable system operators to offer at a premium price, establishing the first national cable network.
奥特曼的纳什维尔上映。
Altman’s Nashville released.
《大白鲨》创下了票房纪录。
Jaws sets box office records.
戴维斯的《心灵与思想》，关于越南的精彩纪录片。
Davis’s Hearts and Minds, remarkable documentary on Vietnam.
FCC 要求电视机制造商生产具有与 VHF 调谐相当的点击停止 UHF 调谐功能的电视机。
FCC requires television set manufacturers to build sets with click-stop UHF tuning comparable to VHF tuning.
哈斯克尔·韦克斯勒 (Haskell Wexler) 在《Bound for Glory》中首次使用斯坦尼康。
Steadicam is used for the first time, by Haskell Wexler on Bound for Glory.
意大利电视管制放松。
Italian television deregulated.
索尼推出 Betamax 1/2 英寸录像带。
Sony introduces its Betamax ½-inch videocassette.
微软公司由比尔·盖茨和保罗·艾伦创立。
Microsoft Corporation founded by Bill Gates and Paul Allen.
1976年
1976
伯格曼离开瑞典。
Bergman leaves Sweden.
南非是所有规模的国家中最后一个开始电视服务的国家。
South Africa is the last nation of any size to begin television service.
到 1976 年底，美国电视网出售了 1977 年的所有黄金广告时段。
By end of 1976, U.S. networks sell all prime advertising time for 1977.
ABC 首次夺得收视率第一名。
ABC places first in ratings for first time.
索尼销售的家用录像带 Betamax 盒式磁带系统。
Home videotape Betamax cassette system marketed by Sony.
十月。英国Prestel图文系统开始运行。
October. British Prestel videotext system begins operations.
贝托鲁奇的1900年。
Bertolucci’s 1900.
今年盒式录音带的销量超过了 8 轨盒式磁带的销量。
More audiocassettes are sold this year than 8-track cartridges.
在过去的十八个月里，RCA 和 AT&T 分别发射了 Satcom 和 Comstar 卫星，标志着卫星通信系统的成熟。
During the past eighteen months RCA and AT&T have launched their Satcom and Comstar satellites, respectively, marking the maturity of satellite communications systems.
1977年
1977
1 月 23 日至 30 日。亚历克斯·哈利 (Alex Haley) 的《根源》在美国广播公司 (ABC) 播出，创下了收视率记录。八集中有六集将跻身有史以来十大电视节目之列。
January 23–30. Alex Haley’s Roots is broadcast on ABC, setting ratings records. Six of the eight episodes will rank among the top ten television shows of all time.
4 月 27 日，Polaroid 公司的 Edwin Land 展示即时电影系统 Polavision，并立即出售。它在市场上并不成功。
April 27. Edwin Land of Polaroid Corp. demonstrates Polavision, instant movie system, for immediate sale. It is not successful in the marketplace.
NBC 新闻首次使用更多的磁带而不是胶片。
For the first time, NBC News uses more tape than film.
计算机内存芯片现在可容纳 16 kb 信息：比五年前强大 16 倍。
Computer memory chips now hold 16 kilobits of information: 16 times more powerful than five years previously.
秋天。大卫·贝格曼事件将公众的注意力集中在好莱坞不正当的商业行为上。
Autumn. The David Begelman affair focuses public attention on shady Hollywood business practices.
伍迪·艾伦饰演的安妮·霍尔在评论界和商业上的成功标志着电影业从好莱坞轻微转向纽约。
Critical and commercial success of Woody Allen’s Annie Hall marks slight shift of film industry away from Hollywood, toward New York.
乔治·卢卡斯的《星球大战》上映后，迅速成为有史以来票房最高的电影。
George Lucas’s Star Wars is released, quickly becomes highest grossing film of all time.
在收视率和广告收入方面，美国广播公司 (ABC) 取代哥伦比亚广播公司 (CBS) 成为美国领先的电视网。自五十年代初以来，哥伦比亚广播公司几乎无一例外地占据着第一的位置。大量 NBC 和 CBS 附属公司叛逃到 ABC。
ABC displaces CBS as leading American network in terms of ratings and advertising revenues. CBS had held the number one position almost without exception since the early fifties. A significant number of NBC and CBS affiliates defect to ABC.
迪斯科音乐的兴起因电影《周六夜狂热》的受欢迎而达到顶峰。
Rise of disco music culminates in popularity of the film Saturday Night Fever.
Warner-AMEX 的 QUBE 是第一个交互式有线电视系统，在俄亥俄州哥伦布市推出。它不会持续；该技术还不够强大。
Warner-AMEX’s QUBE, the first interactive cable television system, is introduced in Columbus, Ohio. It doesn’t last; the technology is not yet powerful enough.
Apple II 微型计算机有售。
The Apple II microcomputer is offered for sale.
1978年
1978
《周末夜狂热》虽然在影院取得了巨大成功，但原声带专辑销售收入却比票房收入还要多。
Saturday Night Fever, while highly successful in theaters, nevertheless earns more from soundtrack album sales than from the box office.
一月。猎户座影业工作室由联美五位前高管组建。通过有效租用华纳兄弟的发行系统，Orion 避免了超过 2.5 亿美元的启动成本。
January. Orion Pictures Corporation Studio is formed by five former top executives of United Artists. By in effect renting Warners’ distribution system, Orion avoids startup costs of more than $250 million.
四月。《Variety》杂志发表了对Lectric Lady Disco的第一篇“Vidcassette”评论，该节目声称是第一部专门为家庭录像带市场制作的节目。
April. Variety publishes its first “Vidcassette” review, of Lectric Lady Disco, which claims to be the first show produced specifically for the home videotape market.
弗雷德·西尔弗曼 (Fred Silverman) 曾任哥伦比亚广播公司 (CBS) 和美国广播公司 (ABC) 的节目主管，当时这两个电视网在收视率排行榜上名列前茅，现在他转任 NBC 担任总裁。
Fred Silverman, formerly head of programming at both CBS and ABC when those networks ranked first in the ratings game, moves to NBC as president.
《油脂》和《超人》的上映强化了大片心理。
Releases of Grease and Superman reinforce blockbuster psychology.
10 月 4 日。在哥伦比亚广播公司 (CBS) 直播的一场电视比赛中，吉米·康纳斯 (Jimmy Connors) 使用了“胡说”一词。没有收到任何投诉。
October 4. In a live network broadcast of a television match on CBS, Jimmy Connors uses the expletive “bullshit.” No complaints are received.
10 月 5 日。 《出租车》的一集中使用了“混蛋”这个词。
October 5. In an episode of Taxi the word “bastard” is used.
伦敦《泰晤士报》震惊了。（这篇论文直到一年后才会再次发表。）
The Times of London is struck. (The paper will not appear again until a year later.)
十二月。Philips-MCA 开始在亚特兰大和西雅图试销他们的视频光盘播放器。
December. Philips-MCA begin test-marketing their videodisc player in Atlanta and Seattle.
阿斯彭项目在尼古拉斯·尼葛洛庞帝的监督下，对记录的图像和声音进行随机访问计算机控制的实验，从而奠定了多媒体的基础。这套视频光盘是国防部的原型，允许用户游览科罗拉多州阿斯彭，几乎沿着每条街道行驶，选择在每个拐角处转弯的方式。
The Aspen Project, under the supervision of Nicholas Negroponte, experiments with random access computer control of recorded images and sounds, and hence establishes the basis for multimedia. A prototype for the Department of Defense, this set of videodiscs allows the user to tour Aspen, CO, virtually driving down every street, choosing which way to turn at every corner.
芝加哥受欢迎的报纸影评人吉恩·西斯克尔和罗杰·艾伯特出现在 PBS 首届影评节目中，确立了 80 年代的影评趋势。
Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert, popular newspaper film critics in Chicago, appear on first PBS film review show, establishing the critical trend for the eighties.
在英国布莱顿举行的国际电影档案联合会（FIAF）大会建立了布莱顿项目，开启了电影研究新历史主义的趋势。
Congress at Brighton, England, of the Fédération Internationale des Archives du Film (FIAF) establishes the Brighton Project, beginning the trend to a new historicism in film studies.
1979年
1979
加拿大和澳大利亚成为电影强国。
Canada and Australia emerge as film powers.
2 月 17 日。在《周六夜现场》(NBC) 节目中，吉尔达·拉德纳 (Gilda Radner) 模仿歌手帕蒂·史密斯 (Patti Smith)。她唱的这首歌是献给米克·贾格尔的，其中有副歌：“你是女人吗，你是男人吗/我是你最大的粉丝。” 歌词是乱码，但副歌很清楚。据《纽约时报》报道，两天后，NBC 在演出期间和演出结束后接到了 160 个电话。“75 人认为拉德纳小姐的语言‘恶心’；但该电视台称，85 岁的人认为她是“一位出色且非常有才华的女士。”
February 17. On Saturday Night Live (NBC) Gilda Radner performs a parody of singer Patti Smith. The song she sings is dedicated to Mick Jagger and includes the refrain: “Are you woman, are you man/I’m your biggest fucked-up fan.” The lyrics are garbled but the refrain is clear. According to The New York Times two days later, NBC received 160 calls during and right after the show. “75 found Miss Radner’s language ’disgusting;’ but 85, the network said, thought she was ’a fabulous and very talented lady.’”
“中国综合症”在三哩岛发生的事件实际发生前几周就已经预示了这一事件。
The China Syndrome foreshadows events at Three Mile Island several weeks before they actually occur.
尽管《星际迷航：电影》据称耗资 4000 万美元， 《现代启示录》耗资 3000 万美元，但《肉丸》 、《重新开始》、 《决裂》和《克莱默对克莱默》等“小”电影的成功标志着大片的成功。
Success of “small” films like Meatballs, Starting Over, Breaking Away, and Kramer vs Kramer marks shift away from blockbusters, despite Star Trek: The Motion Picture, reputed to have cost $40 million, and Apocalypse Now, $30 million.
米拉麦克斯电影公司，独立发行商，由哈维和鲍勃·韦恩斯坦创立。
Miramax Films, independent distributor, founded by Harvey and Bob Weinstein.
约翰·塞尔斯的《锡考克斯七人归来》点燃了美国独立电影的复兴。
John Sayles’s The Return of the Secaucus Seven ignites a resurgence of the American independent cinema.
澳大利亚墨尔本一家电视台首次提供 3D 服务。
A Melbourne, Australia, television station offers the first 3-D service.
二十多年来，唱片业的收入首次出现下降。几家企业集团开始出售旗下唱片公司。
For the first time in more than twenty years, revenues in the recording industry are down. Several conglomerates move to sell their record companies.
8 月 15 日，弗朗西斯·科波拉 (Francis Coppola) 的《现代启示录》终于上映，并进行了精心策划的宣传活动。
August 15. Francis Coppola’s Apocalypse Now is finally released, accompanied by an elaborate publicity campaign.
C-SPAN 和 ESPN 有线网络成立。
C-SPAN and ESPN cable networks founded.
VisiCalc 是第一个电子表格程序，它为商人提供了购买 Apple II 微型计算机的充分理由。
VisiCalc, the first spreadsheet program, gives businesspeople a good reason to buy the Apple II microcomputer.
文字处理设备的不断发展为书籍、报纸和杂志提供了更有效的新排版方法。
Continued development of word processing equipment suggests new more efficient methods of typesetting for books, newspapers, and magazines.
用于接收卫星信号的大型家用碟形天线以合理的成本向公众提供。
Large home dish antennas to receive satellite signals are offered to the public at reasonable cost.
演员工会袭击好莱坞电影和电视制片厂，以获取未来磁带、光盘、卫星电视和其他附属权利的份额。
Screen Actors Guild strikes Hollywood film and television studios to gain share of future tape, disc, satellite, and other ancillary rights.
4 月 29 日。阿尔弗雷德·希区柯克去世，享年 80 岁。
29 April. Alfred Hitchcock dies at 80.
戈达尔以《拯救生命》回归故事片。
Godard returns to feature films with Sauve qui peut la vie.
迈克尔·西米诺的《天堂之门》是继《埃及艳后》之后最大的财务灾难，也标志着联美公司走向终结的开始。
Michael Cimino’s Heaven’s Gate is the biggest financial disaster since Cleopatra and marks the beginning of the end for United Artists.
六月。CNN 有线电视服务推出，在自己的地盘上向电视网发起挑战：新闻。
June. CNN cable service launched, challenging networks on their own turf: news.
美国电影营销协会随着独立发行商的加入而成立。
American Film Marketing Association is founded as independent distributors join the establishment.
马丁·斯科塞斯 (Martin Scorsese) 的《愤怒的公牛》(Raging Bull)以黑白版上映，随后被美国影评人评选为 20 世纪 80 年代最佳影片。
Martin Scorsese’s Raging Bull released in black-and-white, later voted the best film of the 1980s by American critics.
十一月。罗纳德·里根是第一位当选美国总统的电影演员。
November. Ronald Reagan is first movie actor elected president of the United States.
1981–1999：Digita I 转型
1981–1999: The Digita I Transition
1981年
1981
微软赢得了为IBM个人电脑提供操作系统软件的合同。IBM 的这份礼物将使创始人比尔盖茨和保罗艾伦在三十岁之前成为亿万富翁。
Microsoft wins the contract to provide operating system software for IBM’s personal computer. This gift from IBM will make founders Bill Gates and Paul Allen multibillionaires before the age of thirty.
Xerox 推出了第一台带有图形用户界面的商用微型计算机 Star，但其售价为 16,000 美元，并不成功。
Xerox introduces the first commercially available microcomputer with a graphical user interface, the Star, but at a price of $16,000 it is not a success.
计算机 RAM 芯片现在容量为 64 kb。
Computer RAM chips now hold 64 kilobits.
可能。柯克·科克里安 (Kirk Kerkorian) 从 Transamerica 收购了联合艺术家 (United Artists)。
May. Kirk Kerkorian acquires United Artists from Transamerica.
石油商马文·戴维斯收购了二十世纪福克斯公司。
Oilman Marvin Davis purchases Twentieth Century Fox.
八月。IBM PC 建立了微型计算机的标准，使用 Microsoft 的 DOS 操作系统（CP/M 的衍生版）。
August. IBM PC establishes the standard for microcomputers, using Microsoft’s DOS operating system, a derivative of CP/M.
FCC 批准美国 AM 立体声系统 没有人注意到。
FCC approves AM stereo system for U.S. No one notices.
派拉蒙旗下的《今夜娱乐》成为首个全国性娱乐新闻节目。
Paramount’s syndicated Entertainment Tonight becomes first national entertainment news show.
格兰特·廷克 (Grant Tinker) 成为 NBC 的负责人，带领公司在十年内取得收视率第一的地位。
Grant Tinker becomes head of NBC, to lead company to ratings primacy in the decade.
卢卡斯和斯皮尔伯格的《夺宝奇兵》复兴了 20 世纪 40 年代的连续剧风格，建立了一种新的冒险类型。
Lucas’s and Spielberg’s Raiders of the Lost Ark revives the serial style of the 1940s as it establishes a new Adventure genre.
8月1日，MTV推出，开创电视使用新模式。它将成为这十年来的主导文化力量之一。
August 1. MTV launched, establishing new model for television use. It will become one of the dominant cultural forces of the decade.
沃尔特·克朗凯特（Walter Cronkite）是早期广播界最后一位权威新闻记者，他退休了。
Walter Cronkite, last of the authoritative newsmen from the early days of broadcasting, retires.
史蒂文·博奇科 (Steven Bochco) 的《希尔街布鲁斯》(Hill Street Blues)首播，刷新了小时剧的形式，标志着 NBC 开始登上收视榜榜首。
Steven Bochco’s Hill Street Blues debuts, refreshing the form of the hour drama and marking the beginning of NBC’s rise to the top of the ratings heap.
弗朗西斯·科波拉赞助修复阿贝尔·冈斯的《拿破仑》，掀起了一股对电影保存的兴趣。
Francis Coppola sponsors restoration of Abel Gance’s Napoléon, setting off a minor wave of interest in film preservation.
The Gods Must Be Crazy, a small South African film, garners considerable international attention.
十二月。法国小型电信系统的试验在韦利济镇进行。
December. Trials of French Minitel system take place in the town of Vélizy.
美国的电缆普及率不到 30%；VCR 普及率接近 8%。
Cable penetration in the U.S. is less than 30 percent; VCR penetration approaches 8 percent.
1982年
1982
斯皮尔伯格的《外星人》创下了票房纪录。《里斯的碎片》的出现标志着植入式广告业务的开始。
Spielberg’s E.T. sets box-office records. The featuring of “Reese’s Pieces” signals the beginning of the product placement business.
可口可乐收购哥伦比亚影业公司，违背了放映业的旧规则，即利润实际上是在特许柜台上。
Coca-Cola buys Columbia Pictures in a contradiction of the old rule of exhibition that the profit is really at the concessions counter.
三星工作室是哥伦比亚、哥伦比亚广播公司和 HBO 的合资企业，试图提供另一种发行渠道。
TriStar studio established as a joint venture of Columbia, CBS, and HBO, in an attempt to provide an alternative channel of distribution.
《甘地》的成功标志着金冠电影公司的登上舞台。
The success of Gandhi marks the arrival on the scene of Goldcrest Films.
RW 法斯宾德去世，享年 37 岁，标志着《新电影》的终结。
R. W. Fassbinder dies at 37, marking the end of Das Neue Kino.
录音带销量首次超过唱片销量。
Sales of audiocassettes exceed sales of records for the first time.
音频 CD 格式引入日本。
The audio CD format is introduced in Japan.
迪士尼的《电子世界争霸战》广泛使用了计算机生成的图形。
Disney’s Tron makes extensive use of computer-generated graphics.
FCC 制定了低功率电视 (LPTV) 的要求。它将被电缆的增长所取代。
FCC establishes requirements for low-power television (LPTV). It will be superseded by the growth of cable.
《银翼杀手》成为了一部备受追捧的电影，也是未来黑色科幻电影的典范。
Blade Runner becomes a cult favorite and a model for the Film-Noir Science-Fiction films of the future.
北京电影学院的毕业班凝聚成所谓的中国第五代电影人。他们进入1978年，当时文化大革命后恢复了全国高考。
Graduating class of the Beijing Film Institute coalesces into the so-called Fifth Generation of Chinese filmmakers. They had entered in 1978, when nationwide college entrance exams had been reinstituted after the Cultural Revolution.
十一月。第四频道在英国开业，其任务是为少数族裔提供服务。
November. Channel 4 opens in the U.K. with mandate to serve minorities.
戈弗雷·雷吉奥 (Godfrey Reggio) 的《Koyaanisqatsi》，无对话或旁白，由菲利普·格拉斯 (Philip Glass) 配乐。在看《难以忽视的真相》之前先看看它。
Godfrey Reggio’s Koyaanisqatsi, no dialogue or narration, score by Philip Glass. See it before you see An Inconvenient Truth.
1983年
1983
劳伦斯·卡斯丹的《大寒》在《锡考克斯七人归来》的主题中添加了摩城配乐，标志着婴儿潮一代的电影时代的到来，并成为十年来具有代表性的美国电影。
Lawrence Kasdan’s The Big Chill adds a Motown soundtrack to the themes of The Return of the Secaucus Seven, marks the cinematic coming of age of the baby boom generation, and serves as the emblematic American film of the decade.
通过将人物与历史镜头相结合，伍迪·艾伦的泽利格提出了未来十年的技术可能性。
By combining characters with historical footage, Woody Allen’s Zelig suggests the technical possibilities that lie ten years ahead.
《龙之巢穴》是第一款使用激光光盘技术来提供更多真实感的街机视频游戏。随着美国娱乐业的权力中心开始从好莱坞转移到硅谷，街机游戏的收入现已超过影院电影的租金。
Dragon’s Lair is the first arcade video game to use laserdisc technology to provide more realism. Revenue from arcade games now exceeds theatrical film rentals as the locus of power in the American entertainment industry begins to shift from Hollywood to Silicon Valley.
美国广播公司 (ABC) 在 20 世纪 80 年代反核运动复兴期间播出了《后天》，通过生动地描述美苏核战争的后果，吸引了巨大的收视率，并引发了争议。《后天》让人想起20 年前的《万无一失》和《奇爱博士》等电影，它强化了 20 世纪 80 年代的翻拍理念。
ABC broadcasts The Day After in the middle of the 1980s revival of the antinuclear movement, drawing huge ratings and sparking controversy with its graphic depiction of the aftermath of a nuclear war between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. Reminiscent of films like Fail-Safe and Dr. Strangelove twenty years earlier, The Day After serves as an eerie reinforcement of the remake philosophy that characterizes the 1980s.
Radio Shack 100 推出，这是第一款流行的“笔记本”电脑，特别受到记者的青睐。
The Radio Shack 100 introduced, first popular “notebook” computer, especially favored by journalists.
1 月 24 日，苹果电脑公司1984 年具有里程碑意义的广告在超级碗期间播放，介绍了麦金塔电脑，并确立了年度盛会期间播放奢华广告的传统。
January 24. Apple Computer Inc.’s landmark 1984 commercial is shown during the Super Bowl, introducing the Macintosh, and establishing the tradition of lavish commercials featured during the annual event.
计算机 RAM 芯片现在容量为 256 kb。
Computer RAM chips now hold 256 kilobits.
AT&T 拆分为八家公司：七家“区域贝尔运营公司”(RBOC) 和一家长途电话供应商（仍称为 AT&T）。
AT&T broken up into eight companies: seven “Regional Bell Operating Companies” (RBOCs) and a long-distance vendor (still called AT&T).
美国有线电视行业放松管制。
U.S. cable television industry deregulated.
迈克尔·杰克逊的《Thriller》（由约翰·兰迪斯执导）是第一部列出电影制作人作品的音乐视频，并且大受欢迎。
Michael Jackson’s Thriller (directed by John Landis) is the first music video to list filmmakers’ credits—and a huge hit.
Criterion 在激光光盘上发行的《公民凯恩》和《金刚》标志着这种新媒体为影迷带来的可能性。
Criterion’s release of Citizen Kane and King Kong on Laserdisc mark the possibilities of this new medium for cinephiles.
比尔·科斯比的《科斯比秀》首次亮相。
Bill Cosby’s The Cosby Show debuts.
Canal Plus 创立了法国首个付费电视服务。
Canal Plus founded, first French pay-television service.
弗朗索瓦·特吕弗因脑瘤在纳伊美国医院去世。
François Truffaut dies of a brain tumor at the American Hospital in Neuilly.
Touchstone Pictures 发现，迈克尔·艾斯纳 (Michael Eisner) 和杰弗里·卡森伯格 (Jeffrey Katzenberg) 接手迪士尼，迪士尼正在努力加入主流发行商行列。
Michael Eisner and Jeffrey Katzenberg take over at Disney, found Touchstone Pictures, as Disney makes bid to join mainstream distributors.
《捉鬼敢死队》在电影和流行文化之间建立了一种新的关系，因为它的图像成为我们口语表达的一部分。
Ghostbusters establishes a new relation between the movies and popular culture as its iconography becomes part of our colloquial expression.
加勒特·布朗的 Skycam 技术首次在洛杉矶奥运会上使用。
Garrett Brown’s Skycam technology is used for the first time at the Los Angeles Olympics.
威廉·吉布森的《神经漫游者》以对十年后等待着我们的社会“网络空间”的黑暗愿景来纪念奥威尔式的这一年。
William Gibson’s Neuromancer memorializes this Orwellian year with its dark vision of the social “cyberspace” that awaits us ten years hence.
《黄土地》的上映开启了华语电影的新浪潮。
The release of Yellow Earth begins a new wave of Chinese-language films.
《终结者》开启了阿诺·施瓦辛格作为世界顶级电影明星的崛起之路，并在七年后的《终结者 2》中达到顶峰。
The Terminator begins the rise to prominence of Arnold Schwarzenegger as the world’s leading movie star that culminates with Terminator 2 seven years later.
事实证明，这一年与奥威尔的小说（或其电影）完全不同。事实上，“改革”和“开放”即将到来，这将标志着奥威尔所担心的极权主义浪潮结束的开始。
The year turns out to be nothing like Orwell’s novel (or the film of it). Indeed, just around the corner, “perestroika” and “glasnost” will mark the beginning of the end of the totalitarian wave Orwell feared.
1985年
1985
索尼和飞利浦推出了用于数据存储的 CD-ROM 格式。
Sony and Philips introduce the CD-ROM format for data storage.
行进。ABC 网络以 35 亿美元的价格出售给首都城市广播公司。不久之后，NBC 和 CBS 易手。
March. ABC network sold to Capital Cities Broadcasting for $3.5 billion. NBC and CBS change hands shortly after.
可能。随着鲁珀特·默多克开始建立他的美国媒体帝国，福克斯收购了 Metromedia 广播集团。
May. Fox acquires Metromedia broadcast group as Rupert Murdoch begins to build his U.S. media empire.
默多克从马文·戴维斯手中收购了二十世纪福克斯公司，并任命巴里·迪勒为总裁。
Murdoch acquires Twentieth Century Fox from Marvin Davis and installs Barry Diller as head.
法国Minitel系统投入商用。
French Minitel system commercially introduced.
十二月。GE 宣布将收购 RCA 及其 NBC 子公司。（该交易于 1986 年完成。）
December. GE announces it will buy RCA and its NBC subsidiary. (The deal is completed in 1986.)
1986年
1986
取消庇护所的税法变化伤害了独立电影制片人。
Changes in the tax code eliminating shelters hurt independent filmmakers.
配备立体声音频和遥控器的电视机现在很常见。
Television sets equipped with stereophonic audio and remote controls are now common.
任天堂在家庭视频游戏市场占据主导地位，在很大程度上取代了街机游戏业务。
Nintendo dominates the home video game market, which has largely superseded the arcade game business.
福克斯的《时事》推出，为小报电视树立了典范。
Fox’s A Current Affair launched, establishing model for tabloid television.
行进。特德·特纳 (Ted Turner) 从柯克·科克里安 (Kirk Kerkorian) 手中收购了米高梅/UA，将其出售给 Lorimar Telepictures，并将其他资产卖回柯克·科克里安 (Kirk Kerkorian)，保留电影库，并将其更名为特纳娱乐公司 (Turner Entertainment Company)。
March. Ted Turner buys MGM/UA from Kirk Kerkorian, sells the lot to Lorimar Telepictures and other assets back to Kirk Kerkorian, keeps the film library, and renames it Turner Entertainment Company.
3 月 1 日。Grateful Dead 会议在 Well（一个开创性的在线社区）上成立。
March 1. The Grateful Dead conference is founded on the Well, a pioneering online community.
斯派克·李的《她必须拥有它》在戛纳电影节上取得了成功，标志着黑人电影的复兴。
Spike Lee’s She’s Gotta Have It is a success at the Cannes Film Festival, marking a renaissance in Black film.
《我美丽的自助洗衣店》、《看得见风景的房间》和《蒙娜丽莎》标志着英国迷你新浪潮的开始，而英国制片人大卫·普特南作为哥伦比亚影业公司总裁的风雨飘摇则标志着好莱坞与伦敦华德街之间的新关系。
My Beautiful Laundrette, A Room with a View, and Mona Lisa mark the beginning of a British mini-new wave, while British producer David Puttnam’s stormy tenure as head of Columbia Pictures marks new relationship between Hollywood and London’s Wardour Street.
《野战排》复兴了始于 20 世纪 70 年代并持续到 1990 年代的越南电影类型。
Platoon revives the genre of Vietnam films begun in the 1970s that continues into the 1990s.
九月。福克斯电视网开始播出。
September. Fox television network begins broadcasting.
1987年
1987
Goldcrest 电影自毁。
Goldcrest Films self-destructs.
大卫·普特南离开哥伦比亚大学。
David Puttnam leaves Columbia.
《致命吸引力》引起了轰动，并为一系列新的偏执幻想树立了典范；根据测试的方式，这部电影在不同的市场上以不同的结局上映。
Fatal Attraction causes a sensation and sets the model for a new series of paranoid fantasies; the film is released with different endings in different markets, according to the way it tests.
3月1日，DVI技术在第二届微软CD-ROM大会上展示。尽管从未在市场上取得成功，但它是数字视频的先驱。
March 1. DVI technology demonstrated at the second Microsoft CD-ROM conference. Although never successful in the market, it is the precursor of digital video.
据报道，剧院巨头萨姆纳·雷石东 (Sumner Redstone) 以 34 亿美元收购了维亚康姆 (Viacom)。
Theater magnate Sumner Redstone purchases Viacom for a reported $3.4 billion.
八月。FCC 废除了自 1949 年以来生效的公平原则，该原则要求广播公司花一些时间讨论有争议的问题，并纳入反对的观点。
August. FCC abolishes Fairness Doctrine, in force since 1949, that required broadcasters to devote some time to the discussion of controversial issues, and to include opposing points of view.
亨利·汉普顿 (Henry Hampton) 的《关注奖项》在 PBS 上播出，证实了电视作为历史媒介的价值。
Henry Hampton’s Eyes on the Prize, broadcast on PBS, confirms the value of television as an historical medium.
《致命武器》（梅尔·吉布森、丹尼·格洛弗）和《铁血战士》（阿诺·施瓦辛格）清楚地表明动作片现在是美国电影的主导类型。
Lethal Weapon (Mel Gibson, Danny Glover) and Predator (Arnold Schwarzenegger) make it clear that Action movies are now the dominant genre in American film.
计算机 RAM 芯片现在可容纳 1 兆位（1,024 千位）。
Computer RAM chips now hold 1 megabit (1,024 kilobits).
1988年
1988
鲁珀特·默多克 (Rupert Murdoch) 的天空电视台开始在英国进行小型卫星到户广播，从而无需建造大型有线基础设施。
Rupert Murdoch’s Sky TV begins small-dish satellite-to-home broadcasting in the U.K., obviating the need to build a massive cable infrastructure.
默多克以 30 亿美元从 Annenberg Communications 手中收购了TV Guide 。
Murdoch purchases TV Guide from Annenberg Communications for $3 billion.
一月。据报道，索尼斥资 20 亿美元收购了哥伦比亚广播公司唱片公司 (CBS Records)。
January. Sony purchases CBS Records for a reported $2 billion.
2 月 18 日。在此日期之前，人们会问：“你有传真吗？” 在此日期之后，他们会询问：“您的传真号码是多少？”
February 18. Before this date people ask, “Do you have a fax?” After this date they demand, “What’s your fax number?”
九月。IBM 与 Sears 的合资企业 Prodigy 是一家面向公众的在线服务公司，据称投资了 5 亿美元，现已开业。
September. IBM-Sears joint venture Prodigy, an online service aimed at the general public, opens after reported $500 million investment.
十月。特纳创立了 TNT 有线电视网络，专门播放他的米高梅图书馆中的经典电影。
October. Turner founds TNT cable network, devoted to classic movies from his MGM library.
1989年
1989
约翰·卡索维茨 (John Cassavetes)、理查德·鲁德 (Richard Roud) 和莱斯利·哈利韦尔 (Leslie Halliwell) 均于 59 岁去世，标志着电影史上现代时期的结束。
John Cassavetes, Richard Roud, and Leslie Halliwell all die at the age of 59, marking the end of the modern period in film history.
撒切尔夫人广播放松管制法案在下议院获得通过。
Thatcher broadcasting deregulation bill passes the House of Commons.
史蒂夫·罗斯将华纳与时代公司合并。新公司是世界上最大的媒体集团。
Steve Ross merges Warner with Time Inc. The new company is the largest media group in the world.
June. The Chinese Tienanmen Square revolt is broadcast to a world audience.
十一月。Voyager 发行了罗伯特·温特 (Robert Winter) 创作的《贝多芬第九交响曲 CD Companion》，这是多媒体发展的一个里程碑。
November. Voyager’s release of CD Companion to Beethoven’s 9th, by Robert Winter, is a landmark in the development of multimedia.
十一月。据报道，索尼以 34 亿美元的价格从可口可乐手中收购了哥伦比亚电影娱乐公司（哥伦比亚电影公司、三星电影公司和洛伊斯剧院），然后又斥资 2 亿美元收购了古伯-彼得斯娱乐公司，以便两家公司能够运营该工作室。
November. Sony purchases Columbia Pictures Entertainment (Columbia Pictures, TriStar Pictures, and Loews Theaters) from Coca-Cola for a reported $3.4 billion, then pays $200 million for the Guber-Peters Entertainment company so that the two principles can run the studio.
十一月。全世界电视转播柏林墙倒塌的消息。
November. The fall of the Berlin wall is televised worldwide.
索尼推出了第一款数码相机 Mavica，但很少有消费者愿意放弃胶片相机，因此它很快就失败了。八年后，成功来临。
Sony introduces the Mavica, first digital still camera, but few consumers are ready to switch from film, and it fails quickly. Success comes eight years later.
《性、谎言和录像带》和《罗杰和我》标志着以《斯考克斯七人归来》为起点的美国独立运动复兴的顶峰。
sex, lies and videotape and Roger and Me mark the high point of the resurgent American independent movement that began with Return of the Secaucus Seven.
肯尼思·布拉纳 (Kenneth Branagh) 与亨利五世 (Henry V)一起确立了自己这一代莎士比亚导演的地位。
Kenneth Branagh establishes himself as the Shakespearean director of his generation with Henry V.
欧洲粒子物理中心的蒂姆·伯纳斯·李发布了成为万维网基础的规范。
Tim Berners-Lee of the European Center for Particle Physics, releases the specifications that become the basis for the World Wide Web.
1990年
1990
默多克的天空电视台与英国卫星广播公司合并，成为世界上最大的卫星网络 B-Sky-B。
Murdoch’s Sky TV merges with British Satellite Broadcasting to become B-Sky-B, the largest satellite network in the world.
威廉·S·佩利 (William S. Paley) 去世，享年 90 岁。
William S. Paley dies at the age of 90.
联艺公司的最后一部电影是《洛奇 V》。
United Artists’ last film is Rocky V.
《Boyz N the Hood》和《冲出布鲁克林》加强了美国黑人独立电影的复兴
Boyz N the Hood and Straight Out of Brooklyn reinforce the developing revival of Black independent film in the U.S.
肯·伯恩斯 (Ken Burns) 的《内战》在 PBS 上播出，一套录像带销量很好，进一步使电视作为一种历史媒介合法化。
Ken Burns’s The Civil War, broadcast on PBS, sells well as a set of videotapes, further legitimizing television as an historical medium.
Sega 的 Genesis 是一款 16 位系统，从任天堂手中夺走了视频游戏业务的市场份额。
Sega’s Genesis, a 16-bit system, takes market share from Nintendo in the video game business.
行进。柯克·科克里安 (Kirk Kerkorian) 将米高梅的剩余股份出售给由吉安卡洛·帕雷蒂 (Giancarlo Parretti) 控制、里昂信贷银行 (Crédit Lyonnais) 资助的百代 (Pathé)。帕雷蒂很快就破产了，并受到起诉，银行承担了责任。
March. Kirk Kerkorian sells the remainder of MGM to Pathé, controlled by Giancarlo Parretti and funded by Crédit Lyonnais. Parretti is soon out of business and under indictment and the bank is left holding the bag.
可能。吉姆·汉森 (Jim Henson) 因细菌感染突然去世，享年 53 岁。他安排的将汉森联合公司出售给迪士尼的交易失败了。他的孩子控制了公司。
May. Jim Henson dies suddenly at 53 of a bacterial infection. The deal he had arranged to sell Henson Associates to Disney falls through. His children take control of the company.
十一月。据报道，松下以 61 亿美元收购了 MCA/Universal。大多数好莱坞制片厂现在都归外国公司所有。
November. Matsushita acquires MCA/Universal for a reported $6.1 billion. The majority of Hollywood studios are now owned by foreign companies.
1991年
1991
1 月 16 日。海湾战争爆发，向全世界观众现场直播。它的持续时间几乎与奥运会一样长。
January 16. The Gulf War begins, broadcast live to a worldwide audience as it happens. It lasts almost as long as an Olympics.
BBC 开始其电视全球服务，首先在欧洲，然后与 Star 卫星系统一起在亚洲。
BBC begins its television World Service, first in Europe, then in Asia in conjunction with Star satellite system.
美国有线电视普及率超过60%；VCR 渗透率超过 70%。
Cable penetration in the U.S. is more than 60 percent; VCR penetration exceeds 70 percent.
六月。Apple 推出 QuickTime 数字音频/视频技术。
June. Apple introduces QuickTime digital audio/video technology.
Voyager 发行了迈克尔·克莱顿 (Michael Crichton) 的《侏罗纪公园》和道格拉斯·亚当斯 (Douglas Adams) 的《银河系漫游指南》的软盘版本——第一本电子书。
Voyager releases diskette versions of Michael Crichton’s Jurassic Park and Douglas Adams’s The Complete Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy—the first eBooks.
特德·特纳与简·方达结婚，加入好莱坞皇室行列。
Ted Turner marries Jane Fonda, joining Hollywood royalty.
米高梅重新收购UA。
MGM reacquires UA.
11月25日，经过十多年的尝试，高清电视在日本开始播出。
November 25. HDTV broadcasting begins in Japan after trials of more than ten years.
Auction of British independent television franchises changes the face of U.K. television.
詹姆斯·卡梅隆的《终结者 2》标志着数字特效和变形技术的成熟。
James Cameron’s Terminator 2 marks the maturity of digital special effects and morphing.
Orion 根据破产法申请保护。
Orion files for protection under bankruptcy laws.
东芝和 C. Itoh 向时代华纳投资 10 亿美元。
Toshiba and C. Itoh invest $1 billion in Time Warner.
计算机 RAM 芯片现在可容纳 4 兆位。
Computer RAM chips now hold 4 megabits.
1992年
1992
二月。巴里·迪勒从福克斯辞职。到今年年底，在涉足计算机行业后，他将涉足家庭购物业务。
February. Barry Diller resigns from Fox. By the end of the year, after a tour of the computer industry, he will find himself in the home shopping business.
可能。约翰尼·卡森在主持《今夜秀》近三十年后退休。
May. Johnny Carson retires from the Tonight Show after nearly thirty-year run.
柯达推出了 Photo CD 产品，与索尼的 Mavica 不同，该产品允许消费者（和柯达）保留对化学胶片技术的巨额投资，同时仍然享受数字记录的好处。
Kodak introduces Photo CD product, which—unlike Sony’s Mavica—allows consumers (and Kodak) to keep their huge investment in chemical film technology while still enjoying the benefits of digital recording.
《玩家》标志着罗伯特·奥特曼的回归，它有效地讽刺了上世纪八九十年代的电影业，使他远离银幕。
The Player marks Robert Altman’s return to form as it effectively satirizes the film industry of the eighties and nineties that kept him off the screen.
有线电视巨头约翰·马龙 (John Malone) 宣布，他的公司 TCI 正在开发一种 500 频道的有线电视技术，可以实现电影点播。（这是一个计谋吗？）
Cable magnate John Malone announces his company, TCI, is developing a 500-channel cable technology that would allow movies on demand. (Is it a ploy?)
索尼推出采用小型 CD 和先进技术的迷你光盘播放器。
Sony introduces Minidisc player using small CDs and advanced technology.
《美女与野兽》是第一部获得奥斯卡最佳影片提名的动画电影。
Beauty and the Beast is the first animated film to be nominated for an Academy Award for best picture.
美国政治人物肯尼迪和马尔科姆·艾克斯的主要电影传记颇具争议。
Major film biographies of American political figures JFK and Malcolm X are controversial.
改编自 EM 福斯特小说的 Merchant-Ivory 制作的《霍华德庄园》将获得九项奥斯卡金像奖提名，艾玛·汤普森还获得奥斯卡奖，标志着文学电影的复兴。
Howards End, Merchant-Ivory production from the novel by E. M. Forster, will garner nine Academy Award nominations and an Oscar for Emma Thompson, marking the resurgence of the literary film.
1993年
1993
埃尔斯特里关门了。
Elstree closes.
Fin-Syn 规则限制了 FCC 限制的联合运营中的网络财务利益，为网络进入生产开辟了道路，从而损害了独立生产商的利益。1995年，该规则将被完全取消。
Fin-Syn rule restricting network financial interest in syndication operations restricted by the FCC opening the way for networks to enter production, hurting independent producers. In 1995, the rule will be eliminated entirely.
Voyager 发行的《A Hard Day's Night》多媒体 CD是第一张包含整部电影的数字 CD。
Voyager’s multimedia CD release of A Hard Day’s Night is the first digital CD to include an entire film.
斯皮尔伯格的《侏罗纪公园》创造了票房纪录，而他的《辛德勒名单》则赢得了奥斯卡奖。
Spielberg’s Jurassic Park sets box-office record while his Schindler’s List wins Oscars.
八月。Apple 推出了 Newton，这是最早的个人数字助理之一。
August. Apple introduces the Newton, one of the first Personal Digital Assistants.
九月。Macintosh 和 Windows 版本的 NCSA Mosaic 浏览器发布；万维网开始迅速崛起。
September. Macintosh and Windows versions of NCSA Mosaic browsers are released; the World Wide Web begins its rapid rise.
10 月 31 日。费德里科·费里尼去世，享年 73 岁。
October 31. Federico Fellini dies at 73.
Mercury 在伦敦推出了首个 PCS 服务 One-2-One。
Mercury introduces One-2-One, first PCS service, in London.
默多克获得了Star TV的控制权，该卫星系统覆盖以色列和台湾之间的大多数国家（包括中国和印度），因此拥有30亿潜在观众。
Murdoch acquires control of Star TV, satellite system which reaches most countries between Israel and Taiwan (including China and India) and thus has a potential audience of 3 billion.
泰德·特纳 (Ted Turner) 收购了“小型”发行商新线影院 (New Line Cinema)，巩固了他在电影行业的地位。
Ted Turner acquires New Line Cinema, a “mini-major” distributor, reinforcing his position in the film industry.
美国联邦通信委员会试图通过制定一套限制某些收费的规则来重新监管有线电视行业，但有线电视运营商发现了漏洞，提高的价格多于降低的价格。
FCC attempts to reregulate the cable industry by instituting a set of rules limiting certain charges, but cable operators find loopholes, raising more prices than they lower.
计算机 RAM 芯片现在可容纳 16 兆位。
Computer RAM chips now hold 16 megabits.
经过多年的发展，CD-ROM多媒体和在线交互技术在美国已成为可行的消费产品。
Both CD-ROM multimedia and online interactive technologies come of age in the U.S. as viable consumer products after many years of development.
经过与巴里·迪勒 (Barry Diller) 的 QVC 的长期斗争后，维亚康姆 (Viacom) 的所有者萨姆纳·雷石东 (Sumner Redstone) 收购了派拉蒙 (Paramount)，这是除迪士尼之外仅存的最后一家“独立”制片厂。
After a lengthy battle with Barry Diller’s QVC, Sumner Redstone, proprietor of Viacom, acquires Paramount, the last remaining “independent” studio besides Disney.
《纽约时报书评》对多媒体 CD 的首次评论。
First review of a multimedia CD in The New York Times Book Review.
福克斯电视网对哥伦比亚广播公司进行了一对二的打击，首先是通过以高于旧电视网的价格获得国家橄榄球联盟的转播权，然后诱使 12 个主要市场附属公司改变忠诚度。
The Fox network lands a one-two punch on CBS, first by outbidding the older network for National Football League broadcast rights, then by enticing twelve major-market affiliates to switch allegiance.
二月。经过持续数年的高风险竞争，HDTV 大联盟（以及 FCC）选择由 Zenith 和 AT&T 设计的数字 HDTV 系统作为拟议的美国系统的标准，超越了现有的日本模拟技术，并奠定了基础为下一阶段的数字化做好准备。
February. After a high-stakes competition lasting several years, the HDTV Grand Alliance (and by extension, the FCC) chooses a digital HDTV system designed by Zenith and AT&T as the standard for the proposed U.S. system, leapfrogging existing Japanese analog technology and setting the stage for the next stage of digitization.
行进。媒体巨头西尔维奥·贝卢斯科尼赢得意大利议会选举并成为总理。他是第一位领导一个大国的媒体大亨。
March. Media magnate Silvio Berlusconi wins Italian parliamentary elections and becomes Prime Minister. He is the first media mogul to head a major country.
行进。美国开始数字卫星系统（DSS）直接到户广播
March. Digital Satellite System (DSS) direct-to-home broadcasting begins in the U.S.
四月。Apple 推出了围绕 PowerPC 芯片（由 Apple、IBM 和 Motorola 设计）构建的新型 Power Macintosh 计算机，这是 PC 环境中的第一个 RISC 微处理器，拥有 700 万个晶体管。
April. Apple introduces a new line of Power Macintosh computers built around the PowerPC chip (designed by Apple, IBM, and Motorola), first RISC microprocessor in the PC environment, hosts seven million transistors.
四月。迪士尼高管弗兰克·威尔斯在直升机失事中丧生。
April. Disney top executive Frank Wells dies in helicopter crash.
可能。每月图书俱乐部推出第一张 CD-ROM 光盘：罗恩·曼 (Ron Mann) 的《动态诗歌》。
May. Book-of-the-Month Club offers first CD-ROM title, Ron Mann’s Poetry in Motion.
可能。戈达尔还在继续。他的自传体JLG by JLG — autoportrait de 12 月首映。
May. Godard’s still at it. His autobiographical JLG by JLG—autoportrait de décembre premieres.
八月。杰弗里·卡森伯格因继承纠纷从迪士尼辞职。几天之内，他就与史蒂文·斯皮尔伯格和大卫·格芬建立了业务往来。该公司打算成为一家完整的工作室运营公司，后来被命名为梦工厂 SKG。
August. Jeffrey Katzenberg resigns from Disney in a dispute over succession. Within days, he is in business with Steven Spielberg and David Geffen. The company, intending to be a full studio operation, is later named Dreamworks SKG.
九月。萨姆纳·雷石东 (Sumner Redstone) 旗下的维亚康姆 (Viacom) 完成了对韦恩·惠曾加 (Wayne Huizenga) 旗下最大零售视频连锁店 Blockbuster Video 的收购。
September. Sumner Redstone’s Viacom completes purchase of Wayne Huizenga’s Blockbuster Video, largest retail video chain.
TCI 与贝尔大西洋合并谈判失败。第一家电信娱乐集团将不得不等待。
TCI-Bell Atlantic merger talks fizzle. The first telco-entertainment conglomerate will have to wait.
今年，光盘版百科全书的销量首次超过印刷版百科全书的销量。
This year, sales of encyclopedias on CD-ROM exceed sales in print for the first time.
十二月。索尼推出首款 PlayStation 32 位游戏机。它将主导未来十年的游戏市场。
December. Sony introduces the first Playstation 32-bit game console. It will dominate the game market for the next decade.
12 月 22 日。贝卢斯科尼在 5 月份被起诉的威胁下失去了意大利总理的职位。（他不是第一个被起诉的媒体大亨。）
December 22. Berlusconi loses his post as Prime Minister of Italy, under the threat of an indictment, which comes in May. (He is not the first media mogul to be indicted.)
1995年
1995
一月。索尼/飞利浦和东芝/时代华纳推出了数字视频光盘竞争技术，分别存储 3.7 GB 和 4.8 GB。
January. Sony/Philips and Toshiba/Time Warner introduce competing technologies for Digital Video Discs, storing 3.7 and 4.8 gigabytes, respectively.
2 月 2 日。在此日期之前，人们会问：“你有电子邮件吗？” 在此日期之后，他们会询问：“您的电子邮件是什么？”
February 2. Before this date, people ask, “Do you have electronic mail?” After this date, they inquire, “What’s your email?”
可能。Apple 发布了 QuickTime VR 技术，用于简单、廉价的虚拟现实制作。
May. Apple releases QuickTime VR technology for simple, inexpensive virtual-reality productions.
六月。小埃德加·布朗夫曼 (Edgar Bronfman Jr) 完成了西格拉姆 (Seagram) 收购松下 (Matsushita) 所拥有的 MCA/Universal 80% 股份的交易。与迈克尔·奥维茨 (Michael Ovitz) 的谈判失败后，布朗夫曼聘请了 CAA 的二号人物罗恩·迈耶 (Ron Meyer) 来领导他的工作室。
June. Edgar Bronfman Jr concludes Seagram’s purchase of the 80 percent of MCA/Universal owned by Matsushita. After negotiations with Michael Ovitz fall through, Bronfman hires CAA’s number two, Ron Meyer, to head his studio.
七月。迈克尔·艾斯纳 (Michael Eisner) 宣布迪士尼将以 190 亿美元收购 Capital Cities/ABC，该价格是其年销售额的三倍多。这笔交易令人意外，因为迪士尼与 CBS 合并的传闻由来已久，而 ABC 与 CBS 和 NBC 不同，并未参与其中。不久之后，艾斯纳宣布他已聘请迈克尔·奥维茨作为他的副手。
July. Michael Eisner announces that Disney will purchase Capital Cities/ABC for $19 billion, more than three times annual sales. The deal comes as a surprise, since a merger of Disney with CBS had long been rumored and ABC—unlike CBS and NBC—was not in play. Shortly after, Eisner announces that he has hired Michael Ovitz as his second-in-command.
八月。西屋电气因迪士尼/ABC 交易而抢了风头，宣布以 54 亿美元收购哥伦比亚广播公司 (CBS)。泰德·特纳 (Ted Turner) 自 20 世纪 80 年代初以来一直积极追求前蒂芙尼广播网络，但由于董事会中有线电视利益的阻碍，他再次失败。
August. Its thunder stolen by the Disney/ABC deal, Westinghouse announces the purchase of CBS for $5.4 billion. Ted Turner—actively pursuing the former Tiffany broadcast network since the early 1980s—loses out once again, thwarted by the cable interests on his board.
8 月 9 日。网景公司成立 14 个月后进行了首次公开募股，这是历史上最成功的一次，也是互联网狂热的象征。首日交易结束时，该公司的市场估值为 29 亿美元。它尚未盈利。
August 9. Netscape’s initial public offering, 14 months after the company’s founding, is the most successful in history, emblematic of internet mania. At the end of the first day of trading, the market values the company at $2.9 billion. It has yet to make a profit.
8 月 24 日。经过十八个月的营销活动和全球宣传，微软推出了 Windows 95 软件。
August 24. Microsoft introduces its Windows 95 software after an eighteen-month marketing campaign and with worldwide publicity.
九月。如果你不能打败他们，那就加入他们。由于无法通过收购实现扩张，特纳以 75 亿美元的价格卖给了时代华纳，并指出，也许具有讽刺意味的是，“我厌倦了一直做小生意。我的职业生涯即将结束。我想看看暂时变大是什么感觉。”
September. If you can’t beat ’em, join ’em. Unable to expand by acquisition, Turner sells out to Time Warner for $7.5 billion, noting, perhaps ironically, “I’m tired of being little all the time. I’m nearing the end of my career. I want to see what it’s like to be big for a while.”
九月。索尼/飞利浦集团在数字视频光盘/高密度光盘标准上基本上向时代华纳/东芝集团让步，确保新媒体采用单一格式，最大容量为 18.8 GB。所提出的双层和双面技术的结合确保了计算机行业所需的向后兼容性（索尼/飞利浦）与娱乐行业所需的高容量（时代华纳/东芝）。
September. The Sony/Philips group essentially concedes to the Time Warner/Toshiba group on a standard for Digital Video Disc/High Density Compact Disc, assuring a single format for the new medium with a maximum capacity of 18.8 gigabytes. Combining the proposed dual-layer and double-sided technologies assures the backward compatibility the computer industry needs (Sony/Philips) with the high capacity the entertainment industry wants (Time Warner/Toshiba).
11 月 29 日，一家名为皮克斯动画工作室的小公司在迪士尼发行首部作品《玩具总动员》几天后上市，该片在感恩节周末获得了票房冠军。该公司由史蒂文·乔布斯持有 80% 的股份。到今天结束时，1995 年的科技泡沫和好莱坞的浮华相结合，使得乔布斯在皮克斯的股份价值超过 10 亿美元，远远超过了他的苹果股票的价值。《玩具总动员》是第一部完全由电脑制作的动画长片，但对于一家小型制作公司来说，要达成一项繁重的三部电影交易似乎代价高昂。然而，在接下来的十五年里，皮克斯将统治动画领域。
November 29. A small company named Pixar Animation Studios goes public just a few days after its first production, Toy Story, is released by Disney, garnering the top box-office rank for the Thanksgiving weekend. The company is 80 percent-owned by Steven Jobs. By the end of the day the combination of 1995’s technology bubble and Hollywood glitz makes Jobs’s stake in Pixar worth more than $1 billion—far more than his Apple stock is worth. Toy Story is the first fully computer-animated feature, but it seemed a high price to pay for a small production company with an onerous three-picture deal. During the next fifteen years, however, Pixar will dominate the animation field.
12 月 14 日。NBC 向微软出售其有线频道 50% 的股份，以创建一个新闻网络来挑战 CNN，进一步巩固了计算机和媒体行业之间的联盟。
December 14. NBC sells Microsoft a 50-percent stake in one of its cable channels to create a news network to challenge CNN, further cementing the union between the computer and media industries.
《理智与情感》（艾玛·汤普森主演）、《劝说》（与她的妹妹苏菲主演）以及 BBC/A&E 的系列剧《傲慢与偏见》标志着 90 年代中期开始的简·奥斯汀热潮。
Sense and Sensibility (starring Emma Thompson) and Persuasion (with her sister Sophie) together with the BBC/A&E series Pride and Prejudice mark the curious Jane Austen craze that began in the mid-nineties.
将音频与多媒体相结合的增强型 CD 进入市场。
Enhanced CDs, combining audio with multimedia, enter the market.
亚马逊网站开业。它将改变购书习惯，并引领电子商务的发展。
Amazon.com opens for business. It will transform book-buying habits, then lead the way as e-commerce develops.
CraigsList.org 开始营业并提供免费分类广告。在接下来的十年里，它及其在线模仿者将严重损害许多当地报纸的财务基础。
CraigsList.org opens for business offering free classified ads. Over the next decade it and its online imitators will seriously damage the financial underpinnings of many local newspapers.
计算机 RAM 芯片现在可容纳 64 兆位。
Computer RAM chips now hold 64 megabits.
1996年
1996
1996 年《电信法》。旨在放宽多年来对电信公司的限制（从 1934 年《通信法》开始），新法规取消了对广播电台和电视台所有权的限制，允许有线电视和电话公司在彼此的行业中竞争，并将“小贝尔”从 1984 年贝尔系统解体所施加的限制中解放出来。几乎立即，四家地区贝尔运营公司宣布合并（SBC Communications 与 Pacific Telesis） ; NYNEX 与贝尔大西洋）。与此同时，AT&T 的剩余部分分裂为三个新公司，而在英国，英国电信和 Mercury 的合并也分崩离析。美国国会误解了大型电信公司的动态，授予它们进行突击搜查和整合的许可，而其目的实际上是为了增加竞争。
Telecommunications Act of 1996. Meant to liberalize the restrictions placed on telecommunications companies over the years (beginning with the Communications Act of 1934), the new code lifts limits on radio and television station ownership, permits cable and phone companies to compete in each other’s industries, and frees the “baby Bells” from the constraints imposed by the breakup of the Bell system in 1984. Almost immediately, four of the Regional Bell Operating Companies announce mergers (SBC Communications with Pacific Telesis; NYNEX with Bell Atlantic). At the same time what remains of AT&T splits itself into three new companies and, in the U.K., the merger of British Telecom and Mercury falls apart. Misunderstanding the dynamics of large telecom corporations, the U.S. Congress has given them a license to raid and consolidate when it intended, rather, to increase competition.
3 月 9 日。乔治·伯恩斯 (George Burns) 去世，享年 100 岁，二十世纪初的传统歌舞杂耍风格也随之去世，这种风格催生了美国大众娱乐的主导形式。
March 9. George Burns dies at 100, and with him the traditional vaudeville style of the early years of the twentieth century which gave birth to the dominant form of American mass entertainment.
3 月 25 日。就像费里尼的场景一样，一位严重残废的超人在一年一度的奥斯卡电视转播中向国际电视观众展示。克里斯托弗·里夫去年夏天被马摔倒，受了重伤。几周后，露易丝·莱恩（玛格特·基德饰）被发现在洛杉矶徘徊，头晕目眩，受伤。没有人注意到其中的象征意义。
March 25. Like a scene out of Fellini, a badly crippled Superman is displayed to an international television audience on the annual Oscars telecast. Christopher Reeve had been seriously injured when thrown by a horse the summer before. A few weeks later, Lois Lane (Margot Kidder) is found wandering dazed and injured in Los Angeles. No one notices the symbolism.
5 月 31 日，六十年代昔日的大师蒂莫西·利里 (Timothy Leary) 在家人的陪伴下在家中的床上平静地去世。他公开的在万维网上上演他的死亡计划并未实现。
May 31. Timothy Leary, the erstwhile guru of the sixties, dies peacefully at home in bed surrounded by family. His publicized plan to stage his death on the World Wide Web is unfulfilled.
7 月 15 日。MSNBC，第一个合并的有线网络/网站，开始广播（和网播）。这笔交易让微软进入了电视领域，NBC 进入了互联网领域。
July 15. MSNBC, first combined cable network/website, begins broadcasting (and net-casting). The deal gets Microsoft on TV and NBC on the internet.
7 月 16 日。 经过数月的低迷竞标后，里昂信贷银行以 13 亿美元的价格将米高梅出售给由柯克·科科里安（Kirk Kerkorian）（他甚至没有参与竞选）领导的集团。科克里安的团队包括米高梅董事长弗兰克·曼库索和新闻集团部分拥有的澳大利亚广播公司七号网络集团有限公司。这是科克里安第三次收购该公司。
July 16. After months of lackluster bidding, Crédit Lyonnais sells MGM for $1.3 billion to a group lead by none other than Kirk Kerkorian (who hadn’t even been in the running). Kerkorian’s group includes Frank Mancuso, MGM’s chairman, and Seven Network Group, Ltd., an Australian broadcasting company owned in part by News Corporation. It is the third time Kerkorian has bought the company.
7 月 19 日。百年奥林匹克运动会在亚特兰大开幕（并由 NBC 播出）。由 IBM 管理的官方网站是该活动的一个组成部分。IBM 因未能像承诺的那样快速准确地提供分数而丢了面子，但成功地展示了一种新媒体：该网站的“Sneak Peak Cam”区域提供了从数十个摄像机的视频世界中每隔几秒抓取一次的即时静态图像几乎在每个场地。由于 NBC 精心策划的电视广播是为了在娱乐方面取得成功（将白天赛事的转播推迟到黄金时段），因此正如分析师安德鲁·莫纳科 (Andrew Monaco) 指出的那样，IBM 的网站“几乎是您现场观看奥运会的唯一方式”。具有讽刺意味的是，Sneak Peak Cam 兑现了 NBC 在四年前巴塞罗那奥运会上失败的“Triplecast”的承诺，并暗示了网络作为远程呈现媒介的重要作用。
July 19. The Centennial Olympiad opens in Atlanta (and on NBC). The official website, managed by IBM, is an integral part of the event. IBM loses face by failing to deliver the scores as quickly and accurately as promised, but succeeds in demonstrating a new medium: the “Sneak Peak Cam” area of the site offers instant stills grabbed every few seconds from the video world feed from dozens of cameras at nearly every venue. Because NBC has orchestrated its television broadcast to succeed as entertainment (delaying transmission of daytime events to prime time), IBM’s site is, as analyst Andrew Monaco pointed out, “just about the only way you can see the Olympics live.” The Sneak Peak Cam ironically fulfills the promise of NBC’s failed “Triplecast” at the Barcelona Olympic Games four years earlier and suggests a vital role for the web as a telepresence medium.
7 月 27 日。在亚特兰大奥运会上，一名芬兰标枪运动员罕见地“重来”，因为她的标枪击中了天空摄像机。该事件标志着体育和媒体之间持续的斗争。
July 27. At the Atlanta Olympics, a Finnish javelin thrower gets a rare “do-over” as her javelin hits the skycam. The event marks the continuing struggle between sports and media.
9 月 30 日。英国电信和 MCI 同意合并为 Concert，成为第一家跨大西洋电信公司，交易价值 230 亿美元。英国电信此前曾试图收购其国内主要竞争对手大东电报局，但以失败告终。
September 30. British Telecom and MCI agree to merge as Concert, first transatlantic telecommunications company in a deal valued at $23 billion. BT had earlier failed in an attempt to buy its main domestic competitor Cable and Wireless PLC.
十月。网络电视接收器的推出开始了广播电视与多播互联网的合并。计算机和电视制造商通过同意不同来解决新数字电视标准的争论：计算机将使用逐行扫描，而电视将提供逐行扫描和隔行扫描。
October. The introduction of the Web-TV receiver begins the merger of broadcast television with multicast internet. Computer and television manufacturers settle their battle over the new digital television standard by agreeing to differ: computers will use progressive scanning while televisions will offer both progressive and interlaced scanning.
十月。德国电信说服一向对股市持谨慎态度的德国人在其首次公开募股中购买其股票。
October. Deutsche Telekom convinces Germans, traditionally wary of the stock market, to buy its stock in its first public offering.
10 月 8 日。约翰·卡利 (John Calley) 是 20 世纪 70 年代备受尊敬的华纳电影公司高管，他接管了陷入困境的索尼影视娱乐公司 (Sony Pictures Entertainment)。他最近刚刚退休回到好莱坞，拯救联美公司。
October 8. John Calley, highly respected studio executive at Warner in the 1970s, takes the reigns at troubled Sony Pictures Entertainment. He had recently returned to Hollywood from retirement to rescue United Artists.
10 月 31 日。马塞尔·卡尔内 (Marcel Carné) 去世，享年 90 岁，但法国评论家仍然没有给予他应得的《天堂的孩子》尊重。
October 31. Marcel Carné dies at 90, still without the respect from French critics that he thought he deserved for Les Enfants du Paradis.
十一月。DVD 播放机在日本上市。
November. DVD players come to market in Japan.
12 月 20 日，马塞洛·马斯楚安尼 (Marcello Mastroianni) 去世，享年 72 岁。他的遗体安放在罗马的坎皮多利奥 (Campidoglio)。公众葬礼在《8.5》最后一首进行曲中结束时，数千人哀悼这一意大利战后精神的缩影。
December 20. Marcello Mastroianni dies at 72. His body lies in state on the Campidoglio in Rome. Thousands mourn this epitome of the Italian postwar spirit as the public funeral concludes with the final march tune from 8½.
12 月 20 日。卡尔·萨根去世，享年 62 岁。二十五年来，这位康奈尔大学天文学教授积极而巧妙地利用大众媒体（尤其是电视）来分享他对科学的热爱，为大众教育树立了典范。
December 20. Carl Sagan dies at 62. Over a twenty-five-year period the Astronomy professor from Cornell had used the popular media—especially television—aggressively and adroitly to share his love of the science, setting a model for mass education.
12 月 20 日，苹果公司以 4 亿美元收购 NeXT Software Inc.，史蒂夫·乔布斯 (Steve Jobs) 重返他共同创立的公司。在接下来的十年里，他将把公司重塑为消费品生产商，这一举措绝非错误。
December 20. Apple buys NeXT Software Inc. for $400 million and Steve Jobs returns to the company he cofounded. Over the next ten years he will refashion the company as a consumer products producer, with hardly a false step.
半岛电视台是一家阿拉伯语新闻频道，其卫星信号覆盖中东大部分地区。卫星频道的广泛使用将对政治话语产生深远的影响。
Al Jazeera is founded as Arabic all-news channel whose satellite signal reaches much of the Middle East. The wide availability of satellite channels will have a profound effect on political discourse.
1997年
1997
1 月 12 日。数千人庆祝《2001 年太空漫游》中的计算机明星哈尔 (HAL) 的生日。今年晚些时候，和平号空间站上持续出现的问题表明阿瑟·C·克拉克和斯坦利·库布里克的预测将像乔治·奥威尔一样失败。
January 12. Thousands celebrate the birthday of HAL, the computer star of 2001: A Space Odyssey. Later in the year, continuing troubles on the MIR space station suggest Arthur C. Clarke and Stanley Kubrick will prove to be as unsuccessful in their prognostications as George Orwell was.
行进。DVD 视频在美国开始销售
March. DVD-Video sales begin in the U.S.
行进。哥伦比亚广播公司 (CBS) 与体育在线网站 (Sports Line) 达成协议。网络公司在 CBS 体育节目期间收到促销公告；CBS 从与 CBS 报道的赛事相关的 SportsLine 内容中获得 50% 的收入，并获得 300 万股股票。在接下来的三年里，哥伦比亚广播公司还进行了十几起类似的交易，用剩余的广告空间和时间换取大量互联网公司。
March. CBS cuts a deal with website Sports Line. Web company gets promotional announcements during CBS sports programming; CBS gets 50 percent of revenue from SportsLine content tied to CBS-covered events and 3 million shares of stock. Over the next three years CBS makes a dozen other deals like this one, trading leftover ad space and time for significant chunks of internet companies.
3 月 30 日。第 5 频道开始在英国播出
March 30. Channel 5 begins broadcasting in the U.K.
4 月 29 日。Metromedia 宣布将其 2,200 部电影库以及 Orion Pictures 和 Goldwyn Entertainment 的剩余部分出售给新的米高梅。交易完成后，两年前濒临死亡的米高梅将控制世界上最大的电影库。
April 29. Metromedia announces the sale of its 2,200-film library, along with the remains of Orion Pictures and Goldwyn Entertainment to the new MGM. After the deal is completed, MGM—near death two years earlier—will control the world’s largest film library.
7 月 1 日。罗伯特·米彻姆 (Robert Mitchum) 去世，享年 80 岁，吉米·斯图尔特 (Jimmy Stewart) 成为 20 世纪 40 年代辉煌岁月中最后一位好莱坞偶像。
July 1. Robert Mitchum dies at 80, leaving Jimmy Stewart as the last remaining Hollywood icon from the great days of the 1940s.
7 月 2 日。吉米·斯图尔特去世，享年 89 岁。
July 2. Jimmy Stewart dies at 89.
七月。火星探路者探测器的着陆是网络历史上的一个重大事件，喷气推进实验室网站的访问量达到了创纪录的 4500 万次。冲浪者可以通过网络摄像头观看喷气推进实验室科学家的现场工作，或者从探路者号在火星上的相机下载实时图像。
July. The landing of the Mars Pathfinder probe proves a significant event in web history as a record 45 million visits to the Jet Propulsion Laboratory site are recorded. Surfers can watch the J.P.L. scientists at work live via a web cam, or download real-time images from Pathfinder’s cameras on Mars.
8 月 30 日。威尔士王妃戴安娜的戏剧性死亡很快成为超新星般的媒体事件，电视网络、报纸和杂志争先恐后地谴责从她的名人中获利的网络、报纸和杂志，而英国的悲痛之情被誉为英国新情感的里程碑，网络上挤满了想要收集有关该事件的任何信息或谈论他们的感受的冲浪者。
August 30. The melodramatic death of Diana, Princess of Wales, quickly becomes a media event of supernova proportions, as television networks, newspapers, and magazines fall over each other rushing to condemn the networks, newspapers, and magazines who profited from her celebrity, while the outpouring of grief in the U.K. is hailed as a landmark of the new British sensibility, and the web is crowded with surfers looking to glean any piece of information about the event or chat about their feelings.
九月。互联网继续以极高的速度增长，调查显示，现在互联网上的主机数量达到了 2600 万台，而一年前的数量为 1500 万台。
September. Internet growth continues at an extreme rate as surveys show 26 million host computers on the net now, up from 15 million a year earlier.
9月20日，继媒体并购浪潮之后，西屋公司宣布从美国广播系统公司收购98个广播电台，使其持有的电台总数达到175个。（1996 年《电信法》承诺的“竞争”就到此为止。）
September 20. Continuing a wave of media mergers and acquisitions, Westinghouse announces the purchase of 98 radio stations from American Radio Systems, bringing its total holdings to 175 stations. (So much for the “competition” promised by the Telecom Act of 1996.)
10 月 21 日。巴里·迪勒 (Barry Diller) 仍在努力。他宣布斥资 41 亿美元购买几个有线频道和环球影业几乎所有的电视制作设施。
October 21. Barry Diller is still at it. He announces the purchase of a couple of cable channels and nearly all of Universal’s television production facilities for $4.1 billion.
10 月 28 日。好莱坞黑名单时期的编剧、制片人和英雄保罗·贾里科 (Paul Jarrico) 在参加完 HUAC 听证会 50 周年纪念仪式后开车回家时去世，享年 82 岁。
October 28. Paul Jarrico, screenwriter, producer, and hero of the Hollywood Blacklist period, dies at 82 driving home from a ceremony marking the fiftieth anniversary of the HUAC hearings.
10 月 30 日。萨姆·富勒去世，享年 85 岁，他是最后一位经典好莱坞导演。
October 30. Sam Fuller dies at 85, last of the classical Hollywood auteurs.
12 月 21 日，詹姆斯·卡梅隆执导的《泰坦尼克号》上映。这部老式大酒店的故事耗资创纪录的 2 亿美元，在数字电影制作的短暂历史中成为一个里程碑，因为它使用了惊人的技术，不是为了创造令人震惊的幻想，而是为了重新创造历史现实。罗伯托·罗西里尼在坟墓里安息了一些，因为他知道自己三十年前的梦想正在实现。
December 21. James Cameron’s Titanic opens. Produced for a record $200 million, this old-fashioned grand-hotel story proves a landmark in the short history of digital filmmaking, as the prodigious technology is used, not to create a striking fantasy, but to re-create historical reality. Roberto Rossellini rests a little easier in his grave, knowing that his dream of thirty years earlier is being fulfilled.
1998年
1998
1 月 21 日，莫妮卡·莱温斯基肥皂剧开播。它将在未来十三个月内主导媒体领域。
January 21. The Monica Lewinsky soap opera begins. It will dominate the mediasphere for the next thirteen months.
5 月 14 日。弗兰克·辛纳屈 (Frank Sinatra) 去世，享年 85 岁。作为他那个时代最重要的歌手，也是一位多产且成功的电影演员，他的形象在一个世纪里仍然是流行浪漫情感的卓越象征，而在接下来的十九个世纪里，他的形象仍然是流行浪漫情感的卓越象征。没有他的几个月。
May 14. Frank Sinatra dies at 85. Uniquely successful as the paramount singer of his era as well as a prolific and successful film actor, his persona remains the transcendent emblem of popular romantic sentiment for a century that will have to limp along for another nineteen months without him.
六月。AT&T 宣布将以 318 亿美元收购约翰·马龙电信公司 (John Malone's Tele-Communications, Inc.)，将第一大长途电话公司与第二大有线电视提供商联合起来，同时 C. 迈克尔·阿姆斯特朗 (C. Michael Armstrong) 继续重建所有贝尔之母。几周前，马龙为 TCI 的一家附属公司从鲁珀特·默多克 (Rupert Murdoch) 手中购买了《电视指南》(TV Guide )（价值 20 亿美元的现金和股票）。
June. AT&T announces it will purchase John Malone’s Tele-Communications, Inc. for $31.8 billion, uniting the number one long-distance company with the number two cable provider, as C. Michael Armstrong continues to reconstruct the mother of all Bells. A few weeks earlier, Malone had purchased TV Guide from Rupert Murdoch ($2 billion in cash and stock) for an affiliate of TCI.
8 月 15 日。苹果公司“临时首席执行官”史蒂夫·乔布斯 (Steve Jobs) 推出了 iMac，延续了他的连胜势头，这是他 15 年前定义的计算机即设备的新版本。（在接下来的几个月里，这台蓝色机器的收入将远远高于乔布斯另一家公司皮克斯的同期产品《虫虫危机》 。）
August 15. Apple “Interim CEO” Steve Jobs continues his winning streak with the introduction of the iMac, a new version of the computer-as-appliance he defined fifteen years earlier. (Over the next few months the bluish machine will earn considerably more than A Bug’s Life, the concurrent product from Jobs’s other company, Pixar.)
8 月 17 日。在莱温斯基传奇的高潮部分，克林顿总统通过安全视频在大陪审团面前作证。9月21日，众议院司法委员会向全国播放证词录音带。一周之内，这部时长四小时的剧集的 DVD 版价格为 2 美分（另加 2 美元的运费和手续费）。
August 17. In the climactic episode of the Lewinsky saga, President Clinton testifies before the grand jury via a secure video feed. On September 21, the House Judiciary committee broadcasts the tape of the testimony to the nation. Within a week, the four-hour episode is available on DVD for a price of 2 cents (plus $2 shipping and handling).
10 月 1 日。英国开始通过卫星进行数字电视广播。
October 1. Digital television broadcasting begins in the U.K., via satellite.
10月2日，篝火熄灭；最后的综述已经结束：吉恩·奥特里（Gene Autry）骑马进入最后的日落，罗伊·罗杰斯（Roy Rogers）比他早了三个月。不要把他们围起来。
October 2. The campfire is out; the last roundup has ended: Gene Autry rides off into the final sunset, Roy Rogers having predeceased him by three months. Don’t fence them in.
10 月 19 日。随着微软反垄断审判的开始，该法案的时代达到顶峰。另一项法案将在民意调查中得到证实，由众议院弹劾，由参议院审判，并在明年该法案的磨难结束之前很久被宣告无罪。与克林顿事件一样，盖茨的审判将取决于录像证词和微弱的记忆。
October 19. The age of the Bills crests as the Microsoft antitrust trial begins. The other Bill will be vindicated at the polls, impeached by the House, tried by the Senate, and acquitted long before this Bill’s tribulations end next year. Like the Clinton affair, the Gates trial will depend on videotaped testimony and weak memories.
10 月 27 日。《桑尼·波诺法案》（也称为《米老鼠保护法案》和《版权期限延长法案》）签署。在该法案颁布之前，版权条款已设置为作者去世后 50 年，或者公司作品为 75 年。迪士尼对米老鼠的版权将于 2000 年到期。正好，《桑尼波诺法案》将迪士尼利润丰厚的所有权又延长了 20 年。歌手兼作曲家兼国会议员波诺未能活着看到他给好莱坞的礼物取得成功。
October 27. The Sonny Bono Act (also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act and the Copyright Term Extension Act) is signed. Before the act, copyright term had been set to 50 years past the death of the author, or 75 years for corporate works. Disney’s copyright on Mickey Mouse would have expired in 2000. Just in time, the Sonny Bono Act extended Disney’s lucrative ownership for an addition twenty years. Singer-songwriter-congressman Bono did not live to see the success of his gift to Hollywood.
10 月 28 日。《数字千年版权法案》获得通过。DMCA 将用于规避控制受版权作品访问的措施的技术、设备或服务的生产和传播定为犯罪。该法案极具争议性，但随着音乐和电影行业学会适应新的数字媒体并从中获利，该法案在未来十年内很难得到执行。
October 28. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act is passed. The DMCA criminalizes production and dissemination of technology, devices, or services that are used to circumvent measures that control access to copyrighted works. Highly controversial, the act is hardly enforced over the next decade as the music and film industries learn to live with—and profit from—the new digital media.
11 月 1 日。数字电视广播在美国开始，但没有人注意到。由于轻微的疏忽，有线系统尚未准备好传输信号。高清电视机的价格仍然是 10,000 美元。美国广播公司 (ABC) 的第一部网络广播是迪士尼的《101 斑点狗》（1996 年翻拍）。
November 1. Digital television broadcasting begins in the U.S. but no one notices. Due to a slight oversight, cable systems are not ready to carry the signals. HDTV sets still cost $10,000. The first network broadcast, on ABC is Disney’s 101 Dalmatians (the 1996 remake).
11 月 19 日，70 岁的艾伦·J·帕库拉 (Alan J. Pakula) 在长岛高速公路上遭遇一场离奇的车祸，一根管子击穿了他的挡风玻璃，不幸身亡。
November 19. Alan J. Pakula dies at 70 in a freak auto accident as a pipe smashes through his windshield on the Long Island Expressway.
11 月 23 日，美国在线宣布将以约 40 亿美元的股票收购 Netscape。不要为 Netscape 的股东哭泣：几个月后交易完成时，AOL 的股票价值将达到 100 亿美元。
November 23. America Online announces it will buy Netscape for about $4 billion in stock. Don’t cry for Netscape shareholders: by the time the deal is concluded months later the AOL stock will be worth $10 billion.
十二月。迈克尔·奥维茨 (Michael Ovitz) 重返好莱坞，成立了艺术家管理集团，并激怒了他在 CAA 的前同事。与此同时，他的百老汇制作公司 Livent 破产了，但他说这是加思·德拉宾斯基的错。
December. Michael Ovitz returns to Hollywood, forming Artists Management Group and riling his former associates at CAA. Meanwhile, his Broadway production company, Livent, is in bankruptcy—but he says that’s Garth Drabinsky’s fault.
今年是重演的一年：两部二战史诗片（《拯救大兵瑞恩》、《细细的红线》）；两场伊丽莎白时代的选美比赛（《恋爱中的莎士比亚》、《伊丽莎白》）；两次流星灾难（世界末日、深度撞击）；以及两部越野车数字卡通片（《蚁兹》、《虫虫危机》）。
It has been the year of seeing double: two World War II epics (Saving Private Ryan, The Thin Red Line); two Elizabethan pageants (Shakespeare in Love, Elizabeth); two meteoric disasters (Armageddon, Deep Impact); and two buggy digital cartoons (Antz, A Bug’s Life).
12 月 1 日。最后一位创始人电影摄影师大师 Freddie Young 去世，享年 96 岁。
December 1. Freddie Young, last of the founding master cinematographers, dies at 96.
十二月。它一定是数字后现代主义的某种里程碑：当《虫虫危机》几周前发行时，它以卡通场景的“剪辑”为特色。现在，一套新的“外卖”已经取代了原来的，以吸引回头客。
December. It must be some sort of landmark in digital postmodernism: When A Bug’s Life was released weeks earlier, it featured “outtakes” of the cartoon scenes. Now, a new set of “outtakes” has replaced the originals to attract return customers.
1999年
1999
欧元被引入作为欧盟的跨国货币。
The euro is introduced as the transnational currency of the European Union.
1 月 7 日，米高梅完成了对环球影业宝丽金图书馆的收购。曾经垂死挣扎的工作室如今以惊人的方式卷土重来，拥有现有好莱坞图书馆一半以上的版权。
January 7. MGM completes the purchase of the Polygram library from Universal. In a remarkable comeback the once moribund studio now owns rights to more than half the extant Hollywood library.
1 月 10 日，大卫·蔡斯 (David Chase) 执导的《黑道家族》(The Sopranos)在 HBO 首播。它将在未来七年占据主导地位，并改变有线和广播网络之间的平衡。
January 10. David Chase’s The Sopranos debuts on HBO. It will dominate for the next seven years and alter the balance between cable and broadcast networks.
2 月 20 日。吉恩·西斯克尔 (Gene Siskel) 去世，享年 53 岁。自 20 世纪 80 年代初以来，他和他的电视联合主持人罗杰·艾伯特 (Roger Ebert) 一直主导着美国电影评论界。
February 20. Gene Siskel dies at 53. Since the early 1980s he and his television co-host Roger Ebert have dominated American film criticism.
ECN 的兴起——“电子通信网络”，为金融交易提供虚拟市场。
Rise of ECNs—“Electronic Communications Networks” that provide a virtual marketplace for financial transactions.
3 月 7 日。 斯坦利·库布里克(Stanley Kubrick) 完成十二年来的首部故事片《大开眼戒》的后期制作工作后，在他深爱的赫特福德郡的家中于睡梦中平静地去世，享年 70 岁。
March 7. After completing post-production work on Eyes Wide Shut, his first feature in twelve years, Stanley Kubrick dies peacefully in his sleep at 70 at his home in Hertfordshire, which he loved.
3 月 21 日，米拉麦克斯的《恋爱中的莎士比亚》击败了业界最受喜爱的梦工厂 SKG 的《拯救大兵瑞恩》，赢得了奥斯卡最佳影片奖，并为这家局外人迷你制片厂最近获得的一系列奥斯卡奖项奠定了基础。一些观察家认为小电影击败大电影是因为它在视频上效果更好——这就是大多数学院成员现在观看大多数电影的方式。
March 21. Miramax’s Shakespeare in Love wins the best picture Oscar beating industry favorite Dreamworks SKG’s Saving Private Ryan, and punctuating a remarkable string of recent Oscars for the outsider ministudio. Some observers think the little film beat the big film because it worked better on video—which is how most Academy members now see most movies.
4 月 9 日。英国政府阻止鲁珀特·默多克 (Rupert Murdoch) 以 10 亿美元（通过 B-Sky-B）收购英国首屈一指的足球俱乐部曼联队。默多克可能会用他的另一个体育奖项洛杉矶道奇队来安慰自己。
April 9. The British government blocks Rupert Murdoch’s $1 billion purchase (through B-Sky-B) of Manchester United, the premiere British soccer club. Murdoch may console himself with his other sports prize, the Los Angeles Dodgers.
5 月 19 日，《星球大战：前传 1：幽灵的威胁》首映。乔治·卢卡斯 (George Lucas) 时隔十六年后重返该剧，引起了极客圈子的热烈期待，以至于一些硅谷公司宣布了文化假期。（无论如何，这一天没人会去上班。）
May 19. Star Wars: Episode I—The Phantom Menace debuts. The return of George Lucas to the series after sixteen years is marked by such anticipation in geek circles that some Silicon Valley companies declare a culture holiday. (No one was going to go to work this day anyway.)
5 月 21 日。德国电信在对意大利电信的收购中失败。小得多的好利获得赢得了奖项。由于欧元尚未取得胜利，民族主义在这一决定中发挥了一定作用。
May 21. Deutsche Telekom loses its bid for Telecom Italia. The much smaller Olivetti wins the prize. Nationalism plays a part in the decision as the euro is not yet triumphant.
可能。夏季电影季将以令人作呕的幽默为主题，《王牌大贱谍》将引领潮流。秋季电视季也将效仿。这种青春期前的幽默感将成为未来十年的驱动力。
May. The summer movie season will be devoted to gross-out humor as Austin Powers—The Spy Who Shagged Me leads the way. The fall television season will follow suit. This pre-adolescent sense of humor will be a driving force throughout the next decade.
6 月 18 日。卢卡斯和福克斯在纽约和洛杉矶的郊区剧院测试《幽灵的威胁》的数字投影。一个月前，79 岁的埃里克·侯麦 (Eric Rohmer) 在戛纳电影节上以数字方式放映了他的短片《Cambrure》，抢先一步。
June 18. Lucas and Fox test digital projections of The Phantom Menace in suburban theaters in New York and Los Angeles. A month earlier 79-year-old Eric Rohmer beat them to it with a digital showing of his short “Cambrure” at the Cannes Film Festival.
6 月 28 日。安全数字音乐倡议 (Secure Digital Music Initiative) 是一个唱片行业联盟，负责寻找一种方法来保护行业知识产权的价值，抵御 MP3 和其他数字音乐格式的盗版挑战，该联盟宣布了其规范。音乐黑客对此不以为然。
June 28. The Secure Digital Music Initiative, a recording industry consortium charged with finding a way to protect the value of the industry’s intellectual property against the pirate challenge of MP3 and other digital music formats, announces its specification. Musical hackers are unimpressed.
六月。基于数字硬盘的“数字录像机”上市。25岁的时移梦想最终会成为现实吗？“安全数字电影/电视倡议”在哪里？
June. Digital hard-disc-based “Digital Video Recorders” go on the market. Will the 25-year-old dream of time-shifting finally become a reality? And where is the “Secure Digital Film/Television Initiative”?
7 月 3 日。马里奥·普佐 (Mario Puzo) 去世，享年 78 岁。他的教父仍然是 20 世纪末神话中的关键人物。
July 3. Mario Puzo dies at 78. His Godfather remains a key element of the late twentieth-century mythos.
7 月 13 日。迪士尼宣布将把自己的互联网资产与 Infoseek 合并，并分拆新成立的公司。他们并不是第一个尝试这种策略的人。这个想法是提供一个纯粹的互联网游戏，并利用这样一家公司巨大的股票销售所获得的意外之财进行收购，这可能有助于最终实现市场估值！
July 13. Disney announces it will merge its own internet holdings with Infoseek and spin off the resulting company. They aren’t the first to try this ploy. The idea is to provide a pure internet play and use the windfall from the hugely inflated sales of stock in such a company to make acquisitions that may help eventually to realize the market valuation!
7 月 15 日，罗伯特·A·戴利 (Robert A. Daly) 和特里·塞梅尔 (Terry Semel) 宣布，他们将辞去掌权近 20 年后的华纳掌门人职务。他们是安静的大亨，也是最成功的大亨之一。
July 15. Robert A. Daly and Terry Semel announce that they will step down as heads of Warner after nearly twenty years in power. The quiet moguls, they were among the most successful.
7 月 17 日。比尔·盖茨现在的身价为 1000 亿美元，微软股票市值突破 5000 亿美元。
July 17. Bill Gates is now worth $100 billion, as Microsoft stock passes $500 billion in market value.
9 月 7 日。哥伦比亚广播公司 (CBS) 和维亚康姆 (Viacom) 宣布价值 370 亿美元的合并。这是媒体界迄今为止最大的一笔交易。新公司将成为第二大媒体集团（仅次于时代华纳，但领先于迪士尼/ABC）。今年夏天早些时候，联邦通信委员会放宽了有关电视台所有权的规定，这笔交易成为可能。对于那些记得四年前哥伦比亚广播公司以 54 亿美元的价格卖给西屋电气公司的人来说，这个价格令人震惊。公司的价值真的在四年内增长了近七倍吗？简而言之：是的，有点——至少按照二十世纪末的虚拟经济学来衡量。事情是这样的：1995 年西屋电气收购哥伦比亚广播公司后，管理层开始剥离原有的西屋电气实体产业业务，并在三年内基本完成了这一任务。1997 年，西屋电气更名为 CBS，这是有道理的，因为它刚刚出售了旧的西屋电气业务，剩下的就是 CBS 业务以及一些媒体行业的收购。其中最有价值的是无限广播，广播电台链 《Infinity》的首席执行官梅尔·卡马辛 (Mel Karmazin) 上任，这位后起之秀迅速掌握了权力，并说服萨姆纳·雷石东 (Sumner Redstone) 参与这项交易。基本上，54 亿美元的 CBS 和 370 亿美元的 CBS 之间的区别在于一些广播电台、更好的“定位”和 Karmazin。如果你觉得这很奇怪，那么你可能会喜欢约瑟夫·海勒（Joseph Heller）的《Closing Time》（ 《第二十二条军规》的续集） 。虽然写于 20 世纪 80 年代，但它完美地捕捉了世纪末的眩晕感。我们的老朋友约塞连沉思着一个他不理解的世界，列举了一个又一个的荒谬之处，最后得出了极其不协调的结论：
September 7. CBS and Viacom announce a $37 billion merger. It is the largest deal yet in the media world. The new company will be the second-largest media group (after Time Warner, but ahead of Disney/ABC). The deal was made possible when the FCC relaxed rules about television station ownership earlier in the summer. For those few who remember that CBS was sold to Westinghouse a mere four years previously for $5.4 billion, the price is shocking. Has the company really increased in value almost seven times in four years? In a word: yes, sort of—at least as measured by the virtual economics of the end of the twentieth century. Here’s what happened: after Westinghouse acquired CBS in 1995, management set out to divest itself of the old Westinghouse real-industry businesses, which it largely accomplished within three years. In 1997 Westinghouse changed its name to CBS, which made sense, since it had just sold the old Westinghouse businesses and all that was left were the CBS businesses, plus a few media-industry acquisitions. The most valuable of these was Infinity Broadcasting, a chain of radio stations. With Infinity came CEO Mel Karmazin, a rising star who quickly seized power and talked Sumner Redstone into the deal. Basically, the difference between the $5.4-billion CBS and the $37-billion CBS is some radio stations, better “positioning,” and Karmazin. If that seems strange to you, then you will probably enjoy Joseph Heller’s Closing Time, the sequel to Catch-22. Although written in the 1980s it catches the fin-de-siècle dizziness perfectly. Musing about a world he doesn’t understand, listing one absurdity after another, our old friend Yossarian concludes with the ultimate incongruity:
男人赚了数百万美元，没有什么比所有权的改变更重要的了。“事情就是这样。” 。。。”
Men made millions, producing nothing more substantial than changes in ownership. “And that’s the way it is . . . . ”
2000 年至今：新世纪
2000–Present: The New Century
2000年
2000
1 月 1 日。我们度过了千年虫恐慌。据预测，当日期改变时，世界上成千上万的计算机将陷入混乱，因为它们一直存储着当年的两位数数字。也许 1950 年之前计算机化记录的缺乏产生了有益的影响。
January 1. We survive the Y2K scare. It had been predicted that thousands of the world’s computers would go haywire when the date changed because they had been storing two-digit numbers for the year. Perhaps the paucity of computerized records from before 1950 had a salutary effect.
一月。在网络泡沫的鼎盛时期，时代华纳同意与美国在线合并。
January. At the height of the dot-com boom Time Warner agrees to a merger with AOL.
迈克·费吉斯 (Mike Figgis) 的《时间码》是第一部商业全数字制作，由四台摄像机同时拍摄，序列同时呈现。
Mike Figgis’s Timecode is the first commercial all-digital production, shot with four cameras simultaneously, the sequences presented simultaneously.
六月。事实证明，小埃德加·布朗夫曼不像酒业那样喜欢娱乐业。西格拉姆（包括环球）被出售给法国自来水公司/媒体集团维旺迪。新公司名为维旺迪环球 (Vivendi Universal)。
June. It turns out Edgar Bronfman Jr doesn’t like the entertainment business as much as the liquor business. Seagram (including Universal) is sold to Vivendi, the French water utility/media conglomerate. The new company is known as Vivendi Universal.
漫威漫画英雄入侵好莱坞：X 战警一马当先。
Marvel comic-book heroes invade Hollywood: X-Men leads the way.
克里斯托弗·诺兰的《记忆碎片》因其巧妙的时间塑造而深受观众喜爱。
Christopher Nolan’s Memento is a cult favorite for its ingenious time-shaping.
维亚康姆完成了对哥伦比亚广播公司的收购。
Viacom completes deal for CBS.
《进口老大哥》和《谁想成为百万富翁》标志着美国网络电视上所谓“真人秀节目”的新浪潮。
Imports Big Brother and Who Wants to Be a Millionaire mark new wave of so-called “reality programming” on U.S. network television.
布鲁克海默的《犯罪现场调查》首映；它将为十年来电视警察节目奠定风格。
Bruckheimer’s CSI debuts; it will set the style for television cop shows for the decade.
福克斯新闻频道成立四年后就成熟了。在罗杰·艾尔斯的指导下，它在总统选举期间营造了一种高度紧张、高度党派的气氛，这将定义（并扭曲）未来十年大部分时间的政治话语。
Fox News channel comes of age four years after its founding. Under the direction of Roger Ailes it establishes a high-tension highly partisan atmosphere during the presidential election that will define (and distort) political discourse for much of the next decade.
2001年
2001
1 月 9 日。iTunes 推出。虽然所有的讨论都在谈论 Napster 和“免费”音乐，但史蒂夫·乔布斯和苹果已经找到了如何为下载音乐开辟市场的方法。
January 9. iTunes is introduced. While all the talk is about Napster and “free” music, Steve Jobs and Apple have figured out how to make a market for downloaded music.
4 月 16 日。迈克尔·里奇 (Michael Ritchie) 去世，享年 62 岁。
April 16. Michael Ritchie dies at 62.
四月。长期担任华纳公司高管的特里·塞梅尔 (Terry Semel) 被聘为雅虎首席执行官。据报道，在他的六年任期内，他将获得价值 5 亿美元的股票期权。如果他明智地运用它们，他可能会保持非创始员工的互联网盈利记录。
April. Terry Semel, former long-time Warner exec, is hired as Yahoo’s CEO. In his six-year tenure he will be awarded a reported $500 million in stock options. If he exercised them judiciously, he may hold the internet profitability record for a non-founding employee.
雅克·贝兰 (Jacques Perrin) 出色的《有翼迁徙》预示着纪实电影的新时代。
Jacques Perrin’s remarkable Winged Migration presages the new age of nonfiction film.
让-皮埃尔·热内 (Jean-Pierre Jeunet) 的《艾米莉》(Amelie) 引起了国际轰动。
Jean-Pierre Jeunet has an international hit with Amelie.
阿方索·卡隆凭借《Y Tu Mamá También》给国际观众留下了深刻的印象。
Alfonso Cuarón impresses international audiences with Y Tu Mamá También.
七十六岁的罗伯特·奥尔特曼的《戈斯福德公园》展现了他电影个性的另一个侧面。
Seventy-six year-old Robert Altman’s Gosford Park shows yet another facet of his cinematic personality.
9 月 3 日。宝琳·凯尔 (Pauline Kael) 去世，享年 82 岁。她与安德鲁·萨里斯 (Andrew Sarris) 一起为二十世纪后期的美国电影批评树立了新的知识分子形象。
September 3. Pauline Kael dies at 82. With Andrew Sarris she had provided a new intellectual cachet for American film criticism in the late twentieth century.
9 月 11 日。世界贸易中心的恐怖袭击被电影记录下来。在接下来的几个月和几年里，该视频将在网络上重播数万次，实现基地组织最疯狂的梦想。对五角大楼的袭击没有记录。这座建筑在一年之内就修好了。尽管有数百人丧生，但它仍然是世贸中心灾难的一个脚注。
September 11. The terrorist attack on the World Trade Center is captured on film. It will be replayed by the networks tens of thousands of times in the next months and years, fulfilling Al Qaeda’s wildest dreams. The attack on the Pentagon is not recorded. The building is repaired within a year. It remains a footnote to the WTC disaster, despite the hundreds of people who died.
10 月 23 日。iPod 推出。从此它将主导音乐行业。
October 23. The iPod is introduced. It will dominate the music business from here on.
十一月。福克斯的《24小时》捕捉到了9/11后的偏执情绪。什么时机啊！
November. Fox’s 24 captures the post-9/11 mood of paranoia. What timing!
11 月 15 日。微软推出了第一款游戏机 Xbox，与索尼的 Playstation 竞争，并为这家软件巨头在家庭娱乐市场建立了立足点。
November 15. Microsoft introduces its first game console, the Xbox, to compete with Sony’s Playstation—and to establish a foothold for the software giant in the home entertainment market.
11 月 16 日。《哈利·波特与魔法石》首映，开启了将主导青少年市场十年的电影系列。到 2008 年，《哈利》系列（书籍、电影、视频游戏、主题公园）的价值估计超过 150 亿美元。作者JK罗琳要求聘请英国演员担任主要演员，从而进行了三十多年的立法来保护英国电影业。
November 16. Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone debuts, beginning a film series that will dominate the youth market for a decade. By 2008, the value of the Harry franchise (books, films, video games, theme parks) is estimated at more than $15 billion. Author J. K. Rowling demands that British actors be hired for the principle cast, thus doing more than thirty years of legislation to preserve the British film industry.
12 月 19 日，《指环王：指环王》拉开了彼得·杰克逊雄心勃勃的托尔金三部曲的序幕，奠定了奇幻类型的基础。1978 年动画版漫画的导演拉尔夫·巴克希 (Ralph Bakshi) 抱怨说他拥有这些权利。几个月后，当《蜘蛛侠》首次亮相时，他将面临更多的担忧：早在 1968 年，巴克希就制作并导演了一部漫画动画电视连续剧。巴克希是否超前于他的时代？或者只是一个糟糕的商人？
December 19. Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring begins Peter Jackson’s ambitious Tolkien trilogy, firmly establishing the fantasy genre. Ralph Bakshi, director of the 1978 animated version of the comic, complains that he owns the rights. He’ll have more to worry about in a few months when Spider-Man debuts: Bakshi produced and directed an animated television series of the comic back in 1968. Was Bakshi simply ahead of his time? Or just a bad businessman?
2002年
2002
现在手机的数量超过了固定电话。
Cellphones now outnumber landline phones.
埃罗尔·莫里斯 (Errol Morris) 为苹果公司设计的“Switch”商业广告树立了一种风格（偏离中心、手持式、白色背景），这种风格将在未来五年内被无限模仿，并使青少年艾伦·弗莱斯（Ellen Fleiss）（拍摄对象之一）成为网络明星。
Errol Morris’s “Switch” commercial campaign for Apple sets a style (off-center, handheld, white background) that will be imitated ad infinitum during the next five years, and makes teenager Ellen Fleiss (one of the subjects) an internet star.
3 月 24 日。在获得 15 项提名后，兰迪·纽曼最终赢得了奥斯卡最佳歌曲奖。“我要感谢音乐部门给我这么多的机会，”他说。
March 24. After fifteen previous nominations, Randy Newman finally wins an Oscar for best song. “I’d like to thank the music division for giving me so many chances,” he says.
3 月 24 日，黑人好莱坞在奥斯卡颁奖典礼上庆祝：乌比·戈德堡主持、丹泽尔·华盛顿和哈莉·贝瑞获得最佳男主角奖，西德尼·波蒂埃获得荣誉奖。
March 24. Black Hollywood is celebrated at the Oscar ceremony: Whoopi Goldberg hosts, Denzel Washington and Halle Berry win the best actor awards, and Sidney Poitier is given an honorary award.
3 月 27 日。比利·怀尔德 (Billy Wilder) 去世，享年 95 岁，他给我们带来了如此多的欢乐：“难道我不知道吗！”
March 27. Billy Wilder dies at age 95, after offering so much joy: “And don’t I know it!”
行进。Friendster 首次亮相，是先锋社交网站之一。
March. Friendster debuts, one of the pioneer social networking sites.
迈克尔·摩尔的《哥伦拜恩保龄球》延续了散文电影的复兴。
Michael Moore’s Bowling for Columbine continues the resurgence of the essay film.
5 月 6 日，Ovitz 的 AMG 被出售给 The Firm；他的暴虐统治结束了。
May 6. Ovitz’s AMG is sold to The Firm; his rambunctious reign is over.
5 月 8 日，《蜘蛛侠》周末票房收入达到 1.14 亿美元，打破了《哈利·波特》的纪录。斯坦·李继续对好莱坞超级英雄系列发起进攻。
May 8. Spider-Man breaks Harry Potter’s record with $114 million gross for the weekend. Stan Lee continues his assault on the Hollywood superhero franchise.
康卡斯特收购 AT&T Broadband，成为美国最大的有线电视运营商。
Comcast acquires AT&T Broadband to become the largest U.S. cable operator.
行进。伊拉克战争开始。记者“融入”军事单位，从他们的角度讲述故事。
March. The Iraq war begins. Journalists are “embedded” with military units to tell the story from their point of view.
6 月 15 日。DVD 销售收入首次超过 VHS 收入。
June 15. Revenue from DVD sales exceeds VHS revenue for the first time.
6 月 27 日。美国“请勿致电”登记系统生效，允许公民选择不接受电话推销员的骚扰。计算机化呼叫银行的发展使得这种保护变得必要。
June 27. The U.S. Do Not Call registry goes into effect, permitting citizens to opt out of harassment by telemarketers. The development of computerized call banks has made this protection necessary.
7 月 27 日。鲍勃·霍普 (Bob Hope) 去世，享年 100 岁。感谢您带来的回忆！
July 27. Bob Hope dies at the age of 100. Thanks for the memories!
迈克·尼科尔斯根据托尼·库什纳的戏剧改编的精彩电视连续剧《天使在美国》 。
Mike Nichols’s stunning television series Angels in America, based on the Tony Kushner play.
八月。MySpace 首次亮相。最初旨在作为存储和网络托管网站（因此得名），它很快成为社交网络领域的领导者。2005年，它被出售给新闻集团。
August. MySpace debuts. Initially intended as a storage and web-hosting site (hence the name) it quickly becomes a leader in social networking. In 2005 it is sold to News Corp.
10 月 7 日。演员阿诺·施瓦辛格在一次特别罢免选举中突然当选加利福尼亚州州长。现在是转行的好时机；最近几部电影的表现并不好。
October 7. Actor Arnold Schwarzenegger comes out of nowhere to be elected Governor of California in a special recall election. It’s a good time to change careers; the last few films haven’t done well.
十月。索菲亚·科波拉的《迷失东京》将这位新好莱坞顶尖家族的后裔确立为一支值得认真对待的力量。
October. Sofia Coppola’s Lost in Translation establishes this scion of new Hollywood’s leading family as a force to be taken seriously.
2004年
2004
2 月 1 日。在第 28 届超级碗的中场表演中，贾斯汀·汀布莱克 (Justin Timberlake) 撕下了珍妮·杰克逊 (Janet Jackson) 的部分服装，露出了她的右胸。这种“衣柜故障”引起了轩然大波。FCC 因猥亵行为对 CBS 处以创纪录的 55 万美元罚款。上诉法院 2008 年 7 月的裁决将使处罚无效。
February 1. During the Super Bowl XXVIII halftime show Justin Timberlake rips off part of Janet Jackson’s costume baring some of her right breast. A furor arises over this “wardrobe malfunction.” The FCC fines CBS a record $550,000 for indecency. A Court of Appeals decision in July 2008 will void the penalty.
二月。Facebook 网站上线。基于制作学生肖像集作为新生破冰活动的大学普遍习惯，该网站很快（也许是在不知不觉中）成长为非常受欢迎的社交网络先驱。
February. The Facebook site debuts. Based on the prevalent university habit of producing collections of student portraits as an ice-breaker for freshmen, the site quickly—and perhaps unwittingly—grows into an enormously popular pioneer of social networking.
可能。维旺迪失去了对好莱坞的兴趣，将维旺迪环球公司 80% 的股份出售给通用电气，通用电气将其合并成立了 NBC 环球公司。
May. Vivendi loses interest in Hollywood, sells 80 percent of Vivendi Universal to GE, which combines it to form NBC Universal.
迈克尔·艾斯纳 (Michael Eisner) 在统治迪士尼十年后被驱逐出迪士尼。2005 年，他将由罗伯特·艾格 (Robert Eiger) 接替。
Michael Eisner ousted from Disney after ten-year reign. He will be replaced by Robert Eiger in 2005.
6 月 23 日。迈克尔·摩尔的《华氏 9/11》是一部影响深远的政治讽刺片，内容涉及布什政府的诡计、伊拉克战争和其他当代政治阴谋，在上个月在戛纳电影节赢得金棕榈奖后，首映票房就表现出色。由于政治考虑，这部电影差点被制片人米拉麦克斯的母公司迪士尼打压，最终由鲍勃·韦恩斯坦和哈维·韦恩斯坦亲自收购并发行。它在发行的前六个月就赚了超过 2 亿美元，并且在发售的第一天就售出了超过 200 万张 DVD。它仍然是政治电影中的一项非凡成就，但重要的是要记住它是多么接近被完全压制。
June 23. Michael Moore’s Fahrenheit 9/11, a far-reaching political diatribe about Bush administration chicanery, the Iraq war, and other contemporary political machinations, debuts to remarkable box-office after winning the Palme d’Or at Cannes the month before. Having been nearly squelched by Disney, parent of producer Miramax, for political considerations, the film was acquired by Bob and Harvey Weinstein personally and released by them. It earns more than $200 million in the first six months of release and sells more than two million DVDs the first day on sale. It remains a singular achievement in political cinema, but it is important to remember how close it came to being suppressed entirely.
7 月 1 日。马龙·白兰度去世，享年 80 岁。他与詹姆斯·迪恩以及后来的保罗·纽曼一起重新定义了美国英雄的性格。
July 1. Marlon Brando dies at 80. With James Dean and, later, Paul Newman he redefined the character of the American hero.
摩根·斯普尔洛克的《Supersize Me》证实了散文电影的新重要性以及向更多观众快速发行 DVD 的重要性。
Morgan Spurlock’s Supersize Me confirms both the new importance of the essay film and the significance of rapid DVD distribution to an even larger audience.
戈达尔的《巴黎音乐》。
Godard’s Notre Musique.
特里·乔治的卢旺达酒店让我们想起了我们忽视的种族灭绝。
Terry George’s Hotel Rwanda reminds us of the genocide we ignored.
一系列离奇而富有想象力的叙述（《美丽心灵的永恒阳光》、《史蒂夫·齐苏的水上生活》、《金赛》、《终点站》）都被保罗掩盖了哈吉斯的里程碑式集体电影《撞车》象征着我们现在的生活方式，理所当然地赢得了奥斯卡最佳影片奖。
A string of quirky and imaginative narratives (Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind, The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou, Kinsey, The Terminal) are overshadowed by Paul Haggis’s landmark ensemble film Crash, an emblem for the way we live now, which rightly wins the Academy Award for Best Picture.
经过六年的自我审视（他们的和我们的），《欲望都市》已经失去了动力。
Sex and the City runs out of steam after six years of navel-gazing (theirs, and ours).
2005年
2005
一月。事实证明，亚历山大·佩恩 (Alexander Payne) 的《杯酒人生》(Sideways)出人意料地取得了独立成功，并促进了黑皮诺 (Pinot Noir) 的销售。
January. Alexander Payne’s Sideways proves a surprise independent hit, and boosts sales of Pinot Noir.
二月。YouTube 首次亮相。
February. YouTube debuts.
《企鹅行军》是一部令人惊喜的纪录片。（这不会是最后一次。）
March of the Penguins is a surprise documentary hit. (It will not be the last.)
3-D 回来了：迪士尼的《小鸡》。
3-D is back: Disney’s Chicken Little.
四月。米高梅被出售给索尼和康卡斯特。
April. MGM is sold to Sony and Comcast.
卢卡斯的《星球大战 III：西斯归来》通常被认为是第一部主要的全数字电影。
Lucas’s Star Wars III: Return of the Sith is generally credited as the first major all-digital feature.
在与迪士尼就《华氏 9/11》发生争执后，韦恩斯坦兄弟离开了可以说是过去十年中最具影响力的制作公司米拉麦克斯，成立了韦恩斯坦公司。
After the hassle with Disney over Fahrenheit 9/11, the Weinstein brothers leave Miramax, arguably the most influential production company of the last ten years, to form the Weinstein Company.
十二月。马特·哈丁开始了世界巡演，制作他的第二个“舞蹈”视频。他的第一本《马特到底在哪里？》（拍摄于 2003 年和 2004 年）甚至在 YouTube 之前就已成为一种互联网现象。这些视频既简单又鼓舞人心：马特跳了五到十秒的小舞，然后切到世界上的另一个地方。
December. Matt Harding sets out on a world tour to make his second “Dancing” video. His, first, “Where the Hell Is Matt?” (shot in 2003 and 2004) has become an internet phenomenon—even before YouTube. The videos are as inspiring as they are simple: Matt does his little dance for five or ten seconds, then cut to another location in the world.
12 月 31 日，萨姆纳·雷石东将维亚康姆拆分为两个实体，试图抬高股价。（他仍然控制着这两家公司。）新的维亚康姆继承了派拉蒙、有线电视和卫星电视公司。新的哥伦比亚广播公司保留了“缓慢增长”的广播网络、电视制作和出版业务。一年后，哥伦比亚广播公司（“缓慢增长”公司）上涨了 15%，而新成立的维亚康姆（“快速增长”公司）则下跌了 5%，并且其交易价格从未高于其开盘价。那好吧。“男人赚了数百万美元，没有什么比所有权的改变更实质性的了。”
December 31. Sumner Redstone splits Viacom into two entities in an attempt to goose the stock price. (He still controls both companies.) The new Viacom inherits Paramount, cable, and satellite. The new CBS Corporation retains the “slow-growth” broadcast networks, TV production, and publishing. A year later, CBS—the “slow-growth” company—is up 15 percent, while the new Viacom (the “fast-growth” package) is down 5 percent—and has never traded higher than its opening-day price. Oh, well. “Men made millions, producing nothing more substantial than changes in ownership.”
2006年
2006
现在，DVD 收入占大多数院线电影收入的大部分，因此一些电影公司转向院线电影和 DVD 的每日发行。有些纪录片首先以 DVD 形式发行，只有在上映后才计划在影院上映。
DVD revenues now make up the majority of earnings on most theatrical films, so some studios turn to day-and-date releasing for theatrical and DVD. Some documentaries are released first in DVD and only scheduled for theatrical release after they have shown legs.
二月。梦工厂 SKG（除去其动画部门和杰弗里·卡森伯格）被出售给新成立的维亚康姆。
February. Dreamworks SKG (minus its animation division and Jeffrey Katzenberg) is sold to the new Viacom.
四月。VHS 不再作为故事片的发行媒介。
April. VHS is discontinued as a distribution medium for feature film.
可能。随着戴维斯·古根海姆记录阿尔·戈尔关于全球变暖的演讲《难以忽视的真相》的记录，这部新的散文电影逐渐登上各大头条新闻。该片在最高票房纪录片排行榜上仅排名第四（仅次于《华氏 9/11》、《企鹅行军》和《Sicko》） ，但其随附的书籍在《纽约时报》畅销书排行榜上排名第一，该片获胜奥斯卡最佳纪录片，戈尔分享诺贝尔和平奖。
May. The new essay film crescendos as Davis Guggenheim’s record of Al Gore’s lecture on global warming, An Inconvenient Truth, garners major headlines. The film ranks only fourth on the list of highest-grossing documentaries (behind Fahrenheit 9/11, March of the Penguins, and Sicko) but the accompanying book reaches the number one position on the New York Times best-seller list, the film wins Best Documentary Oscar, and Gore shares the Nobel peace prize.
6 月 16 日。LonelyGirl15在 YouTube 上首次亮相。该系列表面上是一个名叫 Bree 的 16 岁女孩的“真实”视频博客，但最终被发现是虚构的。据报道，在两年的运营中，该节目的观看次数达到了 1 亿次。
June 16. LonelyGirl15 debuts on YouTube. Ostensibly a “real” video blog by a sixteen-year-old named Bree, the series is eventually revealed to be fictional. In its two-year run it receives a reported 100 million views.
9 月 14 日。任天堂发布 Wii 游戏机。长期以来，视频游戏行业的创始人之一将超越其大牌竞争对手将游戏焦点从视频分辨率转变为物理动作：Wii 控制器包含一个加速计，使其成为动作的一部分。
September 14. Nintendo announces the Wii game console. Long out of contention, one of the founders of the video game industry will leapfrog its big-name competitors by changing the focus of gaming from video resolution to physical action: the Wii controller includes an accelerometer that makes it part of the action.
李安的《断背山》因其主题同性恋爱情而具有新闻价值。
Ang Lee’s Brokeback Mountain is newsworthy for the gay love affair that is its subject.
奥特曼与广播大师加里森·凯勒 (Garrison Keillor) 合作制作了他的最后一部电影《草原之家伴侣》，该片的主题是结束一场长期播出的节目。（缓慢褪色为黑色。）
Altman collaborates with radio master Garrison Keillor on his last film, A Prairie Home Companion, whose subject is putting a long-running show to bed. (Slow fade to black.)
斯派克·李的《堤坝决堤时》——另一部具有里程碑意义的纪录片。
Spike Lee’s When the Levees Broke—another landmark documentary.
弗洛里安·亨克尔·冯·多纳斯马克的《他人的生活》讲述了东德斯塔西统治下的生活，在国际上获得了成功。
Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck’s The Lives of Others, about life under the East German Stasi, gains international success.
福里斯特·惠特克在《最后的苏格兰国王》中饰演伊迪·阿明。
Forest Whitaker scores as Idi Amin in The Last King of Scotland.
十月。成立 20 个月的 YouTube 以 16.5 亿美元的价格卖给了谷歌。
October. Twenty-month-old YouTube is sold to Google for $1.65 billion.
11 月 20 日，六十年代教父罗伯特·奥尔特曼去世，享年 81 岁。
November 20. Robert Altman, godfather of the sixties generation, dies at 81.
迪士尼以 74 亿美元的股票收购了新贵竞争对手皮克斯。
Disney buys upstart rival Pixar for $7.4 billion in stock.
12 月 30 日。大都会歌剧院开始向全球数百家剧院同步播放高清精选表演，帮助建立新的戏剧形式。
December 30. The Metropolitan Opera begins simulcasting select performances in HD to hundreds of theaters around the world., helping establish a new theatrical format.
2007年
2007
2 月 25 日。经过四十年杰出的电影制作，马丁·斯科塞斯凭借《无间行者》赢得了他作为导演的第一座奥斯卡奖。该片还荣获最佳影片奖。
February 25. After forty years of exceptional filmmaking Martin Scorsese wins his first Oscar as director for The Departed. The film also wins Best Picture.
六月。皮克斯的《料理鼠王》展示了数字动画日益复杂的程度。
June. Pixar’s Ratatouille shows the increasing sophistication of digital animation.
6 月 10 日。《黑道家族》，这部定义“应该”的电视连续剧，以一种奇怪的方式结束：当托尼从餐桌上抬起头来时，我们很快就切到了黑色。
June 10. The Sopranos, the defining television series of the oughts, comes to a quizzical close: as Tony glances up from the restaurant table, we quickly cut to black.
6 月 22 日。迈克尔摩尔的《Sicko》将成为迄今为止票房第三高的纪录片。
June 22. Michael Moore’s Sicko will become the third-highest grossing documentary to date.
6 月 29 日，苹果 iPhone 上市：这是一次重大购物活动，受到媒体的热烈报道。但这也是对手机概念的巧妙重新思考。iPhone 极大地简化了手机功能的杂乱，将大部分控制从硬件转移到软件，巧妙地集成了 PDA 功能，为其加速度计增添了一点亮点，并为成为与其更大的兄弟产品集成的便携式平台做好了准备。 。牛顿的诺言终于实现了。
June 29. Apple iPhone is introduced: it is a major shopping event, subject to the usual media hoopla. But it is also an ingenious rethinking of the cellphone concept. Greatly simplifying the mishmash of features that cellphones have become, the iPhone moves most controls from hardware to software, neatly integrates PDA functions, adds a little glitz with its accelerometer, and prepares the way to become a portable platform integrated with its larger sibling back home. The promise of the Newton is finally fulfilled.
7 月 21 日。《哈利·波特》系列第七卷（也是最后一卷）在美国的发行成为一场媒体事件，成千上万的年轻人（及其父母）在书店外排队购买。仅在美国首次印刷就有一千二百万册。哈利死了吗？每个人都想知道。
July 21. The release in the U.S. of the seventh (and last) volume of the Harry Potter series becomes a media event as hundreds of thousands of young people (and their parents) line up outside bookstores to get their copies. The first printing in the U.S. alone is twelve million. Does Harry die? Everyone wants to know.
7 月 29 日，英格玛·伯格曼去世，享年 89 岁。
July 29. Ingmar Bergman dies at 89.
7 月 30 日，米开朗基罗·安东尼奥尼去世，享年 94 岁。
July 30. Michelangelo Antonioni dies at 94.
十一月，《四分之一人生》（马歇尔·赫斯科维茨和爱德华·茨威克）在 MySpace 上首次亮相，每集八分钟。作为第一批商业网络连续剧之一，它在电视上失败了。
November, quarterlife (Marshall Herskovitz and Edward Zwick) debuts on MySpace in eight-minute episodes. One of the first commercial web series, it will fail on TV.
十二月。弗朗西斯·福特·科波拉十年来首次回归执导，《没有青春的青春》是一首关于衰老的恰当挽歌。
December. Francis Ford Coppola returns to directing for the first time in ten years with Youth Without Youth an apt elegy on aging.
全年院线票房总额为 96 亿美元，而 DVD 收入总计为 234 亿美元（其中 160 亿美元为销售额，其余为租赁收入）。
Theatrical box-office total for the year is $9.6 billion while DVD revenue adds up to $23.4 billion ($16 billion in sales, the rest rental revenue).
2008年
2008
二月。东芝宣布将放弃 HD-DVD 格式，结束高清格式之战，让电影业可以自由地以蓝光形式重新发行其目录。这一举措来得正是时候：去年，随着市场在经历了十年的辉煌发展后饱和，DVD 销量有所下降。
February. Toshiba announces it will abandon the HD-DVD format, ending the high-definition format wars and leaving the film industry free to re-release its catalogs in Blu-ray. The move comes just in time: DVD sales were down last year as the market saturated after a remarkable ten-year run.
2 月 8 日。英特尔宣布推出一款四核安腾芯片，将于今年晚些时候发售，该芯片将搭载 20 亿个晶体管。
February 8. Intel announces a quad-core Itanium chip, for sale later this year, that will host two billion transistors.
4 月 9 日。迪士尼宣布将发行几乎所有未来的 3D 动画电影，包括皮克斯的产品。
April 9. Disney announces that it will release nearly all future animated films in 3-D, including Pixar product.
可能。在戛纳电影节上获得两项大奖（自 1972 年以来首次）标志着意大利新现实主义的复兴。Matteo Garrone 的Gomorra荣获大奖；保罗·索伦蒂诺的《Il Divo》荣获评审团奖。与此同时，法国二十一年来首次赢得金棕榈奖（Entre les murs， Laurent Cantet）。
May. Two wins at the Cannes Festival (for the first time since 1972) signal the resurgence of the new Neorealism in Italy. Matteo Garrone’s Gomorra takes the Grand Prize; Paolo Sorrentino’s Il Divo wins the Jury Prize. Meanwhile, France wins the Palme d’Or for the first time in twenty-one years (Entre les murs, Laurent Cantet).
5 月 22 日。在第一集 27 年后，最后一集 19 年后，卢卡斯和斯皮尔伯格最后一次重温夺宝奇兵传奇：夺宝奇兵与水晶桨王国。借助数字效果、现代化妆和宽容的剧本，哈里森·福特 (Harrison Ford) 在 65 岁时实现了这一目标。
May 22. Twenty-seven years after its first episode and nineteen years after its last, Lucas and Spielberg revive the Indiana Jones saga for one last ride: Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Scull. With the aid of digital effects, modern makeup, and a forgiving script Harrison Ford pulls it off at the age of 65.
7 月 21 日，《蝙蝠侠：黑暗骑士》（蝙蝠侠最新一集）的首映创造了票房纪录，销售额达 1.584 亿美元，并带领好莱坞迎来了有史以来最好的周末。
July 21. Premiere of The Dark Knight (latest episode of Batman) sets box-office records, garnering $158.4 million in sales and leading Hollywood to its best weekend ever.
8 月 8 日。既然网络拥有足够的带宽，NBC 终于实现了 20 世纪 90 年代大规模奥运会报道实验的承诺。他们说服北京奥运会组织者将热门赛事安排在上午，以便 NBC 及其有线电视附属公司能够在美国时区进行直播。更重要的是，他们在网站上提供了超过 2,200 小时的现场报道，并发现网络广播提高了而不是降低了黄金时段的收视率。
August 8. Now that the web has sufficient bandwidth NBC finally fulfills the promise of its 1990s experiments in massive Olympics coverage. They convince the Beijing games organizers to schedule popular events in the morning so that NBC and its cable affiliates can cover them live in the U.S. time zones. More important, they offer more than 2,200 hours of live coverage on the website and discover that the webcasts enhance rather than detract from prime-time ratings.
9 月 26 日。保罗·纽曼 (Paul Newman) 去世，享年 83 岁，他是定义后黄金时代美国英雄的演员工作室三巨头中的最后一位。正如阿尔让·哈梅茨在她的讣告中所说：“如果说马龙·白兰度和詹姆斯·迪恩将目中无人的美国男性定义为阴郁的叛逆者，那么保罗·纽曼则将他重新塑造为一个可爱的叛逆者，一个令人惊叹的英俊形象，充满动物性的高昂精神和蓝眼睛的坦率，其魅力几乎无法抗拒……”
September 26. Paul Newman dies at 83, the last of the triumvirate of Actors Studio stars who defined the post-Golden-Age American hero. As Aljean Harmetz put it in her obituary: “If Marlon Brando and James Dean defined the defiant American male as a sullen rebel, Paul Newman recreated him as a likable renegade, a strikingly handsome figure of animal high spirits and blue-eyed candor whose magnetism was almost impossible to resist….”
11 月 4 日。巴拉克·奥巴马 (Barack Obama) 当选美国第四十四任总统，他发起的一场竞选活动确认了互联网作为重要的政治沟通和组织工具的地位。火炬传递给新一代，重振美国梦。
November 4. Barack Obama is elected forty-fourth president of the United States, waging a campaign that confirms the internet as a crucial political communications and organization tool. The torch is passed to a new generation, reviving the American Dream.
2009年
2009
2 月 17 日。美国将电视广播从模拟转为数字，比原计划晚了三年。
February 17. U.S. switches television broadcasting from analog to digital, three years later than originally planned.
2010年
2010
数字电视转换计划将于德国完成。
Digital television switch over scheduled to be complete in Germany.
2011年
2011
8 月 31 日。加拿大将电视广播从模拟转为数字。
August 31. Canada switches television broadcasting from analog to digital.
11 月 30 日。法国将电视广播从模拟转为数字。
November 30. France switches television broadcasting from analog to digital.
2012年
2012
欧盟计划完成数字电视转换。
Digital television switchover scheduled to be complete in European Union.
2013年
2013
英国计划完成数字电视转换
Digital television switchover scheduled to be complete in the U.K.
阅读有关电影和媒体的内容
Reading about Film and Media
本书第一版于 1977 年出版时，包含了大量参考书目。这绝不是关于电影的完整书籍清单，但它很好地涵盖了该领域。当时，电影刚刚进入学院的范围。在此之前，它是一个文化前沿。事实上，这就是我开始撰写有关电影的原因之一：它是一个新鲜的领域。雷蒙德·威廉姆斯已经写了我想写的大部分书——关于维多利亚时代、关于现代戏剧、关于城市和乡村、关于电视社会学。
When the first edition of this book appeared in 1977 it included an extensive bibliography. It was by no means a complete list of books about film but it covered the territory well. At the time, film had just entered the confines of the academy. Before then it was a cultural frontier. Indeed, that’s one reason I started writing about film: it was fresh territory. Raymond Williams had already written most of the books I wanted to write—about the Victorians, about modern drama, about the city and the country, about the sociology of television.
在过去的三十年里——主要是由于电影在学院中的接受——出现了一股关于电影（和媒体）的写作浪潮。诚然，其中大部分都是“要么出版，要么灭亡”的东西，但每年都会有数十个关于该领域各个主题的有趣的新观点。不再可能生成一个假装很全面、易于管理的参考书目。此外，由于网络上提供了几乎完整的书目信息，因此尝试以印刷形式涵盖该领域的意义就大为减少。
During the last thirty years—mainly due to film’s acceptance in the academy—there has been a huge wave of writing about film (and media). True, most of it is “publish-or-perish” stuff, but every year there are dozens of interesting new takes on various subjects in the field. It’s no longer possible to produce a manageable bibliography that pretends to be comprehensive. Moreover, since nearly complete bibliographical information is available on the web, it makes a lot less sense to try to cover the territory in print.
我们用这个随意但鼓舞人心的清单（包含您应该阅读的约 250 本书）取代了早期版本的详细参考书目（可在我们的网站上参考）。或者，只要阅读 Raymond Williams、André Bazin、Roland Barthes、François Truffaut、John Berger、Marie Winn、Andrew Sarris、Molly Haskell、Pauline Kael 以及第 5 章中介绍的作家的所有著作，您就会很好地了解您理解电影的方式。
We’ve replaced the detailed bibliography of earlier editions (available for reference on our website) with this arbitrary but inspiring list of about 250 books you should read. Alternatively, just read everything you can by Raymond Williams, André Bazin, Roland Barthes, François Truffaut, John Berger, Marie Winn, Andrew Sarris, Molly Haskell, Pauline Kael, and the writers covered in Chapter 5, and you’ll be well on your way to understanding film.
接下来是一个特殊的集合，包括基本文本、绝版经典、标准文本和个人喜爱的文本。我很感谢 H-Film 和 Screen-L 讨论列表中的成员提出了许多独特的标题。
What follows is an idiosyncratic collection including basic texts, classics long out of print, standard texts, and personal favorites. I am grateful to the members of the H-Film and Screen-L discussion lists who suggested many unique titles.
精选图书馆
A Select Library
1.电影作为一门艺术
1. Film as an Art
安德鲁，达德利。艺术光环中的电影。普林斯顿：普林斯顿大学出版社，1984 年。
Andrew, Dudley. Film in the Aura of Art. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984.
阿尔托、安东尼. 剧院及其替身。纽约：格罗夫出版社，1958 年。
Artaud, Antonin. The Theatre and Its Double. New York: Grove Press, 1958.
奥尔巴赫、埃里希. 模仿：西方文学中现实的再现。纽约：Doubleday，1957 年。这是一本重要的现代批评文本。
Auerbach, Erich. Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature. New York: Doubleday, 1957. This is an essential modern critical text.
布莱希特，贝尔托尔特。布莱希特论戏剧。由约翰·威利特编辑和翻译。纽约：Hill 和 Wang，1964 年。大师宣言。
Brecht, Bertolt. Brecht on Theatre. Edited and translated by John Willett. New York: Hill and Wang, 1964. The master’s manifesto.
乔治、纳尔逊. 提升比赛水平：黑人篮球运动的历史与美学。纽约：Simon & Schuster，1992。如果您认为迈克尔·乔丹和米哈伊尔·巴里什尼科夫的比较有些夸张。
George, Nelson. Elevating the Game: The History & Aesthetics of Black Men in Basketball. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992. In case you thought that the comparison of Michael Jordan and Mikhail Baryshnikov was a stretch.
贡布里希，《EH艺术与幻觉》。第二版。普林斯顿：普林斯顿大学出版社，1961 年。
Gombrich, E. H. Art and Illusion. Second ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961.
贺拉斯。诗学艺术。
Horace. Ars Poetica.
基拉，亚历山大。浴室：设计标准。纽约州伊萨卡：康奈尔大学住房和环境研究中心，1966 年。修订版，企鹅出版社，1976 年。这本晦涩难懂的专着是我读过的最有影响力的书之一。康奈尔大学的工程师致力于科学地研究个人卫生的目的和功能。结果是一系列明智的设计建议——据我所知，自这项研究首次发表以来的四十多年来，美国管道行业没有采纳任何建议。浴室是人们与科技接触最频繁、最亲密的地方。基拉的书向我们展示了我们的管道设计是多么武断——而且适得其反。对于浴室来说如此，对于电影来说也是如此。
Kira, Alexender. The Bathroom: Criteria for Design. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Center for Housing and Environmental Studies, 1966. Revised edition, Penguin, 1976. This obscure monograph is one the most influential books I have ever read. The engineers at Cornell undertook to study the purposes and functions of personal hygiene scientifically. The result is a series of sensible design suggestions—none of which, to my knowledge, has been adopted by the American plumbing industry in the more than forty years since the study first appeared. The bathroom is the place where people interface with technology most often and most intimately. Kira’s book shows us how arbitrary—and counterproductive—the design of our plumbing has been. What’s true for the bathroom is also true for the movies.
芒福德、刘易斯. 技术与文明。1934 年。重印。纽约：Harcourt、Brace & World，1966 年。现代主义经典文本。
Mumford, Lewis. Technics and Civilization. 1934. Reprint. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1966. A classic text of modernism.
纽霍尔、博蒙特。摄影史。纽约：现代艺术博物馆，1964 年。经典研究。
Newhall, Beaumont. The History of Photography. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1964. A classic study.
施维尔布施、沃尔夫冈。铁路之旅：工业化与时空感知。伯克利：加州大学出版社，1987 年。席弗布施是一位涉猎广泛、超越国界的文化历史学家。在对早期铁路的文化转型的有趣研究中，他为我们提供了了解媒体如何塑造我们在二十世纪的新世界观的背景。
Schivelbusch, Wolfgang. The Railway Journey: The Industrialization and Perception of Time and Space. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987. Schivelbusch is a wide-ranging cultural historian who transcends boundaries. In this intriguing study of the cultural transformation early railways forged he gives us the context to understand how media molded our new worldview in the twentieth century.
斯科尔斯、罗伯特、詹姆斯·费兰和罗伯特·凯洛格。叙事的本质。40周年纪念版。纽约：牛津大学出版社，2006 年。这是文学研究的经典著作，现已更新，对于该主题的一般方法很有用。
Scholes, Robert, James Phelan, and Robert Kellogg. The Nature of Narrative. 40th Anniversary edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. This is a classic of literary studies, now updated, and useful for its general approach to the subject.
威廉姆斯、雷蒙德. 关键词：文化与社会词汇。纽约：牛津大学出版社，1976 年。
Williams, Raymond. Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. New York: Oxford University Press, 1976.
2. 电影与媒体技术
2. The Technology of Film and Media
科、布莱恩. 电影摄影的历史。伦敦：阿什和格兰特，1981 年。
Coe, Brian. The History of Movie Photography. London: Ash & Grant, 1981.
迪克森、WKL 和安东尼娅·迪克森。电影放映机、电影放映机和电影留声机的历史。特威克纳姆，米德尔塞克斯，1895 年。重印。纽约：阿诺出版社，1970 年。作者为电影之父之一。
Dickson, W. K. L., and Antonia Dickson. History of the Kinetograph, Kinetoscope, and Kinetophonograph. Twickenham, Middlesex, 1895. Reprint. New York: Arno Press, 1970. By one of the fathers of film.
埃杰顿、大卫. 《旧时代的冲击：1900 年以来的技术与全球历史》。纽约：牛津大学出版社，2006 年。技术比您想象的要广泛得多。
Edgerton, David. The Shock of the Old: Technology and Global History Since 1900. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. Technology is much broader than you think it is.
埃卢尔，雅克。技术协会。纽约：复古，1964 年。具有开创性的文本。
Ellul, Jacques. The Technological Society. New York: Vintage, 1964. A seminal text.
恩提克纳普，利奥。移动图像技术：从西洋镜到数字。伦敦：Wallflower Press，2005。对模拟和数字技术的严格现代审查。
Enticknap, Leo. Moving Image Technology: From Zoetrope to Digital. London: Wallflower Press, 2005. A rigorous modern review of analog and digital technology.
菲尔丁，雷蒙德，编辑。电影和电视技术史。伯克利：加州大学出版社，1967 年。珍贵的文献集。
Fielding, Raymond, ed. A Technological History of Motion Pictures and Television. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967. A valuable collection of documents.
Kawin, Bruce F.电影如何运作。伯克利：加州大学出版社，1992 年。
Kawin, Bruce F. How Movies Work. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.
林巴彻、詹姆斯. 影片的四个方面。纽约：Arno Press，1978 年。对于色彩、声音、3-D 和早期宽银幕处理的讨论非常有价值。
Limbacher, James. Four Aspects of the Film. New York: Arno Press, 1978. Invaluable for its discussion of color, sound, 3-D, and early widescreen processes.
3. 电影语言
3. The Language of Film
阿恩海姆，鲁道夫。艺术与视觉感知：创造性眼睛的心理学。伯克利：加州大学出版社，1954 年。视觉艺术的一般文本，对电影有很多论述。
Arnheim, Rudolf. Art and Visual Perception: A Psychology of the Creative Eye. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1954. A general text in the visual arts that has much to say about film.
阿恩海姆，鲁道夫。视觉思维。伯克利：加州大学出版社，1969 年。
Arnheim, Rudolf. Visual Thinking. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969.
伯杰、约翰. 观看的方式。伦敦：BBC 和企鹅出版社，1972 年。一本根据 Berger 的 BBC 广告和艺术系列改编的书。基本的。
Berger, John. Ways of Seeing. London: BBC and Penguin Books, 1972. A book based on Berger’s BBC series on advertising and art. Essential.
大卫·波德韦尔和克里斯汀·汤普森。电影艺术：简介。第三版。雷丁，马萨诸塞州：Addison-Wesley，1990。现在是经典的介绍性文本。
Bordwell, David, and Kristin Thompson. Film Art: An Introduction. Third ed. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1990. Now classic introductory text.
大卫·波德韦尔、克里斯汀·汤普森和珍妮特·斯泰格。《经典好莱坞电影：到 1960 年的电影风格和制作方式》。纽约：哥伦比亚大学出版社，1985 年。20 世纪 80 年代最重要的著作之一，对经典好莱坞制片厂风格的艺术和经济学的研究备受推崇。
Bordwell, David, Kristin Thompson, and Janet Staiger. The Classical Hollywood Cinema: Film Style and Mode of Production to 1960. New York: Columbia University Press, 1985. One of the more important texts of the 1980s, a highly regarded study of the art and economics of the classical Hollywood studio style.
布劳迪、利奥. 框架中的世界。纽约：主播，1976 年。
Braudy, Leo. The World in a Frame. New York: Anchor, 1976.
凯恩、迈克尔. 电影表演：演员对电影制作的看法。修订扩展版。纽约：掌声书籍，2000 年。演员们以前曾写过关于他们的技艺的文章，但没有人能如此雄辩地对此进行阐述。
Caine, Michael. Acting in Film: An Actor’s Take on Movie Making. Revised expanded edition. New York: Applause Books, 2000. Actors have written before about their craft but no one of such stature has written so eloquently about it.
贾内蒂、路易斯. 了解电影。第五版。新泽西州恩格尔伍德悬崖：Prentice Hall，1990。基本文本。
Giannetti, Louis. Understanding Movies. Fifth ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990. A basic text.
戈达尔、让-吕克。“蒙太奇，我的美人。” 《戈达尔谈戈达尔》，汤姆·米尔恩编辑，纽约：维京出版社，1972 年。
Godard, Jean-Luc. “Montage, mon beau souci.” In Godard on Godard, edited by Tom Milne, New York: Viking Press, 1972.
柯比、琳恩. 平行轨道：铁路和无声电影院。北卡罗来纳州达勒姆：杜克大学出版社，1997 年。柯比对交通和通讯所共享的文化结构提出了独特的见解。
Kirby, Lynne. Parallel Tracks: The Railroad and Silent Cinema. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1997. Kirby offers a unique insight into the cultural structures that transportation and communication share.
马登、马特. 99种讲故事的方法：风格练习。纽约：张伯伦兄弟，2005 年。《麦登》以雷蒙德·奎诺的《风格练习》为前提，以漫画形式以 99 种不同的方式重述了一个小事件。虽然这是一部漫画而不是剧本，但您将学到很多有关无限多样性的叙事的知识。
Madden, Matt. 99 Ways to Tell a Story: Exercises in Style. New York: Chamberlain Brothers, 2005. Taking his premise from Raymond Queneau’s Exercises in Style, Madden retells a small incident in 99 different ways in comics form. Although it’s a comic not a screenplay, you’ll learn a lot about the infinite variety of narrative.
尼尼奥，雅克。幻觉科学，跨。富兰克林·菲利普. 纽约伊萨卡：康奈尔大学出版社，1998 年，2001 年。对视错觉进行彻底且引人入胜的调查。
Ninio, Jacques. The Science of Illusions, trans. Franklin Philip. Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press, 1998, 2001. A thorough and engaging survey of optical illusions.
雷斯、卡雷尔. 电影剪辑技术。第二次扩大版。纽约：Amphoto/Hastings House，1968 年。这是一本针对电影剪辑师的“操作指南”书，在美学上具有影响力。
Reisz, Karel. The Technique of Film Editing. Second enlarged ed. New York: Amphoto/Hastings House, 1968. A “how to” book for film editors, it was esthetically influential.
雷蒙德·R·斯波蒂斯伍德《电影语法》。伯克利：加州大学出版社，1950 年。经典之作。
Spottiswoode, Raymond R. A Grammar of Film. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1950. A classic.
罗伯特·斯塔姆、罗伯特·伯戈因和桑迪·弗利特曼-刘易斯。电影符号学中的新词汇：结构主义、后结构主义及其他。纽约：Routledge，1992。现代理论术语的有用解释。
Stam, Robert, Robert Burgoyne, and Sandy Flitterman-Lewis. New Vocabularies in Film Semiotics: Structuralism, Post-Structuralism, and Beyond. New York: Routledge, 1992. Useful explanation of modern theoretical terminology.
塔尔博特，丹尼尔，编辑。电影：选集。伯克利：加州大学出版社，1967 年。1959 年首次出版，至今仍是经典的综合集。
Talbot, Daniel, ed. Film: An Anthology. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967. First published in 1959 and still a classic general collection.
塔夫特、爱德华. 定量信息的视觉显示。柴郡，康涅狄格州：图形出版社，1983 年。一篇关于认知艺术和界面语法的严谨、优雅、古怪的文章。这本书由耶鲁大学教授自行出版，已成为视觉思想家的标准文本。随后出版了《Envisioning Information》（1990）和《Visual Explanations》（1997），也是自行出版的。
Tufte, Edward. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press, 1983. A rigorous, elegant, quirky essay on the grammar of cognitive art and interface. Self-published by the Yale professor, this has become a standard text for visual thinkers. Envisioning Information (1990) and Visual Explanations (1997) followed, also self-published.
另请参见第 5 节中的 Bazin、Eco、Metz 和 Wollen 条目。
See also Bazin, Eco, Metz, and Wollen entries in Section 5.
4A。电影史：电影的经济与政治
4A. Film History: The Economics and Politics of Film
巴赫、史蒂文. 最终剪辑：《天堂之门》制作过程中的梦想与灾难。纽约：NAL-Dutton，1986。一个伟大的“制作”叙事。
Bach, Steven. Final Cut: Dreams & Disasters in the Making of Heaven’s Gate. New York: NAL-Dutton, 1986. A great “making-of” narrative.
Bagdikian，Ben H. 新媒体垄断。修订版。波士顿：Beacon，2004 年。对巴格迪基安 1983 年以来媒体所有权的开创性分析的修订。
Bagdikian, Ben H. The New Media Monopoly. Rev ed. Boston: Beacon, 2004. A revision of Bagdikian’s seminal analysis of media ownership from 1983.
塞普莱尔、拉里和史蒂夫·英格兰德。好莱坞的宗教裁判所：电影界的政治。纽约：Doubleday，1980 年。您需要了解回溯名单的故事。
Ceplair, Larry, and Steve Englund. The Inquisition in Hollywood: Politics in the Film Community. New York: Doubleday, 1980. You need to know the backlist story.
克里普斯、托马斯. 慢慢褪黑：美国电影中的黑人，1900-1942。纽约：牛津大学出版社，1977 年。一项开创性的研究。
Cripps, Thomas. Slow Fade to Black: The Negro in American Film, 1900–1942. New York: Oxford University Press, 1977. A seminal study.
戴尔、理查德. 天体：电影明星与社会。纽约：圣马丁出版社，1986 年。
Dyer, Richard. Heavenly Bodies: Film Stars and Society. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1986.
戴尔、理查德. 现在你看到了：男女同性恋电影研究。伦敦：劳特利奇，1990。
Dyer, Richard. Now You See It: Studies on Lesbian and Gay Film. London: Routledge, 1990.
加布勒、尼尔. 他们自己的帝国：犹太人如何发明好莱坞。纽约：皇冠，1988。
Gabler, Neal. An Empire of Their Own: How the Jews Invented Hollywood. New York: Crown, 1988.
加布勒、尼尔. 温切尔：八卦、权力和名人文化。纽约：克诺夫，1994。
Gabler, Neal. Winchell: Gossip, Power, and the Culture of Celebrity. New York: Knopf, 1994.
高盛、威廉. 银幕贸易历险记：对好莱坞和编剧的个人看法。纽约：华纳图书，1983 年。
Goldman, William. Adventures in the Screen Trade: A Personal View of Hollywood and Screenwriting. New York: Warner Books, 1983.
哈斯克尔，莫莉。从尊敬到强奸。纽约：企鹅出版社，1974 年。对女性与电影的开创性研究。
Haskell, Molly. From Reverence to Rape. New York: Penguin, 1974. Seminal study of women and film.
哈斯克尔，莫莉。在无人区坚守我自己。纽约：牛津大学出版社，1997 年。24 年后，哈斯克尔对性政治的前景进行了更加精确、合理和深思熟虑的分析。
Haskell, Molly. Holding My Own in No Man’s Land. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. A breathless 24 years later, Haskell follows up with more precise, reasoned, and thoughtful analysis of the landscape of sexual politics.
麦克林蒂克、大卫. 不雅暴露：好莱坞和华尔街的真实故事。纽约：威廉·莫罗，1982 年。贝格曼事件是 70 年代好莱坞的指标。
McClintick, David. Indecent Exposure: A True Story of Hollywood & Wall Street. New York: William Morrow, 1982. The Begelman affair as an index of Hollywood in the seventies.
摩纳哥，詹姆斯。现在的美国电影：人民、权力、金钱、电影。第二版。纽约：纽约西洋镜和新美国图书馆，1984 年。包括附录、参考书目和图表。
Monaco, James. American Film Now: The People, the Power, the Money, the Movies. Second edition. New York: New York Zoetrope and New American Library, 1984. Includes appendices, bibliography, and charts.
纳瓦斯基，维克多。命名名称。纽约：企鹅出版社，1981 年。黑名单时期。
Navasky, Victor. Naming Names. New York: Penguin, 1981. The blacklist period.
乔迪·W·彭宁顿《美国电影中的性史》。康涅狄格州韦斯特波特：普拉格，2007 年。
Pennington, Jody W. The History of Sex in American Film. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2007.
菲利普斯、朱莉娅. 你再也不会在这个小镇吃午餐了。纽约：NAL-Dutton，1992 年。该书出版时已成为新闻人物，至今仍是了解好莱坞习惯的一扇窗。
Phillips, Julia. You’ll Never Eat Lunch in This Town Again. New York: NAL-Dutton, 1992. A newsmaker when it was published, and still a revealing window on Hollywood habits.
大卫·帕特南和尼尔·沃森。电影和金钱。纽约：阿尔弗雷德·A·克诺普夫 (Alfred A. Knopf)，1998 年。英国书名更能说明问题：《未宣战的战争：控制世界电影业的斗争》。普特南勋爵对美国文化帝国主义的看法。
Puttnam, David, with Neil Watson. Movies and Money. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998. The British title is more telling: The Undeclared War: The Struggle for Control of the World’s Film Industry. Lord Puttnam’s view of American cultural imperialism.
希克尔、理查德. 他在报纸上的照片：对美国名人的推测，基于老道格拉斯·费尔班克斯的生活。纽约：查特豪斯出版社，1973 年。对名人的开创性研究和一篇关于其发明者之一的有趣文章。
Schickel, Richard. His Picture in the Papers: A Speculation on Celebrity in America, Based on the Life of Douglas Fairbanks, Sr. New York: Charterhouse, 1973. A seminal study of celebrityhood and an interesting essay on one of its inventors.
希克尔、理查德. 亲密的陌生人：名人文化。纽约：双日，1990。
Schickel, Richard. Intimate Strangers: The Culture of Celebrity. New York: Doubleday, 1990.
斯克拉、罗伯特. 电影制造的美国：美国电影的文化史。纽约：兰登书屋，1975 年。
Sklar, Robert. Movie-Made America: A Cultural History of American Movies. New York: Random House, 1975.
汤姆森、大卫. 黑暗中的美国。纽约：威廉·莫罗，1977 年。
Thomson, David. America in the Dark. New York: William Morrow, 1977.
沃格尔、阿莫斯。电影作为一种颠覆性的艺术。纽约：兰登书屋，1975 年。这本由纽约电影节创始人之一撰写的关于实验电影的文章集在很大程度上生动地展现了一个令人兴奋的时期的电影体验的范围和多样性。
Vogel, Amos. Film as a Subversive Art. New York: Random House, 1975. Very much of its time, this collection of essays on experimental films by one of the founders of the New York Film Festival imparts a vivid sense of the range and variety of film experience during an exciting period.
4B。电影史：普通历史研究
4B. Film History: General Historical Studies
威廉·K·艾弗森。美国无声电影。纽约：牛津大学出版社，1978 年。一部宝贵的历史。
Everson, William K. American Silent Film. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978. A valuable history.
马斯特，杰拉德。电影简史。第二版。印第安纳波利斯：鲍布斯-梅里尔，1976 年。
Mast, Gerald. A Short History of the Movies. Second ed. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1976.
罗宾逊、大卫. 世界电影史。纽约：斯坦因和戴，1974 年。
Robinson, David. The History of World Cinema. New York: Stein and Day, 1974.
罗林斯，彼得·C. 《哥伦比亚美国电影史指南：电影如何描绘美国的过去》。纽约：哥伦比亚大学出版社，2003 年。
Rollins, Peter C. The Columbia Companion to American History on Film: How the Movies Have Portrayed the American Past. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.
罗塔、保罗和理查德·格里菲斯。电影至今。纽约：特韦恩，1960 年。1930 年首次出版，多次更新，这是电影学术的早期经典。
Rotha, Paul, and Richard Griffith. The Film Till Now. New York: Twayne, 1960. First published in 1930, updated several times, this is an early classic of film scholarship.
萨杜尔、乔治. 电影通史。巴黎：德诺埃尔，1973-75。该片于1948年首次出版，是电影史上的经典之作。
Sadoul, Georges. Histoire générale du cinéma. Paris: Denoël, 1973–75. First published in 1948, this is a classic of film history.
萨里斯、安德鲁. “你还没听到任何消息。” 美国有声电影：历史与记忆。纽约：牛津大学出版社，1998 年。一生批判性思想的笔记。
Sarris, Andrew. “You Ain’t Heard Nothin’ Yet.” The American Talking Film: History and Memory. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Notes from a lifetime of critical thought.
塞尔德斯、吉尔伯特. 7 种生动的艺术。纽约州纽约：Dover Publications，2001 年。这本 1924 年经典著作的重印本。在六十年代流行艺术和精英艺术之间的障碍被打破的四十年前，塞尔德斯倡导电影、漫画、音乐喜剧、歌舞杂耍、广播、流行音乐和舞蹈。
Seldes, Gilbert. The 7 Lively Arts. New York, NY: Dover Publications, 2001. A reprint of this 1924 classic. Forty years before the barriers between popular and elite arts were breached in the sixties, Seldes championed movies, comic strips, musical comedy, vaudeville, radio, popular music, and dance.
斯克拉、罗伯特. 电影：国际媒介史。纽约：艾布拉姆斯，1993。
Sklar, Robert. Film: An International History of the Medium. New York: Abrams, 1993.
汤普森、克里斯汀. 新好莱坞的故事讲述：理解经典叙事技巧。剑桥：哈佛大学出版社，1999。汤普森认为古典叙事技巧在后现代世界中仍然占主导地位。
Thompson, Kristin. Storytelling in the New Hollywood: Understanding Classic Narrative Technique. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999. Thompson suggests that classical narrative technique still dominates in a postmodern world.
泰勒、帕克. 地下电影：一部批判的历史。纽约，纽约：Da Capo Press，1995 年。1970 年版的重印。
Tyler, Parker. Underground Film: A Critical History. New York, NY: Da Capo Press, 1995. A reprint of the 1970 edition.
韦斯特，纳撒尼尔。蝗虫日。1939年，有很多关于好莱坞生活的小说；这是我们要开始的。另请参阅大卫·汤姆森的《嫌疑人》（No Exit，2007）。
West, Nathanael. The Day of the Locust. 1939. There are many novels about life in Hollywood; this is the one to start with. See also David Thomson’s Suspects (No Exit, 2007).
4C. 电影史：特定的主要时期
4C. Film History: Specific Major Periods
愤怒，肯尼思。好莱坞巴比伦。重印。纽约：Delta，1975 年。八卦经典。
Anger, Kenneth. Hollywood Babylon. Reprint. New York: Delta, 1975. A classic of gossip.
比斯金德，彼得. 眼见为实：好莱坞如何教导我们停止担忧并热爱五十年代。纽约：万神殿，1983 年。
Biskind, Peter. Seeing Is Believing: How Hollywood Taught Us To Stop Worrying and Love the Fifties. New York: Pantheon, 1983.
鲍泽，艾琳。电影的转变：1907-1915。纽约：查尔斯·斯克里布纳的儿子们，1990 年。卷。斯克里布纳的《美国电影史》系列第二部，查尔斯·哈波尔，系列编辑。
Bowser, Eileen. The Transformation of Cinema: 1907–1915. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1990. Vol. 2 of Scribner’s History of American Cinema series, Charles Harpole, series editor.
布朗洛，凯文. 游行已经过去了。纽约：百龄坛，1968 年。早期电影史。
Brownlow, Kevin. The Parade’s Gone By. New York: Ballantine, 1968. Early film history.
凯文·布朗洛和大卫·吉尔。欧洲电影：另一个好莱坞。伦敦：BBC、ZDF 和 DL Taffner，1995 年。一部以 DVD 形式提供的六集电视连续剧，概述了欧洲无声电影的历史。电影史纪录片的典范。
Brownlow, Kevin, and David Gill. Cinema Europe: The Other Hollywood. London: BBC, ZDF, and D. L. Taffner, 1995. A six-part television series available on DVD surveying the history of silent film in Europe. A model for film-history documentaries.
伯奇、诺埃尔. 那些影子的生命。伯克利：加州大学出版社，1990。原始时代。
Burch, Noel. Life to Those Shadows. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. The primitive era.
艾曼、斯科特. 音速：好莱坞和有声电影革命，1926-1930。纽约：西蒙与舒斯特，1997。
Eyman, Scott. The Speed of Sound: Hollywood and the Talkie Revolution, 1926–1930. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997.
雅各布斯、黛安. 好莱坞文艺复兴。修订版。纽约：Delta Books，1980 年。科波拉、斯科塞斯、里奇和七十年代的一代。
Jacobs, Diane. Hollywood Renaissance. Rev. ed. New York: Delta Books, 1980. Coppola, Scorsese, Ritchie, and the generation of the seventies.
肯尼迪，约瑟夫·P，编辑。行业领袖向工商管理研究生院的学生讲述电影的故事。芝加哥：AW Shaw，1927 年。Hays、Zukor、Lasky、DeMille、Loew、Fox、Warner 等。你以为肯尼迪是家里的第一个作家。
Kennedy, Joseph P, ed. The Story of the Films, as told by leaders of the industry to the students of the graduate school of business administration. Chicago: A. W. Shaw, 1927. Hays, Zukor, Lasky, DeMille, Loew, Fox, Warner, and others. And you thought JFK was the first author in the family.
摩纳哥，詹姆斯。新浪潮：特吕弗、戈达尔、夏布洛尔、侯麦、里维特。纽约：牛津大学出版社，1976 年。三十周年纪念版，港湾电子出版社，2004 年。
Monaco, James. The New Wave: Truffaut, Godard, Chabrol, Rohmer, Rivette. New York: Oxford University Press, 1976. Thirtieth Anniversary Edition, Harbor Electronic Publishing, 2004.
拉姆齐、特里. 《一百万零一夜：1925 年的电影史》。纽约：Simon & Schuster，1926 年。1964 年、1986 年重印。一段非常早期且经典的历史。
Ramsaye, Terry. A Million and One Nights: A History of the Motion Picture Through 1925. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1926. Reprints 1964,1986. A very early and classic history.
泰勒，约翰·拉塞尔。影院眼，影院耳。纽约：Hill 和 Wang，1964 年。将电影视为严肃艺术的里程碑；调查了六十年代的欧洲场景。
Taylor, John Russell. Cinema Eye, Cinema Ear. New York: Hill and Wang, 1964. A landmark in its approach to film as a serious art; surveys the European scene in the sixties.
泰勒，约翰·拉塞尔。导演和方向：七十年代的电影。纽约：Hill 和 Wang，1975 年。Chabrol、Pasolini、Anderson、Kubrick、Warhol/Morrissey、S. Ray、Jancsó、Makavejev。
Taylor, John Russell. Directors and Directions: Cinema for the Seventies. New York: Hill and Wang, 1975. Chabrol, Pasolini, Anderson, Kubrick, Warhol/Morrissey, S. Ray, Jancsó, Makavejev.
汤姆森、大卫. 过度曝光：美国电影制作的危机。纽约：威廉·莫罗，1987。
Thomson, David. Over exposures: The Crisis in American Filmmaking. New York: William Morrow, 1987.
托伦斯、布鲁斯. 好莱坞：第一个百年。纽约：《纽约西洋镜》，1982 年。早期洛杉矶的精彩照片集。
Torrence, Bruce. Hollywood: The First Hundred Years. New York: New York Zoetrope, 1982. A remarkable collection of photographs of early Los Angeles.
4D。电影史：类型和特定主题
4D. Film History: Genres and Specific Topics
奥夫德海德，帕特里夏。纪录片：非常简短的介绍。纽约：牛津大学出版社，2007 年。如果您想了解广泛的非虚构电影（我们称之为“纪录片”），请从这里开始。
Aufderheide, Patricia. Documentary Film: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. If you want to understand the broad range of nonfiction film that we call “documentary” this is the place to start.
巴努、埃里克. 纪录片：非小说类电影的历史。第二次修订版。纽约：牛津大学出版社，1993 年。基础历史。
Barnouw, Erik. Documentary: A History of the Non-Fiction Film. Second revised ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. A basic history.
巴特、彼得. 淡出：米高梅灾难性的最后几天。纽约：威廉·莫罗，1990 年。这位资深制片人兼记者的富有启发性的内部观点，以及对 20 世纪 80 年代好莱坞的极其准确的看法。
Bart, Peter. Fade Out: The Calamitous Final Days of MGM. New York: William Morrow, 1990. Instructive insider’s view by the veteran producer-journalist, and a deadly accurate view of Hollywood in the 1980s.
布朗洛，凯文. 《纯真面具背后：性、暴力、犯罪——无声时代的社会良知电影》。纽约：克诺夫，1990；伯克利：加州大学出版社，1992 年。
Brownlow, Kevin. Behind the Mask of Innocence: Sex, Violence, Crime—Films of Social Conscience in the Silent Era. New York: Knopf, 1990; Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.
保罗·布勒和大卫·瓦格纳。激进的好莱坞：美国最受欢迎的电影背后不为人知的故事。纽约：新报社，2003年。以广阔的视角全面审视二十世纪二十年代至五十年代好莱坞的进步政治。
Buhle, Paul and David Wagner. Radical Hollywood: The Untold Story Behind America’s Favorite Movies. New York: The New Press, 2003. A comprehensive view of progressive politics in Hollywood from the twenties to the fifties with a broad perspective.
孔茨，斯蒂芬妮。我们从未有过的方式：美国家庭和怀旧陷阱。纽约：Basic Books，2000。媒体与家庭。
Coontz, Stephanie. The Way We Never Were: American Families and the Nostalgia Trap. New York: Basic Books, 2000. Media and the family.
科利斯、理查德. 会说话的图片：美国电影的编剧。纽约：维京人，1973 年。
Corliss, Richard. Talking Pictures: Screenwriters in the American Cinema. New York: Viking, 1973.
道格拉斯，苏珊·J。《女孩在哪里：在大众媒体中成长的女性》。纽约：三河出版社，1995 年。五年来美国电影和媒体中的女性形象以机智和视角进行了讨论。
Douglas, Susan J. Where the Girls Are: Growing Up Female with the Mass Media. New York: Three Rivers Press, 1995. Five decades of the image of women in American film and media discussed with wit and perspective.
菲尼、马克. 尼克松看电影：一本关于信仰的书。芝加哥：芝加哥大学出版社，2004 年。利用广泛的内容对尼克松时代进行了原创且令人回味的论述。尼克松及其家人在白宫电影院观看的 500 多部电影的日志。出版商引用加里·威尔斯的话说：“一个伟大国家的命运取决于拍摄角度，这不是一件很糟糕的事情吗？”
Feeney, Mark. Nixon at the Movies: A Book about Belief. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004. An original and evocative discourse on the Nixon era using the extensive log of more than 500 films Nixon and his family watched in the White House movie theater. The publisher quotes Garry Wills: “Isn’t that a hell of a thing, that the fate of a great country can depend on camera angles ?”
希沙克、托马斯. 美国音乐剧牛津伴侣：戏剧、电影和电视。纽约：牛津大学出版社，2008 年。
Hischak, Thomas. The Oxford Companion to the American Musical: Theatre, Film, and Television. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
因斯多夫，安妮特。不可磨灭的阴影：电影与大屠杀。剑桥：剑桥大学出版社，1990 年。Elie Wiesel 的前言。一项重要的调查。
Insdorf, Annette. Indelible Shadows: The Film and the Holocaust. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Foreword by Elie Wiesel. An important investigation.
卡文·布鲁斯·F·明德塞林：伯格曼、戈达尔和第一人称电影。新泽西州普林斯顿：普林斯顿大学出版社，1978 年。叙事理论。
Kawin, Bruce F. Mindsereen: Bergman, Godard, and First-Person Film. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978. A theory of narration.
科尔克，罗伯特·菲利普。孤独的电影：佩恩、库布里克、斯科塞斯、斯皮尔伯格、奥特曼。第二版。纽约：牛津大学出版社，1988 年。
Kolker, Robert Phillip. A Cinema of Loneliness: Penn, Kubrick, Scorsese, Spielberg, Altman. Second ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.
科兹洛夫、莎拉. 看不见的故事讲述者：美国小说电影中的画外音旁白。加利福尼亚州伯克利：加利福尼亚大学出版社，1989 年和《无意中听到的电影对话》（加州大学出版社，2000 年）。它们共同构成了对电影中言语最深入、最有说服力的研究，特别关注对话惯例和类型。
Kozloff, Sarah. Invisible Storytellers: Voice-Over Narration in American Fiction Film. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1989 and Overhearing Film Dialogue (UC Press, 2000). Together, they constitute the most in-depth and cogent studies of speech in film, with particular attention paid to dialogue conventions and genre.
马斯特，杰拉德。喜剧思维：喜剧和电影。第二版。芝加哥：芝加哥大学出版社，1979 年。
Mast, Gerald. The Comic Mind: Comedy and the Movies. Second Edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979.
五月，伊莲·泰勒。归途：冷战时期的美国家庭。纽约：基础书籍，1988，2008。20世纪50年代的家庭，受冷战意识形态影响。
May, Elaine Tyler. Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era. New York: Basic Books, 1988, 2008. The family in the 1950s, informed by Cold War ideology.
莫兰，埃德加。莱斯星。巴黎：Editions du Seuil，1972 年。经典之作。
Morin, Edgar. Les Stars. Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1972. A classic work.
罗塔、保罗. 纪录片。伦敦：Faber 和 Faber，1939 年。经典之作。
Rotha, Paul. Documentary Film. London: Faber and Faber, 1939. A classic.
罗德、理查德. 对电影的热情：亨利·朗格卢瓦和法国电影资料馆。纽约：维京出版社，1983 年。一位有影响力的影迷对另一位影迷的雄辩致敬。鲁伊斯、劳尔。电影诗学。巴黎：Dis Voir，1995。另类电影仍然存在：这是一份引人入胜的宣言。
Roud, Richard. A Passion for Films: Henri Langlois and the Cinematheque Franqaise. New York: Viking Press, 1983. An eloquent homage from one influential cinephile to another. Ruiz, Raul. Poetics of Cinema. Paris: Dis Voir, 1995. The alternative cinema still lives: here is an engaging manifesto.
4E。电影史：国家电影院
4E. Film History: National Cinemas
博克、汉斯·迈克尔、迈克尔·托特伯格编辑。Das Ufa-Buch：艺术与危机、明星与监管、经济与政治。法兰克福：Zweitausendeins，1992。
Bock, Hans-Michael, Michael Toteberg, eds. Das Ufa-Buch: Kunst und Krisen, Stars und Regisseure, Wirtshaft und Politik. Frankfurt: Zweitausendeins, 1992.
埃伯特、杰克和特里·伊洛特。我的犹豫不决是最终的：金冠电影的兴衰。伦敦和波士顿：Faber & Faber，1990。
Eberts, Jake, and Terry Ilott. My Indecision Is Final: The Rise and Fall of Goldcrest Films. London and Boston: Faber & Faber, 1990.
艾斯纳，洛特。闹鬼的屏幕。伯克利：加州大学出版社，1974 年。德国电影。
Eisner, Lotte. The Haunted Screen. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974. The German cinema.
卡宁，加森。好莱坞：明星和小明星、大亨和肉贩、电影制片人和赚钱者、欺诈者和天才、希望者和过气者、伟大的情人和性感象征。纽约：维京出版社，1974 年。标题说明了一切。
Kanin, Garson. Hollywood: Stars and Starlets, Tycoons and Flesh-Peddlers, Moviemakers and Money-makers, Frauds and Geniuses, Hopefuls and Has-Beens, Great Lovers and Sex Symbols. New York: Viking Press, 1974. The title says it all.
克拉考尔、齐格弗里德。从卡里加里到希特勒：德国电影的心理史。普林斯顿：普林斯顿大学出版社，1947 年。一项经典研究。
Kracauer, Siegfried. From Caligari to Hitler: A Psychological History of the German Film. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1947. A classic study.
拉什迪、萨尔曼。绿野仙踪。伦敦：英国电影学院，1992 年。一本不寻常的专着，富有洞察力且引人入胜。
Rushdie, Salman. The Wizard of Oz. London: British Film Institute, 1992. An unusual monograph, insightful and engaging.
萨里斯、安德鲁. 美国电影：导演和方向：1929-1968。纽约：达顿，1968 年。萨里斯的《万神殿》介绍了大量导演，并附有索引。美国电影批评的里程碑。
Sarris, Andrew. The American Cinema: Directors and Directions: 1929–1968. New York: Dutton, 1968. Sarris’s “Pantheon,” blurbs on a great number of directors, plus index. A landmark of American film criticism.
4F. 电影史：电影和电影制片人
4F. Film History: Films and Filmmakers
巴赞、安德烈. 让·雷诺阿. 弗朗索瓦·特吕弗编辑。纽约：Da Capo，1992。
Bazin, André. Jean Renoir. Edited by François Truffaut. New York: Da Capo, 1992.
巴赞、安德烈. 奥逊·威尔斯：批判性观点。纽约：Harper & Row，1978 年。
Bazin, André. Orson Welles: A Critical View. New York: Harper & Row, 1978.
伯格曼、英格玛. 魔法灯笼：自传。芝加哥：芝加哥大学出版社，2007 年。既是一部文学作品，又是一部自传，很少有类似的书籍能够传达电影对电影艺术家如此有吸引力的原因。
Bergman, Ingmar. The Magic Lantern: An Autobiography. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007. A literary work as much as an autobiography, few similar books convey what makes cinema so compelling for those who become film artists.
比伯曼，赫伯特。地球之盐：电影的故事。纽约：Harbor Electronic Publishing，2003 年。比伯曼也许是有史以来最伟大的“制作”一书，它不仅记录了制作这部经典的英勇战斗，还记录了为使其被人所知而进行的长达数十年的斗争。詹姆斯·摩纳哥介绍。
Biberman, Herbert. Salt of the Earth: The Story of a Film. New York: Harbor Electronic Publishing, 2003. Perhaps the greatest “making of” book ever written, Biberman chronicles not only the heroic battle to make this classic but also the decades-long struggle to get it seen. Introduction by James Monaco.
布罗迪、理查德. 一切都是电影：让-吕克·戈达尔的工作生活。纽约：大都会图书，2008 年。对戈达尔的职业生涯和影响力进行了大量、新鲜且富有洞察力的评论。
Brody, Richard. Everything Is Cinema: The Working Life of Jean-Luc Godard. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2008. A massive, fresh, and insightful review of Godard’s career and influence.
卡普拉、弗兰克. 标题上方的名称。纽约：班塔姆，1971 年。回忆录。
Capra, Frank. The Name above the Title. New York: Bantam, 1971. Memoir.
卓别林、查尔斯. 我的自传。纽约：袖珍图书，1966 年。
Chaplin, Charles. My Autobiography. New York: Pocket Books, 1966.
克拉克，亚瑟·C. 《2001》的失落世界。纽约：Signet，1972 年。编剧的经历日记。
Clarke, Arthur C. Lost Worlds of “2001.” New York: Signet, 1972. The screenwriter’s journal of his experiences.
爱森斯坦，谢尔盖。电影导演手记。重印。纽约：多佛，1970 年。
Eisenstein, Sergei. Notes of a Film Director. Reprint. New York: Dover, 1970.
艾斯纳，洛特·H·弗里茨·朗。大卫·罗宾逊，编辑。伦敦：Seeker 和 Warburg，1976 年。
Eisner, Lotte H. Fritz Lang. David Robinson, ed. London: Seeker & Warburg, 1976.
费里尼、费德里科。费里尼对费里尼。跨。伊莎贝尔·奎格利。纽约：德拉科特，1976 年。
Fellini, Federico. Fellini on Fellini. Trans. Isabel Quigley. New York: Delacorte, 1976.
戈达尔、让-吕克。戈达尔谈戈达尔：汤姆·米尔恩编辑。纽约：维京人，1972 年。
Godard, Jean-Luc. Godard On Godard: Edited by Tom Milne. New York: Viking, 1972.
因斯多夫，安妮特。弗朗索瓦·特吕弗。修订版。纽约：剑桥大学出版社，1995 年。最初出版于 1978 年，这是一部经典著作。
Insdorf, Annette. François Truffaut. Revised edition. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Originally published in 1978, this is a classic work.
雅各布斯、黛安. 七月的圣诞节：普雷斯顿·斯特奇斯的生活和艺术。伯克利：加州大学出版社，1992 年。
Jacobs, Diane. Christmas in July: The Life and Art of Preston Sturges. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.
凯尔、波琳. 公民凯恩书。波士顿：利特尔·布朗，1972 年。包括剧本和凯尔关于电影起源的重要文章。
Kael, Pauline. The Citizen Kane Book. Boston: Little, Brown, 1972. Includes the script and Kael’s important essay on the genesis of the film.
摩纳哥，詹姆斯。阿兰·雷乃：想象力的作用。伦敦：Seeker & Warburg，1978；和纽约：牛津大学出版社，1979 年。
Monaco, James. Alain Resnais: The Role of Imagination. London: Seeker & Warburg, 1978; and New York: Oxford University Press, 1979.
雷诺阿、让. 我的生活和我的电影。纽约：雅典娜神庙，1974 年。
Renoir, Jean. My Life and My Films. New York: Atheneum, 1974.
罗斯、莉莲. 图片。纽约：埃文，1952 年。关于拍摄约翰·休斯顿的《红色勇气勋章》的经典新闻报道。
Ross, Lillian. Picture. New York: Avon, 1952. A classic piece of journalism on the filming of John Huston’s Red Badge of Courage.
希克尔、理查德. DW 格里菲斯：美国生活。纽约：西蒙与舒斯特，1984 年。汤姆森，大卫。新传记电影词典：扩展和更新。纽约：Knopf，2004 年。关于明星角色的优秀论文。
Schickel, Richard. D. W. Griffith: An American Life. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1984. Thomson, David. The New Biographical Dictionary of Film: Expanded and Updated. New York: Knopf, 2004. Excellent essays on star personas.
特吕弗、弗朗索瓦和海伦·斯科特。希区柯克。纽约：Simon & Schuster，1966 年。具有里程碑意义的全书式访谈。
Truffaut, Franéois, and Helen Scott. Hitchcock. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1966. Landmark book-length interview.
特吕弗，弗朗索瓦。特吕弗的特吕弗。纽约：艾布拉姆斯，1987 年。
Truffaut, François. Truffaut by Truffaut. New York: Abrams, 1987.
5. 电影理论与实践批评
5. Film Theory and Practical Criticism
阿德勒，雷娜塔。黑暗中的一年。纽约：兰登书屋，1969 年。这本阿德勒在《纽约时报》工作一年的“日记”提供了对每日评论家工作的有趣见解。
Adler, Renata. A Year in the Dark. New York: Random House, 1969. This “journal” of Adler’s year on staff at the New York Times provides an interesting insight into the work of the daily critic.
艾吉，詹姆斯。电影中的阿吉。卷。1：批评；卷。2：剧本。重印。纽约：格罗塞特，1969 年。可能是早年最重要的美国电影评论家。
Agee, James. Agee on Film. Vol. 1: Criticism; Vol. 2: Screenplays. Reprint. New York: Grosset, 1969. Possibly the most important American film reviewer of the early years.
艾伦、理查德和默里·史密斯编辑。电影理论与哲学。纽约：牛津大学出版社，1999 年。挑战当前教条的反传统文章集。
Allen, Richard, and Murray Smith, eds. Film Theory and Philosophy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. A collection of iconoclastic essays challenging current dogma.
安德鲁，达德利。主要电影理论：简介。第二版。纽约：牛津大学出版社，1976，1989。最好的单卷本电影理论介绍。
Andrew, Dudley. The Major Film Theories: An Introduction. Second ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1976,1989. The best available one-volume introduction to film theory.
安德鲁，达德利。安德烈·巴赞. 纽约：牛津大学出版社，1978 年。对这个人及其思想的重要且引人入胜的研究。
Andrew, Dudley. Andre Bazin. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978. An important and engaging study of the man and his thought.
安德鲁，达德利。电影理论中的概念。纽约：牛津大学，1984 年。主要电影理论的续集。
Andrew, Dudley. Concepts in Film Theory. New York: Oxford University, 1984. A continuation of The Major Film Theories.
阿恩海姆，鲁道夫。电影作为艺术。伯克利：加州大学出版社，1957 年，1966 年。表现主义理论的经典阐述。
Arnheim, Rudolf. Film as Art. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1957, 1966. A classic exposition of expressionist theory.
巴拉兹，贝拉。电影理论：新艺术的特征和成长。跨。伊迪丝·伯恩. 1952年。重印。纽约：多佛，1970 年。
Balázs, Béla. Theory of the Film: Character and Growth of a New Art. Trans. Edith Bone. 1952. Reprint. New York: Dover, 1970.
巴特、罗兰. 露西达相机：摄影中的反思。纽约：Hill & Wang，1982。像巴特的所有作品一样，符号破坏性且令人回味。
Barthes, Roland. Camera Lucida: Reflections in Photography. New York: Hill & Wang, 1982. Like all Barthes’ work, semioclastic and evocative.
巴特、罗兰. 符号学/写作零度要素。跨。安妮特·拉弗斯和科林·史密斯。波士顿：灯塔，1968 年。巴特本质上是一位文学批评家，对于任何对符号学感兴趣的人来说，巴特仍然是基本读物。
Barthes, Roland. Elements of Semiology/Writing Degree Zero. Trans. Annette Lavers and Colin Smith. Boston: Beacon, 1968. Essentially a literary critic, Barthes remains basic reading for anyone interested in semiotics.
巴特、罗兰. S/Z。1970. 翻译。理查德·米勒。理查德·霍华德的序言。纽约：希尔和王，1974 年。
Barthes, Roland. S/Z. 1970. Trans. Richard Miller. Preface by Richard Howard. New York: Hill and Wang, 1974.
巴特、罗兰. 神话。跨。安妮特·拉弗斯。纽约：希尔和王，1972 年。
Barthes, Roland. Mythologies. Trans. Annette Lavers. New York: Hill and Wang, 1972.
巴特、罗兰. 文字之乐。1973.翻译。理查德·米勒 (Richard Miller)，对理查德·霍华德 (Richard Howard) 的文字做了注释。纽约：希尔和王，1975。
Barthes, Roland. The Pleasure of the Text. 1973. Trans. Richard Miller, with a note on the text by Richard Howard. New York: Hill and Wang, 1975.
巴特、罗兰. 罗兰·巴特。加利福尼亚州伯克利：加州大学出版社，1994 年。符号学家将注意力转向自己，部分是自传，部分是诗歌，一切都与方法有关。
Barthes, Roland. Roland Barthes. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1994. The semiotician turns his attention to himself, part autobiography, part poem, all about method.
巴赞、安德烈. 什么是电影？2卷。由休·格雷选译。伯克利：加州大学出版社，1967，1971。多卷本电影《Qu'est-ce que le cinéma？》中的选集 基本的。
Bazin, André. What Is Cinema? 2 vols. Selected and translated by Hugh Gray. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967,1971. Selections from the multivolume Qu’est-ce que le cinéma? Essential.
本杰明、沃尔特. 照明。汉娜·阿伦特编辑。纽约：Schocken，1968 年。20 世纪 30 年代主要辩证批评家之一的散文。特别参见“机械复制时代的艺术作品”。一篇开创性的论文。
Benjamin, Walter. Illuminations. Edited by Hannah Arendt. New York: Schocken, 1968. Essays from the 1930s by one of the leading dialectical critics. See especially “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction.” A seminal essay.
伯奇、诺埃尔. 电影实践理论。纽约：Praeger，1973。两种基本英语符号学方法之一。
Burch, Noël. The Theory of Film Practice. New York: Praeger, 1973. One of the two basic English-language semiotic approaches.
查特曼、西摩。故事和话语：小说和电影中的叙事结构。伊萨卡：康奈尔大学出版社，1980 年。对现在所谓的“叙事学”的经典介绍。
Chatman, Seymour. Story and Discourse: Narrative Structure in Fiction and Film. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1980. A classic introduction to what is now called “narratology.”
多夫任科，亚历山大。作为电影制片人的诗人：作品选。由 Marco Carynnyk 编辑和翻译。波士顿：麻省理工学院出版社，1973 年。
Dovzhenko, Alexander. The Poet as Filmmaker: Selected Writings. Edited and translated by Marco Carynnyk. Boston: MIT Press, 1973.
艾伯特，罗杰，编辑。罗杰·艾伯特的电影书。纽约：诺顿，1996 年。艾伯特最喜欢的文章的丰富且不拘一格的合集。
Ebert, Roger, ed. Roger Ebert’s Book of Film. New York: Norton, 1996. A copious and eclectic collection of Ebert’s favorite essays.
埃科，翁贝托。符号学理论。布卢明顿：印第安纳大学出版社，1976 年。一位学者的开创性研究，后来以小说家的身份获得了名声和财富（以玫瑰之名，在国际上取得了成功）——唯一真正找到了普及符号学方法的学者。
Eco, Umberto. A Theory of Semiotics. Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1976. A seminal study by an academic who later found fame and fortune as a novelist (In the Name of the Rose, an international success)—the only scholar who has truly found a way to popularize semiotics.
爱森斯坦，谢尔盖。电影感。纽约：Harcourt，Brace & World，1947 年。本质和基础。
Eisenstein, Sergei. Film Sense. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1947. Essential and basic.
爱森斯坦，谢尔盖。电影形式。纽约：Harcourt，Brace & World，1949。基本的。
Eisenstein, Sergei. Film Form. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1949. Essential and basic.
爱森斯坦，谢尔盖。电影散文和讲座。纽约：普拉格，1970。
Eisenstein, Sergei. Film Essays and a Lecture. New York: Praeger, 1970.
法伯、曼尼. 负空间。纽约：Praeger，1971。“局外人”的观点。
Farber, Manny. Negative Space. New York: Praeger, 1971. The “outsider” point of view.
戈达尔、让-吕克。戈达尔谈戈达尔。跨。汤姆·米尔恩. 纽约：维京人，1972 年。读起来很困难，但很重要。戈达尔 1952-67 年批评家作品的完整选集。
Godard, Jean-Luc. Godard on Godard. Trans. Tom Milne. New York: Viking, 1972. Difficult reading, but essential. A thorough anthology of Godard’s work as a critic 1952–67.
马克斯·霍克海默和西奥多·W·阿多诺。启蒙辩证法。1944.翻译。约翰·卡明. 纽约：连续体，1988。
Horkheimer, Max, and Theodor W. Adorno. Dialectic of Enlightenment. 1944. Trans. John Cumming. New York: Continuum, 1988.
詹姆森、弗雷德里克. 语言的监狱。新泽西州普林斯顿：普林斯顿大学出版社，1972 年。对符号学及相关领域的有用介绍。
Jameson, Fredric. The Prison-House of Language. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1972. A useful introduction to semiotics and related areas.
凯尔、波琳. 我在电影里迷失了。纽约：班塔姆，1965 年。凯尔的期刊作品经过严格选集，对六十年代到九十年代进行了无与伦比的全面调查。该系列的后续卷都有与性内涵相呼应的标题：《Kiss Kiss Bang Bang》。纽约：班塔姆，1968 年。稳定发展。纽约：班塔姆，1971 年。深入电影。纽约：班塔姆，1974 年。卷轴。波士顿：利特尔·布朗，1976 年。当灯光熄灭时。纽约：Holt、Rinehart 和 Winston，1980 年。着迷。纽约：达顿，1989。电影爱情。纽约：Dutton，1991。For Keeps。纽约：Dutton，1994。另见凯尔和安德鲁·萨里斯在 1963 年《电影季刊》春、夏、秋刊中关于作者论的交流（16:3,16:4,17:1）。
Kael, Pauline. I Lost It at the Movies. New York: Bantam, 1965. Kael’s work in periodicals has been rigorously anthologized, offering a comprehensive survey of the sixties through the nineties that is unrivaled. Succeeding volumes in the series all have titles that echo the sexual connotation: Kiss Kiss Bang Bang. New York: Bantam, 1968. Going Steady. New York: Bantam, 1971. Deeper into Movies. New York: Bantam, 1974. Reeling. Boston: Little, Brown, 1976. When the Lights Go Down. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, 1980. Hooked. New York: Dutton, 1989. Movie Love. New York: Dutton, 1991. For Keeps. New York: Dutton, 1994. See also the exchange between Kael and Andrew Sarris on the auteur theory in 1963’s Film Quarterly, Spring, Summer, and Fall issues (16:3,16:4,17:1).
凯尔、波琳. 5001个电影之夜。修订版。纽约：亨利·霍尔特，1982，1991。凯尔的综合指南，大部分选自最初发表在《纽约客》杂志上的短片。
Kael, Pauline. 5001 Nights at the Movies. Rev. ed. New York: Henry Holt, 1982,1991. Kael’s general guide, most culled from short takes first published in The New Yorker magazine.
克拉考尔、齐格弗里德。电影理论：物理现实的救赎。纽约：牛津大学出版社，1960 年。现实主义理论的基本阐述。
Kracauer, Siegfried. Theory of Film: The Redemption of Physical Reality. New York: Oxford University Press, 1960. An essential exposition of realist theory.
库列绍夫，列夫。电影中的库列绍夫。伯克利：加州大学出版社，1975 年。
Kuleshov, Lev. Kuleshov on Film. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975.
林赛、瓦切尔. 电影的艺术。纽约：麦克米伦，1915 年。诗人审视年轻的电影艺术。
Lindsay, Vachel. The Art of the Moving Picture. New York: Macmillan, 1915. The poet examines the young art of movies.
杰拉尔德·马斯特、马歇尔·科恩和利奥·布劳迪编辑。电影理论与批评：入门读物。1974 年。第五版。纽约：牛津大学出版社，1998 年。有用的理论文本集。
Mast, Gerald, Marshall Cohen, and Leo Braudy, eds. Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings. 1974. Fifth ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. A useful collection of theoretical texts.
梅斯，克里斯蒂安. 电影语言：电影符号学。跨。迈克尔·泰勒. 纽约：牛津大学出版社，1974 年。梅斯两卷本《电影意义随笔》第一卷的英文版。（巴黎：Editions Klincksieck，1968，1972。）梅茨仍然是电影符号学的首要理论家。（要知道，他的思想是在电影语言写成之后才进步的。）
Metz, Christian. Film Language: A Semiotics of the Cinema. Trans. Michael Taylor. New York: Oxford University Press, 1974. An English version of the first volume of Metz’s two-volume Essais sur la signification au cinema. (Paris: Editions Klincksieck, 1968, 1972.) Metz remains the premier theoretician of cinema semiotics. (Be aware that his thought progressed after Film Language was written.)
梅斯，克里斯蒂安. 想象的能指。布卢明顿：印第安纳大学出版社，1982 年。
Metz, Christian. The Imaginary Signifier. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982.
梅斯，克里斯蒂安. 精神分析和电影。伦敦：麦克米伦，1983 年。
Metz, Christian. Psychoanalysis and Cinema. London: Macmillan, 1983.
明斯特伯格，雨果。电影：一项心理学研究。1916 年无声摄影剧。纽约：D. Appleton，1916 年。重印。纽约：多佛，1970 年。对电影心理学最早的欣赏之一。
Münsterberg, Hugo. The Film: A Psychological Study. The Silent Photoplay in 1916. New York: D. Appleton, 1916. Reprint. New York: Dover, 1970. One of the earliest appreciations of film psychology.
佩雷斯，吉尔伯托。物质幽灵：电影及其媒介。巴尔的摩：约翰·霍普金斯大学出版社，2000 年。《视与听》将佩雷斯与安德烈·巴赞的人文主义观点进行了比较。Cineaste指出，“过去 25 年来，很少有电影评论书籍如此令人愉悦或富有启发性。”
Perez, Gilberto. The Material Ghost: Films and Their Medium. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2000. Sight & Sound compared Perez to Andre Bazin for his humanist point of view. Cineaste noted, “Few books of film criticism in the past twenty-five years have been so enjoyable or instructive.”
波兰、达纳. 教学场景：美国电影研究的开端。伯克利：加州大学出版社，2007 年。对电影如何进入学术界的独特调查。
Polan, Dana. Scenes of Instruction: The Beginnings of the U.S. Study of Film. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. A unique investigation of how movies worked their way into academia.
布多夫金，VI电影技术和电影表演。1929、1937。重印。纽约：格罗夫，1970 年。继爱森斯坦之后最重要的苏联理论家。
Pudovkin, V. I. Film Technique and Film Acting. 1929,1937. Reprint. New York: Grove, 1970. After Eisenstein, the most important of the Soviet theorists.
萨里斯、安德鲁. 一个邪教徒的自白。纽约：西蒙与舒斯特，1970。与凯尔，美国六七十年代最有影响力的批评家；美国作者论的普及者。其他收藏：《原始屏幕：电影及相关主题论文》。纽约：西蒙与舒斯特，1973 年。政治与电影。纽约：哥伦比亚大学出版社，1979 年。
Sarris, Andrew. Confessions of a Cultist. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1970. With Kael, the most influential of the American critics in the sixties and seventies; popularizer of the auteur theory in America. Other collections: The Primal Screen: Essays on Film and Related Subjects. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1973. Politics and Cinema. New York: Columbia University Press, 1979.
桑塔格、苏珊. 反对解释。纽约：Delta，1966 年。如果只是因为它探讨了“电影并未被解释者泛滥的事实”（或者至少在 1963 年的堕落前年似乎是这样）。
Sontag, Susan. Against Interpretation. New York: Delta, 1966. If only because it explores “the fact that films have not been overrun by interpreters” (or at least that seemed to be the case in the prelapsarian year of 1963).
桑塔格、苏珊. 关于摄影。纽约：Farrar、Straus 和 Giroux，1977。
Sontag, Susan. On Photography. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1977.
特吕弗，弗朗索瓦。我生命中的电影。纽约：格罗夫出版社，1978 年。
Truffaut, François. The Films in My Life. New York: Grove Press, 1978.
战秀，罗伯特. 即时体验。1962年。重印。纽约：Atheneum，1970 年。继阿吉之后，青春期电影最重要的评论家。对于作为流行艺术的电影尤其有用。
Warshow, Robert. The Immediate Experience. 1962. Reprint. New York: Atheneum, 1970. After Agee, the most important critic of film’s adolescence. Especially useful on film as popular art.
沃伦，彼得. 电影院中的标志和含义。第二版。纽约：Viking，1972。一项开创性的英语符号学研究。
Wollen, Peter. Signs and Meaning in the Cinema. Second ed. New York: Viking, 1972. A seminal semiotic study in English.
6. 媒体
6. Media
理查德·D·阿尔提克（Altick），《英国普通读者：大众阅读公众的社会历史，1800-1900 年》。芝加哥：芝加哥大学出版社，1963 年。
Altick, Richard D. The English Common Reader: A Social History of the Mass Reading Public, 1800–1900. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963.
巴努、埃里克. 美国广播史。纽约：牛津大学出版社。卷。1：巴别塔， 1966 年。卷。2：金网， 1968 年。卷。3：《图像帝国》， 1970 年。有关该主题的标准著作。
Barnouw, Erik. A History of Broadcasting in the United States. New York: Oxford University Press. Vol. 1: A Tower in Babel, 1966. Vol. 2: The Golden Web, 1968. Vol. 3: The Image Empire, 1970. The standard work on the subject.
巴努、埃里克. 丰盛之管：美国电视的演变。纽约：牛津大学出版社，第二次修订版。1990年。 《美国广播史》单卷修订版。
Barnouw, Erik. Tube of Plenty: The Evolution of American Television. New York: Oxford University Press, Second revised ed. 1990. A one-volume revision of A History of Broadcasting in the United States.
比伯、波特。这并不像看起来那么容易：泰德·特纳的惊人故事。纽约：皇冠，1993。
Bibb, Porter. It Ain’t as Easy as It Looks: Ted Turner’s Amazing Story. New York: Crown, 1993.
布里格斯、阿萨. 英国广播史。3 卷。牛津和纽约：牛津大学出版社，1961-79。
Briggs, Asa. A History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom. 3 vols. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1961–79.
布鲁克斯、约翰. 电话：第一个百年。纽约：Harper & Row，1976 年。
Brooks, John. Telephone: The First Hundred Years. New York: Harper & Row, 1976.
巴特勒，杰里米·G。电视：关键方法和应用。第三版。Mahwah，新泽西州：Lawrence Erlbaum Associates，2007 年。对媒体的全面介绍。
Butler, Jeremy G. Television: Critical Methods and Applications. Third ed. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2007. A solid introduction to the medium.
友好，弗雷德。由于我们无法控制的情况。纽约：兰登书屋，1967 年。当电视新闻业诞生时，弗兰德利处于一切事物的中心。重要的回忆录。
Friendly, Fred. Due to Circumstances Beyond Our Control. New York: Random House, 1967. Friendly was at the center of things when the television news business was born. An important memoir.
吉特林、托德. 全世界都在关注：大众媒体在新左派的形成和毁灭中。伯克利：加州大学出版社，1980。
Gitlin, Todd. The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980.
戈德斯坦、保罗. 版权高速公路：从古腾堡到天体点唱机。加利福尼亚州帕洛阿尔托：斯坦福大学法学院，修订版。编辑。2003 年。对版权法的历史和好奇心的最佳介绍。
Goldstein, Paul. Copyright’s Highway: From Gutenberg to the Celestial Jukebox. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford Law School, rev. ed. 2003. The single best introduction to the history and curiosities of copyright law.
伊尼斯、哈罗德. 沟通的偏见。多伦多：多伦多大学出版社，1951 年，1973 年。开创性的。
Innis, Harold. The Bias of Communication. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1951, 1973. Seminal.
利布林，AJ出版社。1960.修订版。纽约：百龄坛书店，1975 年。伟大新闻评论家的经典研究。
Liebling, A. J. The Press. 1960. Revised ed. New York: Ballantine Books, 1975. Classic study by the great press critic.
曼德，杰瑞。消除电视的四个论点。纽约：莫罗，1978 年。以绝对主义的方式解决这个问题，但具有挑衅性。
Mander, Jerry. Four Arguments for the Elimination of Television. New York: Morrow, 1978. An absolutist approach to the problem, but provocative.
麦克切斯尼，罗伯特·W。《媒体政治经济学：持久问题，新出现的困境》。纽约：月度评论出版社，2008 年。麦克切斯尼是媒体领域领先的政治评论员之一，也是众多书籍的作者。这是一个很好的起点。
McChesney, Robert W. The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas. New York: Monthly Review Press, 2008. McChesney is one of the leading political commentators on media, author of numerous books. This is a good place to begin.
麦克卢汉、马歇尔。理解媒体：人的延伸。纽约：McGraw-Hill，1964 年。有争议且常常难以理解，但却具有开创性。
McLuhan, Marshall. Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964. Controversial and often unintelligible, but seminal.
米勒、乔纳森. 马歇尔·麦克卢汉。纽约：维京出版社，1971 年。喜剧演员/医生/制片人/作家挑战大师。
Miller, Jonathan. Marshall McLuhan. New York: Viking Press, 1971. The comedian/physician/producer/writer takes on the guru.
摩纳哥，詹姆斯，等人。名人：谁得到它，他们如何使用它，它为什么有效。纽约：Delta Books，1978 年。包括对七十年代明星图像的分析。
Monaco, James, et al. Celebrity: Who Gets It, How They Use It, Why It Works. New York: Delta Books, 1978. Includes analysis of star images of the seventies.
摩纳哥，詹姆斯，等人。媒体文化：电视、书籍、广播、唱片、杂志、报纸、电影。纽约：三角洲图书公司，1978 年。
Monaco, James, et al. Media Culture: Television, Books, Radio, Records, Magazines, Newspapers, Movies. New York: Delta Books, 1978.
莫耶斯、比尔. 莫耶斯论民主。纽约：Doubleday，2008 年。论文集。尽管比尔·莫耶斯的大部分作品都出现在电视上，而且他的视野要广泛得多，但他是我们对媒体最敏锐、最雄辩的评论家之一。从这里开始。
Moyers, Bill. Moyers on Democracy. New York: Doubleday, 2008. A collection of essays. Although most of Bill Moyers’s work has been on television, and although his purview is far wider, he is one of our most perceptive and eloquent commentators on media. Begin here.
纽科姆、霍勒斯. 电视百科全书。4卷。伦敦：Taylor 和 Francis，2004 年。标准印刷参考。
Newcomb, Horace. Encyclopedia of Television. 4 vols. London: Taylor and Francis, 2004. Standard print reference.
纽科姆，贺拉斯，编辑。电视：批判性观点。第五版。纽约：牛津大学出版社，1994 年。这已成为标准的、重要的选集。
Newcomb, Horace, ed. Television: The Critical View. Fifth ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. This has become a standard, essential anthology.
邮递员尼尔. 快把我们自己逗乐死了。纽约：维京企鹅，1986 年。
Postman, Neil. Amusing Ourselves to Death. New York: Viking Penguin, 1986.
施瓦茨、巴里. 选择的悖论：为什么多即少。纽约：Ecco Press，2004。这是媒体和消费品的问题。
Schwartz, Barry. The Paradox of Choice: Why More Is Less. New York: Ecco Press, 2004. It’s a problem with media as well as with consumer goods.
史密斯、安东尼. 报纸：国际历史。伦敦：泰晤士河与哈德逊河，1979 年。简介。
Smith, Anthony. The Newspaper: An International History. London: Thames & Hudson, 1979. An introduction.
史密斯、安东尼和理查德·帕特森，编辑。电视：国际历史。第二版。纽约：牛津大学出版社，1998 年。基本参考。
Smith, Anthony, and Richard Paterson, eds. Television: An International History. Second Edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Basic reference.
史密斯，莎莉·比德尔。在他的所有荣耀中：威廉·S·佩利的一生。纽约：西蒙与舒斯特，1990 年。一本非凡的传记。
Smith, Sally Bedell. In All His Glory: The Life of William S. Paley. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990. A remarkable biography.
史密森学会。音乐机器的历史。纽约和伦敦：德雷克，1975 年。埃里克·巴努 (Erik Barnouw) 介绍。
Smithsonian Institution. History of Music Machines. New York and London: Drake, 1975. Introduction by Erik Barnouw.
威廉姆斯、雷蒙德. 电视：技术与文化形式。纽约：Schocken，1975。正如我所说：阅读威廉姆斯的所有内容。
Williams, Raymond. Television: Technology and Cultural Form. New York: Schocken, 1975. As I said: read everything by Williams.
威廉姆斯、雷蒙德. 通讯。第三版。伦敦：企鹅出版社，1976 年。
Williams, Raymond. Communications. Third ed. London: Penguin, 1976.
温泽尔、库尔特. 接触。纽约：利特尔·布朗，2007 年。最近没有哪部小说能如此完美地捕捉到我们的文化“麻木……过度曝光、媒体疲劳、形象焦虑和广告引起的抑郁……”。读完本文后，请参阅保罗·哈吉斯的《崩溃》。
Wenzel, Kurt. Exposure. New York: Little, Brown, 2007. No other recent work of fiction has so well captured our culture of “benumbed…overexposure, media fatigue, image anxiety, and advertising-induced depression….” After you read this see Paul Haggis’s Crash.
温恩、玛丽。插件毒品：电视、儿童和家庭。纽约：《Viking and Bantam》，1977 年。可悲的是仍然密切相关。
Winn, Marie. The Plug-in Drug: Television, Children, and the Family. New York: Viking and Bantam, 1977. Influential when it was written; sadly still germane.
7、新媒体
7. New Media
安德森、克里斯. 长尾：为什么企业的未来是销售更少而不是更多。纽约：Hyperion，2006。了解这种算术对于理解互联网的独特架构至关重要。
Anderson, Chris. The Long Tail: Why the Future of Business Is Selling Less of More. New York: Hyperion, 2006. Knowledge of this arithmetic is essential to understanding the unique architecture of the internet.
Apple Computer, Inc. Macintosh 人机界面指南。Reading, MA：Addison-Wesley，1992。对于任何对界面设计逻辑感兴趣的人来说，这就是圣经。
Apple Computer, Inc. Macintosh Human Interface Guidelines. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1992. For anyone interested in the logic of interface design this is the bible.
Baron, Naomi S.永远在线：在线和移动世界中的语言。纽约：牛津大学出版社，2008 年。网络和电子媒体如何塑造我们的写作方式？
Baron, Naomi S. Always On: Language in an Online and Mobile World. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. How have the net and electronic media shaped the way we write ?
布林克利、乔尔. 定义愿景：广播公司如何引诱政府煽动电视革命。圣地亚哥：Harcourt Brace & Company，1997 年。HDTV 标准的政治和阴谋。
Brinkley, Joel. Defining Vision: How Broadcasters Lured the Government into Inciting a Revolution in Television. San Diego: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1997. The politics and intrigue of the HDTV standard.
埃科，翁贝托。在超现实中旅行。纽约：Harcourt Brace Jovanovich，1986 年。包括有关文化和媒体的重要文章。
Eco, Umberto. Travels in Hyperreality. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1986. Includes important essays on culture and media.
加布勒、尼尔. 电影生活：娱乐如何征服现实。纽约：Alfred A. Knopf，1998。加布勒对赫胥黎批评的看法。
Gabler, Neal. Life The Movie: How Entertainment Conquered Reality. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998. Gabler’s take on the Huxley critique.
格莱克、詹姆斯. 更快：几乎一切的加速。纽约：Vintage，2000 年。了解媒体圈、数字化及其伴随技术如何改变我们生活的世界的关键文本。
Gleick, James. Faster: The Acceleration of Just About Everything. New York: Vintage, 2000. A key text for understanding how the mediasphere, digitization, and their concomitant technologies have changed the world we live in.
戈德史密斯、杰克和蒂姆·吴。谁控制互联网？无国界世界的幻想。纽约：牛津大学出版社，2008 年。关于各国政府在试图控制互联网方面所发挥的作用的启发性叙述。
Goldsmith, Jack, and Tim Wu. Who Controls the Internet? Illusions of a Borderless World. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. An instructive narrative of the role various governments have played trying to control the internet.
凯利、凯文. 失控：机器、社会系统和经济世界的新生物学。雷丁，马萨诸塞州：Addison-Wesley，1994。连线情感。
Kelly, Kevin. Out of Control: The New Biology of Machines, Social Systems, and the Economic World. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1994. The Wired sensibility.
克莱因，娜奥米。没有标志：没有空间，没有选择，没有工作。纽约：Picador/Macmillan，2002 年。关于“应该”的关键文本之一：克莱因巧妙地捕捉到了一个品牌取代商品现实的世界。必读。
Klein, Naomi. No Logo: No Space, No Choice, No Jobs. New York: Picador/Macmillan, 2002. One of the key texts of the oughts: Klein deftly captures a world where brands supersede the reality of goods. Essential reading.
莱西格、劳伦斯. 《思想的未来》 (2001)、《自由文化》 (2004)、《代码：版本 2.0》 (2006) 可根据 Lessig 开发的知识共享许可免费下载。他是数字世界中处理知识产权新方法最著名的评论家。
Lessig, Lawrence. The Future of Ideas (2001), Free Culture (2004), Code: Version 2.0 (2006) are available as free downloads under the Creative Commons license, which Lessig developed. He is the most prominent commentator on new ways to handle intellectual property rights in a digital world.
马诺维奇、列夫. 新媒体的语言。剑桥：麻省理工学院出版社，2002 年。在旧媒体背景下对新媒体的讨论。
Manovich, Lev. The Language of New Media. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2002. A discussion of new media in the context of old media.
摩纳哥，詹姆斯。新媒体词典。纽约：Harbor Electronic Publishing，1999。对新（和旧）媒体语言的广泛调查，其中有一个关于数字革命的介绍性章节。
Monaco, James. The Dictionary of New Media. New York: Harbor Electronic Publishing, 1999. An extensive survey of new (and old) media language, with an introductory chapter on the digital revolution.
纳尔逊、特德. 计算机图书馆/梦想机器， 1974 年。修订版。华盛顿州雷德蒙德：微软出版社，1987 年。经典文本。
Nelson, Ted. Computer Lib/Dream Machines, 1974. Revised edition. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Press, 1987. A classic text.
诺曼，唐纳德 A.日常事物的设计。纽约：双日，1988、1990。一篇关于心理符号学的早期文章，成为界面理论的经典。
Norman, Donald A. The Design of Everyday Things. New York: Doubleday, 1988,1990. An early essay on psycho-semiotics that became a classic of interface theory.
斯托尔，克利福德。杜鹃蛋。纽约：双日，1989 年。20 世纪 80 年代中期，天文学家克利福德·斯托尔 (Clifford Stoll) 卷入了长达一年的互联网间谍传奇，本文讲述了其故事。美国公共广播公司（PBS）关于这一主题的纪录片和许多讲座帮助形成了网络黑客的核心神话之一。
Stoll, Clifford. The Cuckoo’s Egg. New York: Doubleday, 1989. In the mid-1980s astronomer Clifford Stoll was drawn into a year-long internet espionage saga whose story is told here. A PBS documentary on the subject and many lectures helped to form one of the central myths of network hacking.
斯托尔，克利福德。硅蛇油：信息高速公路的再思考。纽约：Doubleday，1995 年。一位互联网英雄意识到，尽管网络具有诸多优势，但它也呈现出与电视相同的社会和政治问题。
Stoll, Clifford. Silicon Snake Oil: Second Thoughts on the Information Highway. New York: Doubleday, 1995. An internet hero realizes that, for all its advantages, the web presents the same social and political problems as television before it.
泰勒、吉姆. DVD揭秘。第三版。纽约：McGraw-Hill，2005 年。泰勒也许是数字视听技术（不仅仅是 DVD）的领先解释者。这本书是技术写作的杰作，以雄辩和常识解释了一个阴险复杂的主题。阅读本书，了解 (a) 使数字视听成为可能的巧妙技术，以及 (b) 如果您关心图像和声音，为什么不应该相信它。寻找泰勒未来的书籍，并查看他的网站：dvddemystified.com。
Taylor, Jim. DVD Demystified. Third ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005. Taylor is perhaps the leading explicator of digital audiovisual technology (not just DVD). A tour de force of technical writing, the book explains an insidiously complex subject with eloquence and common sense. Read this book to understand (a) the prodigiously ingenious technology that makes digital AV possible, and (b) why, if you care about images and sounds, you shouldn’t trust it. Look for future books by Taylor, and check out his website: dvddemystified.com.
托格纳齐尼、布鲁斯. 界面上的开关。雷丁，马萨诸塞州：Addison-Wesley，1992 年。Macintosh 界面大师以启发性的方式解决特定问题。
Tognazzini, Bruce. Tog on Interface. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1992. The Macintosh interface guru tackles specific problems in an enlightening way.
特克尔，雪莉。爱上科学：心中的物体。剑桥：麻省理工学院出版社，2008 年。作为媒体领域的民族志学者，这位多产的评论员对我们与技术的关系提出了一系列有趣的观察。另请参阅屏幕上的生活：互联网时代的身份(1997) 和第二个自我：计算机和人类精神(2005)。
Turkle, Sherry. Falling For Science: Objects in Mind. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2008. The ethnographer of the mediasphere, this prolific commentator has produced a string of interesting observations on our relationship to the technology. See also Life On the Screen: Identity in the Age of the Internet (1997) and The Second Self: Computers and the Human Spirit (2005.)
华莱士、詹姆斯和吉姆·埃里克森。硬盘：比尔·盖茨和微软帝国的形成。纽约：John Wiley & Sons，1992 年。对 Microsoft 早期历史的很好的概述。
Wallace, James, and Jim Erickson. Hard Drive: Bill Gates and the Making of the Microsoft Empire. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1992. A good overview of early Microsoft history.
8.电影参考：简史
8. Film Reference: A Brief History
视频的兴起使得电影参考作品的出版项目变得可行。现在大多数书店的参考书架上都有十几种选择。六十年代有这样的信息很难得。法国的乔治·萨杜尔（Georges Sadoul）和英国的罗杰·曼维尔（Roger Manveil）和蒂姆·考克威尔（Tim Cawkwell）开创了综合电影参考领域。大约在同一时间，彼得·考伊（Peter Cowie）开始了他的年度电影指南系列，英国的莱斯利·哈利韦尔（Leslie Halliwell）和美国的伦纳德·马尔丁（Leonard Maltin）推出了他们在广播电视上出现的流行电影指南的第一版。该领域的先驱 Steven Scheuer (1958) 比他们早了十多年。
The rise of video made film reference works viable publishing projects. There are now a dozen choices on the reference shelves of most bookstores. In the sixties such information was hard to come by. Georges Sadoul in France and Roger Manveil and Tim Cawkwell in England pioneered the field of comprehensive film reference. At about the same time, Peter Cowie began his series of annual Film Guides, and Leslie Halliwell in the U.K. and Leonard Maltin in the U.S. brought out the first editions of their popular guides to movies appearing on broadcast television. They had been preceded by more than a decade by Steven Scheuer (1958), a pioneer in the field.
20 世纪 80 年代，埃弗莱姆·卡茨 (Ephraim Katz) 发表了自己多年心血的电影《电影百科全书》 。他在 1994 年第二版付印之前就去世了。理查德·鲁德 (Richard Roud) 的《电影：批评词典》于 1980 年出版。鲁德作为让-吕克·戈达尔 (Jean-Luc Godard) 的早期拥护者和 20 世纪 60 年代纽约电影节的导演而崭露头角。 20 世纪 70 年代，该电影节率先将欧洲电影引入美国市场。尽管他于 1989 年去世，但他的影响力仍然存在。同样在 20 世纪 80 年代，汉斯·迈克尔·博克 (Hans-Michael Bock) 开始了他的大型作品CineGraph，这是一份连载出版物，目前已达数千页。1984 年，电影爱好者杰伊·罗伯特·纳什 (Jay Robert Nash) 和斯坦利·拉尔夫·罗斯 (Stanley Ralph Ross) 制作了多卷独特的电影清单《电影指南》。他们的公司 CineBooks 后来被新闻集团收购（并短暂归 Baseline 所有）。1998 年，在乔·伊梅森 (Jo Imeson) 和詹姆斯·帕洛特 (James Pallot) 的管理下，每年更新一次。
In the 1980s Ephraim Katz weighed in with his labor of love, The Film Encyclopedia, years in the making. He died before the second edition went to press in 1994. Richard Roud’s Cinema: A Critical Dictionary appeared in 1980. Roud had made his mark as an early champion of Jean-Luc Godard and as the director of the New York Film Festival in the 1960s and 1970s, when that festival led the way in introducing European films to the American market. Although he died in 1989 his influence is still being felt. Also in the 1980s Hans-Michael Bock began his massive work, CineGraph, a serial publication which now amounts to thousands of pages. In 1984 film buffs Jay Robert Nash and Stanley Ralph Ross produced their multi-volume idiosyncratic film list, The Motion Picture Guide. Their company, CineBooks, was later acquired by News Corp (and briefly owned by Baseline). Under various managements annual updates were produced through 1998 under the management of Jo Imeson and James Pallot.
20 世纪 90 年代，电影参考的焦点转向 CD-ROM。微软的Cinemania在 Leonard Maltin、Pauline Kael、Baseline 等人的帮助下，在 1998 年绝版之前售出了近 300 万份。CineBooks 制作了《电影指南》的光盘版本，百视达还赞助了一张 CD—— ROM 电影参考。
In the 1990s the focus of film reference shifted to CD-ROM. Microsoft’s Cinemania, with contributions by Leonard Maltin, Pauline Kael, Baseline, and others, sold almost three million copies before it was put out of print in 1998. CineBooks produced a disc version of The Motion Picture Guide, and Blockbuster also sponsored a CD-ROM film reference.
随着互联网的发展，焦点迅速转移到在线数据库。互联网电影数据库 (IMDB.com) 占据主导地位。IMDB 是万维网最伟大的成功故事之一。该数据库于 1990 年由伦敦的李约瑟上校 (Col Needham) 等人开始提供一组列表，并于 1993 年在卡迪夫大学（威尔士）的网络上安装后开始迅速发展。该数据库由数百名贡献者和数十名编辑维护全世界。考虑到企业的志愿者基础，这些数据出人意料地准确。1996 年，IMDB 成为商业企业，接受广告。1998年被亚马逊收购。
As the internet grew, the focus quickly shifted to online databases. The Internet Movie Data Base (IMDB.com) dominates. The IMDB is one of the great success stories of the World Wide Web. Begun as a set of lists in 1990 by Col Needham in London and others, the database started to take off when it was mounted on the Web at Cardiff University (Wales) in 1993. The database is maintained by hundreds of contributors and scores of editors worldwide. The data are surprisingly accurate, considering the volunteer basis of the enterprise. In 1996 the IMDB became a commercial business, accepting advertising. In 1998 it was acquired by Amazon.
您还应该了解更专业的信息来源。
You should also be aware of more professional sources of information.
Baseline StudioSystems 的数据包含超过 120,000 个影视节目制作人员、100,000 多家娱乐公司、150 万电影制片人、制片人、演员和技术人员以及近 10,000 个正在制作和开发的影视节目的广泛信息。Studio System 是该公司为业内专业人士提供的旗舰订阅服务，覆盖娱乐领域的每个主要工作室、制作公司和代理公司。此外，Baseline Syndicate 还向 NYTimes.com、Yahoo!、AOL、Comcast、Variety、E! 等主要网络合作伙伴授权数据。在线等等。我于 1982 年创立了这家公司，并于 1992 年离开并创立了 UNET，专注于软件和消费者服务。Baseline StudioSystems 现归纽约时报公司所有。
Baseline StudioSystems’ data carries extensive information on more than 120,000 film and television program credits, 100,000+ entertainment companies, 1.5 million filmmakers, producers, actors, and technicians, and nearly 10,000 films and television programs in production and development. The Studio System—the company’s flagship subscription service for professionals in the industry—reaches every major studio, production company and representation firm across the entertainment field. Additionally, Baseline Syndication licenses data to major web partners like NYTimes.com, Yahoo!, AOL, Comcast, Variety, E! Online, and more. I founded the company in 1982 and left in 1992 to found UNET to concentrate on software and consumer services. Baseline StudioSystems is now owned by the New York Times Company, Inc.
CineGraph 是 Hans-Michael Bock 巨著的在线版本，可在 CineGraph.de 上获取。Bock 在 20 世纪 80 年代初创立了 CineGraph，作为德国电影的持续、权威的百科全书。自 1984 年以来，CineGraph 的超过 45 个部分（14,000 页）已由慕尼黑版本 text + kritik 以活页格式出版。博克的部分巨著被整合到www.filmportal.de中。过去几年，CineGraph 的工作得到了汉堡市文化事务部的支持。该组织出版其他参考书、举办会议并维护与德语电影相关的其他数据库。它是世界上最大的电影数据库之一。
CineGraph, the online version of Hans-Michael Bock’s magnum opus is available at CineGraph.de. Bock founded CineGraph in the early 1980s to serve as a continuing, definitive encyclopedia of German film. Since 1984 more than 45 sections (14,000 pages) of CineGraph have been published in looseleaf format by edition text + kritik, Munich. Parts of Bock’s magnum opus were integrated into www.filmportal.de. For the last several years the work of CineGraph has been supported by the department of cultural affairs of the city of Hamburg. The organization publishes other reference works, operates conferences, and maintains additional databases relating to German-language cinema. It is one of the largest film databases in the world.
其他互联网信息来源列在“如何阅读电影”网站上： ReadFilm.com。
Other internet sources of information are listed on the website for How to Read a Film: ReadFilm.com.
9.解毒剂
9. Antidotes
当您看够了屏幕后，请阅读这些文本来理清思绪。最好在户外阳光下阅读它们——（我猜）这仍然是模拟的。
When you’ve had enough of the screens, turn to these texts to clear your head. Preferably read them outdoors in the sunshine—which (I guess) is still analog.
梭罗，亨利·大卫。瓦尔登湖；或者，《树林里的生活》。波士顿：灯塔出版社，2004 年。《瓦尔登湖》于 1854 年首次出版，是美国自然研究的关键著作。获取此版本，其中包含 Bill McKibben 的介绍。
Thoreau, Henry David. Walden; or, Life in the Woods. Boston: Beacon Press, 2004. First published in 1854, Walden is the key text of American nature study. Get this edition with an introduction by Bill McKibben.
利奥波德、奥尔多. 沙县年鉴。纽约：牛津大学出版社，1968 年。该书于 1949 年首次出版，现已成为现代自然写作的经典之作。
Leopold, Aldo. A Sand County Almanac. New York: Oxford University Press, 1968. First published in 1949, this has become a modern classic of nature writing.
缪尔、约翰. 缪尔精华：约翰·缪尔最佳作品精选。弗雷德·D·怀特编辑。加州伯克利：Heyday Books，2006 年。缪尔是 1892 年塞拉俱乐部的创始人，是美国保护运动的偶像，也许只有西奥多·罗斯福才能超越。
Muir, John. Essential Muir: A Selection of John Muir’s Best Writings. Fred D. White, ed. Berkeley CA: Heyday Books, 2006. Founder of the Sierra Club in 1892, Muir is an icon of the American conservation movement, surpassed only, perhaps, by Theodore Roosevelt.
主题索引
Topic Index
概念、国家、公司和主题。
Concepts, countries, companies, and topics.
A
A
阿顿159
Aaton 159
ABC 280、521、522、528、530、545、546、554、560、648、656、660、664 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
ABC 280, 521, 522, 528, 530, 545, 546, 554, 560, 648, 656, 660, 664
缺席的朋友19 , 41 , 141 , 191 , 350 , 360 , 377 , 380 , 383 , 388 , 407 , 409 , 459 , 552 , 669 , 672 , 682 , 683 , 690
absent friends 19, 41, 141, 191, 350, 360, 377, 380, 383, 388, 407, 409, 459, 552, 669, 672, 682, 683, 690
Academy aperture 117, 118, 206
美国存托凭证145
ADR 145
广告486 , 494 , 521 , 523 , 525 , 583
advertising 486, 494, 521, 523, 525, 583
非裔美国电影看黑人电影
African-American film see Black film
半岛电视台667
Al Jazeera 667
牵牛星 8800 655
Altair 8800 655
老科克斯427
alte kockes 427
美国传记643
American Biograph 643
美国电影学院653
American Film Institute 653
美国电影营销协会658
American Film Marketing Association 658
美国国际影业263
American International Pictures 263
美国 Mutscope 和传记公司642
American Mutoscope and Biograph Company 642
另见传记
see also Biograph
美国西洋镜383
American Zoetrope 383
模拟592
analog 592
愤怒的年轻人314
Angry Young Men 314
ANPR 610
ANPR 610
第635章
answer, the 635
反垄断裁决273
Anti-trust ruling 273
美国在线621、622、669、671 _ _ _ _ _
苹果317 , 490 , 571 , 582 , 594 , 614 , 617 , 656 , 660 , 662 , 663 , 667 , 668 , 671
Apple 317, 490, 571, 582, 594, 614, 617, 656, 660, 662, 663, 667, 668, 671
阿根廷368
Argentina 368
陆军-麦卡锡听证会540
Army-McCarthy hearings 540
第24条
art 24
和技术76
and technology 76
艺术电影345
art film 345
艺人管理组669
Artists Management Group 669
亚裔美国人304
Asian-American 304
纵横比117
Aspect Ratio 117
英国联合电影公司266
Associated British Picture Corporation 266
美国电话电报公司496、524、532、626、660、668
AT&T 496, 524, 532, 626, 660, 668
听力计647
Audimeter 647
三极管642
Audion 642
发烧友510
audiophiles 510
奥斯汀（简）热潮414
Austen (Jane) craze 414
自动车牌识别610
Automated Number Plate Recognition 610
Autorenkino 宣言652
Autorenkino manifesto 652
AVC 616
AVC 616
乙
B
婴儿铃532
Baby Bells 532
浴缸和淋浴代码198 –202
bathtub and shower code 198–202
英国广播公司53、558、562、644、647、662 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
BBC 53, 558, 562, 644, 647, 662
论坛380
BBS 380
β-麦克斯656
Betamax 656
Betamax 案例286
Betamax case 286
老大哥671
Big Brother 671
传记女孩295
Biograph Girl 295
黑膜298 , 299 , 376 , 377 , 383 , 405 , 407 , 408 , 409
Black Film 298, 299, 376, 377, 383, 405, 407, 408, 409
黑色情景喜剧550
Black sitcoms 550
黑莓595
Blackberry 595
集体预订268
block booking 268
百视690
Blockbuster 690
博客圈600
Blogosphere 600
蓝光276、507、510、608、616、675 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Blu-ray 276, 507, 510, 608, 616, 675
电影审查委员会（英国）311
Board of Film Censors (British) 311
玻利维亚368
Bolivia 368
邦德，詹姆斯看到詹姆斯邦德
Bond, James see James Bond
布克曼590
Bookman 590
票房156 , 288 , 645 , 648 , 656 , 659 , 663 , 665 , 675 , 676
box office 156, 288, 645, 648, 656, 659, 663, 665, 675, 676
巴西366
Brazil 366
布莱顿项目657
Brighton Project 657
英国电影学院646
British Film Institute 646
英国电信666
British Telecom 666
广播491
broadcasting 491
另见广播、电视
see also radio, television
百老汇645
Broadway 645
浏览器622
browser 622
布埃纳维斯塔266
Buena Vista 266
C
C
CAA 284
CAA 284
有线电视86 , 496 , 509 , 520 , 523 , 529 , 650 , 655 , 659 , 660 , 662 , 663 , 669
cable television 86, 496, 509, 520, 523, 529, 650, 655, 659, 660, 662, 663, 669
电影手册349、380、394 _ _ _
Cahiers du Cinéma 349, 380, 394
相机99
camera 99
露西达相机81
camera lucida 81
暗箱80
camera obscura 80
caméra-stylo 357, 420, 462, 649
加拿大368
Canada 368
戛纳电影节335 , 352 , 377 , 405 , 407 , 408 , 410 , 417 , 648 , 670
Cannes festival 335, 352, 377, 405, 407, 408, 410, 417, 648, 670
加农炮278
Cannon 278
首都广播660
Capital Cities Broadcasting 660
碳弧灯159
carbon arc lamp 159
卡罗科278
Carolco 278
Carterfone decision 491
卡通398
cartoon 398
阴极射线管501
Cathode Ray Tube 501
CB 655
CB 655
哥伦比亚广播公司144、278、280、490、499、504、508、522、528、530、533、538、543、560、581、645、647、659、665、670、6 74 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
CBS 144, 278, 280, 490, 499, 504, 508, 522, 528, 530, 533, 538, 543, 560, 581, 645, 647, 659, 665, 670, 674
CCTV看闭路电视
CCTV see Closed-Circuit TV
光盘505 , 506 , 507 , 584 , 598 , 659
CD 505, 506, 507, 584, 598, 659
光盘512、585、597、623、660、664 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
CD-ROM 512, 585, 597, 623, 660, 664
西传真619
Ceefax 619
名人295
celebrity 295
蜂窝广播493
cellular broadcasting 493
审查311
censorship 311
频道4 413、559、659 _ _ _ _
夏洛特295
Charlot 295
追逐电影376
Chase film 376
明暗对比218
chiaroscuro 218
智利367
Chile 367
中国419
China 419
芯片503
chips 503
色度键151
chroma key 151
电影书690
CineBooks 690
电影图形690
CineGraph 690
爸爸电影416
cinéma du papa 416
新电影院366
Cinema Nôvo 366
电影产品公司110
Cinema Products, Inc. 110
cinéma vérité 109, 316, 356, 651
法国电影资料馆647
Cinémathèque Française 647
全景电影650
Cinerama 650
电影结构主义473
Ciné-structuralism 473
城市搜索282
CitySearch 282
闭路电视611
Closed-Circuit TV 611
CMOS 95
CMOS 95
美国有线电视新闻网288、520、523、529、532、553、658 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
CNN 288, 520, 523, 529, 532, 553, 658
和集合论471
and set theory 471
认知电影理论476
cognitive film theory 476
火棉胶82
collodion 82
温度135
temperature 135
理论137
theory 137
计时153
timing 153
哥伦比亚265 , 266 , 275 , 276 , 277 , 278 , 413 , 490 , 644 , 659 , 661 , 662
Columbia 265, 266, 275, 276, 277, 278, 413, 490, 644, 659, 661, 662
哥伦比亚大学366
Columbia University 366
漫画421
Comics 421
1934 年通讯法646
Communications Act of 1934 646
社区480
Community 480
构图（镜头）222
composition (shot) 222
压缩588
compression 588
有损和无损591
lossy and nonlossy 591
计算机621
Compuserve 621
孔特莫罗424
Conte Moreau 424
对比131
contrast 131
深度知觉惯例211
Conventions of Depth Perception 211
版权所有602、604、605、606、627、668、669 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
copyright 602, 604, 605, 606, 627, 668, 669
公共广播公司653
Corporation for Public Broadcasting 653
课程包602
coursepaks 602
封面记录650
cover record 650
CraigsList.org 665
CraigsList.org 665
知识共享604
Creative Commons 604
标准660
Criterion 660
批评24
criticism 24
残酷电视555
Cruelty Television 555
古巴368
Cuba 368
立体主义48
Cubism 48
文化帝国主义279 , 285 , 288 , 317 , 411 , 420 , 644 , 654
cultural imperialism 279, 285, 288, 317, 411, 420, 644, 654
CW 521
CW 521
捷克斯洛伐克365
Czechoslovakia 365
D
D
达达27
Dada 27
découpage classique 239, 357, 464
深焦98
deep focus 98
景深97
depth of field 97
侦探类型647
Detective genre 647
DI 165
DI 165
对话619
Dialog 619
隔膜94
diaphragm 94
digital 122, 405, 508, 509, 556
television 501, 503, 508, 520, 669
与模拟509比较
versus analog 509
数字千年版权法案669
Digital Millennium Copyright Act 669
数字研究公司582
Digital Research Inc. 582
数字引爆点164
Digital Tipping Points 164
数字录像机670
Digital Video Recorder 670
digitization 147, 154, 158, 578–599
直接视频287
Direct-to-Video 287
迪斯科656
disco 656
迪士尼266 , 278 , 279 , 280 , 342 , 422 , 530 , 606 , 626 , 650 , 659 , 660 , 664 , 670 , 673 , 675 , 676
Disney 266, 278, 279, 280, 342, 422, 530, 606, 626, 650, 659, 660, 664, 670, 673, 675, 676
DMCA 669
DMCA 669
纪录片545
docudrama 545
纪录片109 , 323 , 326 , 354 , 356 , 358 , 390 , 430 , 443 , 645
documentary 109, 323, 326, 354, 356, 358, 390, 430, 443, 645
数字162
Digital 162
效果139
Effect 139
多莉射击229
dolly shots 229
点阵487
dot matrix 487
梦想功能309
dream function 309
梦工厂281 , 422 , 664 , 669 , 674
Dreamworks 281, 422, 664, 669, 674
数字版权592
DRM 592
DSD 510
DSD 510
数字信号处理586
DSP 586
决策支持系统664
DSS 664
DTS 162
DTS 162
DV 352
DV 352
DVD 139、423、429、490、507、509、585、589、591、592、615、664、665、667、668、673、674 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
DVD 139, 423, 429, 490, 507, 509, 585, 589, 591, 592, 615, 664, 665, 667, 668, 673, 674
乙
E
伊士曼柯达116 , 129 , 260 , 653 , 663
Eastman Kodak 116, 129, 260, 653, 663
ECN 669
ECN 669
编辑决策列表144
Edit Decision Lists 144
电动剧场642
Electric Theatre 642
电磁波谱499
electromagnetic spectrum 499
电子和印刷媒体483
electronic and print media 483
埃尔斯特里663
Elstree 663
电子邮件664
email 664
努力284
Endeavor 284
内窥镜检查113
endoscopy 113
埃尼亚克648
ENIAC 648
集体电影428
ensemble films 428
史诗剧院61
Epic Theater 61
电子预订602
eReserve 602
ESPN 657
ESPN 657
论文260
Essanay 260
散文电影317
Essay Film 317
疏远效应61
Estrangement Effect 61
道德614
ethics 614
激动626
Excite 626
剥削263
exploitation 263
F
F
脸书673
Facebook 673
淡出249
fade 249
合理使用603
fair use 603
公平主义661
Fairness Doctrine 661
family life 513, 536, 563–575, 628
幻想421
Fantasy 421
传真661
fax 661
美国联邦通信委员会508、518、519、520、526、528、560、644、646、652、653、654、659、663、670、673 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
FCC 508, 518, 519, 520, 526, 528, 560, 644, 646, 652, 653, 654, 659, 663, 670, 673
Feist Publications 诉 Rural Telephone Service Co., Inc. 605
Feist Publications v Rural Telephone Service Co., Inc. 605
电影
film
和小说253
and the novel 253
规格123
gauge 123
第115 代
generations 115
谷物123
grain 123
期数253
periods 253
参考689
reference 689
速度123
speed 123
库存114
stock 114
黑色电影329 , 332 , 334 , 338 , 339 , 350 , 361 , 365 , 381 , 405 , 548 , 648 , 659
Film Noir 329, 332, 334, 338, 339, 350, 361, 365, 381, 405, 548, 648, 659
电影协会（伦敦）324
Film Society (London) 324
芬兰418
Finland 418
Fin - Syn规则560、654、663、521 _ _ _
Fin-Syn rule 560, 654, 663, 521
第一全国262
First National 262
软盘589
floppy disk 589
调频517、646、653 _ _ _ _
焦比97
focal ratio 97
焦点223
Focus 223
拟音艺术家236
Foley artist 236
食品网554
Food Network 554
形式，开放式和封闭式207
form, open and closed 207
形式主义448
Formalism 448
4K 164
4K 164
福克斯120 , 179 , 262 , 277 , 280 , 281 , 283 , 400 , 408 , 521 , 552 , 643 , 658 , 660 , 661 , 663 , 664 , 670
Fox 120, 179, 262, 277, 280, 281, 283, 400, 408, 521, 552, 643, 658, 660, 661, 663, 664, 670
分形625
fractalization 625
法国258 , 266 , 285 , 317 , 319 , 320 , 326 , 327 , 344 , 349 , 356 , 371 , 394 , 416 , 430
France 258, 266, 285, 317, 319, 320, 326, 327, 344, 349, 356, 371, 394, 416, 430
特许经营电影392
franchise film 392
免费电影院358
Free Cinema 358
友斯特672
Friendster 672
正面投影155
front projection 155
未来主义48
Futurism 48
G
G
黑帮311、331、334、350、381、646 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Gangster 311, 331, 334, 350, 381, 646
创世记662
Genesis 662
电视536
television 536
德国表现主义324、327、442 _ _
German Expressionism 324, 327, 442
德国257 , 266 , 272 , 317 , 324 , 372 , 417 448
Germany 257, 266, 272, 317, 324, 372, 417 448
格式塔心理学440
Gestalt psychology 440
动图622
GIF 622
全球化420
globalization 420
Goldcrest Films 286, 362, 413, 659
电视黄金时代534
Golden Age of television 534
戈德温图片262
Goldwyn Pictures 262
图形用户界面581
graphical user interface 581
格林威治村131 , 230 , 258 , 259 , 278 , 388 , 650 , 653
Greenwich Village 131, 230, 258, 259, 278, 388, 650, 653
海湾 + 西部653
Gulf + Western 653
H
H
H.264616 _
H.264 616
海斯办公室310
Hays Office 310
HBO 278、288、388、529、655、659、669 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
HBO 278, 288, 388, 529, 655, 659, 669
高清广播518
HD Radio 518
高清音频603
HD-Audio 603
高清DVD 675
HD-DVD 675
高清电视79、118、139、158、501、508、510、615、616、662、664、669 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
HDTV 79, 118, 139, 158, 501, 508, 510, 615, 616, 662, 664, 669
嘻哈64
Hip-Hop 64
历史浪漫386
Historical Romance 386
霍洛贡旋转161
Hollogon Rotary 161
好莱坞261 , 265 , 267 , 283 , 288 , 291 , 317 , 326 , 333 , 335 , 337 , 376 , 395 , 404 , 643 , 647
Hollywood 261, 265, 267, 283, 288, 291, 317, 326, 333, 335, 337, 376, 395, 404, 643, 647
语法192
Grammar 192
好莱坞图片266
Hollywood Pictures 266
好莱坞十号313
Hollywood Ten 313
福尔摩斯，夏洛克看到夏洛克·福尔摩斯
Holmes, Sherlock see Sherlock Holmes
House Un-American Activities Committee 313, 649
匈牙利365
Hungary 365
海珀戈纳尔118
Hypergonar 118
超文本596
hypertext 596
连字符284
hyphenates 284
我
I
iBiquity 数字518
iBiquity Digital 518
IBM 179、511、571、572、580、610、620、651、652、655、658、661 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
IBM 179, 511, 571, 572, 580, 610, 620, 651, 652, 655, 658, 661
ICM 284
ICM 284
图标、索引和符号184
Icon, Index, and Symbol 184
图标镜500
Iconoscope 500
图标406
icons 406
幻觉
Illusions
暧昧的三叉戟172
Ambiguous Trident 172
穆勒-莱尔214
Müller-Lyer 214
内克尔立方体172
Necker Cube 172
庞佐173
Ponzo 173
楼上/楼下214
Upstairs/Downstairs 214
IMAX 104、127、163、612、614 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
独立电影公司260
Independent Motion Picture Company 260
印度343
India 343
放纵637
indulgence 637
工业光魔，385
Industrial Light & Magic, 385
无限广播670
Infinity Broadcasting 670
信息时代579
Information Age 579
信息高速公路621
Information Superhighway 621
高等研究学院
Institut des Hautes Études
电影摄影648
Cinématographiques 648
集成电路498
integrated circuit 498
英特尔498、655、676 _ _ _ _
知识产权286
intellectual property 286
交错503
interlacing 503
互联网403 , 494 , 620 , 623 , 665 , 666 , 668 , 670
internet 403, 494, 620, 623, 665, 666, 668, 670
互联网电影数据库623
Internet Movie Database 623
意大利257 , 266 , 285 , 314 , 317 , 319 , 320 , 336 , 340 , 346 , 349 , 362 , 412 , 417
Italy 257, 266, 285, 314, 317, 319, 320, 336, 340, 346, 349, 362, 412, 417
国际贸易中心285
ITC 285
IXO 远程计算机594
IXO Telecomputer 594
J
J
日本维多公司508
Japan Victor Corporation 508
JPEG 588
JPEG 588
K
K
KMCD 辛迪加642
K.M.C.D. Syndicate 642
卡伦260
Kalem 260
凯福弗听证会523
Kefauver hearings 523
肯姆142
Kem 142
肯沃斯通气管111
Kenworthy snorkel 111
金内波利斯163
Kinepolis 163
显像管501
Kinescope 501
活动电影放映机84 , 85 , 256 , 257 , 641
Kinetoscope 84, 85, 256, 257, 641
柯达参见伊士曼柯达
Kodak see Eastman Kodak
科斯特和比亚尔音乐厅642
Koster and Bial’s Music Hall 642
L
L
语言系统176
language system 176
拉斯科洞穴壁画636
Lascaux cave paintings 636
拉丁美洲419
Latin America 419
发光二极管487
LED 487
狮子座527
LEO 527
词典581
Lexicon 581
莱克斯619
Lexis 619
文科25
Liberal Arts 25
照明217
Lighting 217
好莱坞218
Hollywood 218
关键和填充216
key and fill 216
狮子门387
Lion’s Gate 387
邮件列表628
listservs 628
小玛丽295
Little Mary 295
利万特669
Livent 669
伦敦电影协会644
London Film Society 644
莲花582
Lotus 582
楼马111
Louma 111
LP 649
LP 649
LPTV 659
LPTV 659
鲁滨260
Lubin 260
卢卡斯影业有限公司385
Lucasfilm Ltd. 385
中号
M
电视电影544
made-for-television movie 544
魔法光盘83
Magic Discs 83
魔法灯笼83
Magic Lantern 83
磁力镜118
Magnascope 118
主流媒体600
Main Stream Media 600
马耳他十字100
Maltese Cross 100
武术376
Martial Arts 376
马克思主义批评475
Marxist criticism 475
比赛剪辑243
match cut 243
Matsushita 279, 280, 281, 490, 662
旅行150
traveling 150
MCA 274 , 490 , 508 , 560 , 651 , 662 , 664
MCA 274, 490, 508, 560, 651, 662, 664
麦卡锡听证会523
McCarthy hearings 523
MCI 666
MCI 666
媒体
media
印刷版和电子版483
print and electronic 483
录音29
recording 29
水星663
Mercury 663
水星剧院，515
Mercury Theatre, The 515
元小说425
metafiction 425
元现实430
metareality 430
转喻187
metonymy 187
墨西哥366
Mexico 366
米高梅179、262、270、275、341、532、644、654、655、661、662、666、667、669、674 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
MGM 179, 262, 270, 275, 341, 532, 644, 654, 655, 661, 662, 666, 667, 669, 674
Mickey Mouse Protection Act 606, 668
微机655
microcomputer 655
微软281、572、582、623、656、658、665、668、670、672 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Microsoft 281, 572, 582, 623, 656, 658, 665, 668, 670, 672
千禧一代422
Millennials 422
小型机653
minicomputer 653
迷你光盘663
Minidisc 663
mise-en-scène 193, 205, 461, 464
米切尔相机109
Mitchell camera 109
混合505
mixing 505
MMCD 590
MMCD 590
现代主义423
Modernism 423
调制500
modulation 500
振幅和频率498
amplitude and frequency 498
莫尼亚轨道527
Molniya orbit 527
字母组合263
Monogram 263
加速242
accelerated 242
景点452
of attractions 452
平行242
parallel 242
穆格合成器581
Moog synthesizer 581
摩尔定律499、584、608 _ _ _ _
变形152
morphs 152
马赛克624
Mosaic 624
Motion Picture Patents Company 260, 643
电影/电影/电影院421
movies/film/cinema 421
莫维奥拉142
Moviola 142
割草544
MOW 544
MP3 603、627、670 _ _ _ _
MPEG-4 616
MPEG-4 616
MPPA 310
MPPA 310
MSM 600
MSM 600
MTM 547
MTM 547
音乐电视64、241、288、520、529、658 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
MTV 64, 241, 288, 520, 529, 658
multimedia 258, 578, 585, 593–607
多重曝光215
multiple exposure 215
多路复用284
multiplexes 284
多路复用波511
multiplexing waves 511
音乐剧236 , 329 , 333 , 335 , 341 , 350 , 357 , 380 , 407 , 427 , 646 , 649
Musical 236, 329, 333, 335, 341, 350, 357, 380, 407, 427, 646, 649
肌肉镜258
Mutoscope 258
穆扎克514
Muzak 514
氮
N
纳普斯特604
Napster 604
叙述425
Narrative 425
加拿大国家电影局647
National Film Board of Canada 647
全国讽刺613
National Lampoon 613
全国广播公司179、490、524、528、530、546、547、553、560、610、626、644、645、649、658、660、665、666、676 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
NBC 179, 490, 524, 528, 530, 546, 547, 553, 560, 610, 626, 644, 645, 649, 658, 660, 665, 666, 676
国家安全局624
NCSA 624
新现实主义314 , 335 , 336 , 362 , 443 , 446 , 456 , 457 , 462 , 648 , 676
Neorealism 314, 335, 336, 362, 443, 446, 456, 457, 462, 648, 676
新德国电影参见 Neue Kino 379
New German Cinema see Neue Kino 379
New Line Cinema 263, 278, 653, 663
新媒体578
new media 578
新浪潮109 , 254 , 317 , 344 , 349 , 380 , 651
New Wave 109, 254, 317, 344, 349, 380, 651
新世界263
New World 263
纽约44 , 257 , 258 , 268 , 269 , 278 , 279 , 331 , 342 , 381 , 388 , 401 , 411 , 484 , 524 , 534 , 536 , 538 , 541 , 548 , 56 9、613、644、647 _ _ _ _ _
New York 44, 257, 258, 268, 269, 278, 279, 331, 342, 381, 388, 401, 411, 484, 524, 534, 536, 538, 541, 548, 569, 613, 644, 647
纽约电影节690
New York Film Festival 690
报纸521
Newspapers 521
联克西斯596
Nexis 596
下一个667
NeXT 667
NHK 508
NHK 508
尼克频道259
Nickelodeon 259
电视剧小说654
Novel-for-Television 654
新墨西哥电影420
Nuevo Cine Mexicano 420
氧
O
敖德萨步骤序列450
Odessa steps sequence 450
好利获得670
Olivetti 670
光学152
opticals 152
甲骨文619
Oracle 619
正色134
orthochromatic 134
奥斯卡421
Oscar 421
淘汰669
outtakes 669
磷
P
平移和扫描153
pan and scan 153
全色135
panchromatic 135
派拉蒙122 , 262 , 271 , 279 , 280 , 281 , 531 , 646 , 648 , 649 , 653 , 658 , 664
Paramount 122, 262, 271, 279, 280, 281, 531, 646, 648, 649, 653, 658, 664
派拉蒙反垄断裁决273
Paramount Anti-trust ruling 273
PCS 663
PCS 663
掌上电脑594
PDA 594
pdf 工作流程598
pdf workflow 598
persistence of vision 103, 137, 440, 502
飞利浦490 , 491 , 508 , 510 , 512 , 589 , 660
Philips 490, 491, 508, 510, 512, 589, 660
写实主义56
photorealism 56
皮克斯422 , 423 , 665 , 668 , 675
像素57
pixel 57
像素化148
pixillation 148
游戏机664
Playstation 664
袖珍书647
Pocket Books 647
POD 599
POD 599
播客494
Podcast 494
诗意现实主义326
Poetic Realism 326
波兰364
Poland 364
极光656
Polavision 656
Politique des auteurs see Auteur theory
聚视118
Polyvision 118
乒乓655
Pong 655
色情376
Porn 376
邮局153
post house 153
后期配音146
post-dubbing 146
后现代主义254 , 423 , 425 , 429 , 476
postmodernism 254, 423, 425, 429, 476
后记487
Postscript 487
观点234
POV 234
前期制作143
pre-production 143
Prime Time Access rule 520, 655
印刷和电子媒体483
print and electronic media 483
植入式广告659
product placement 659
产品代码645
Production Code 645
编程555
programming 555
投影159
projection 159
数字670
digital 670
公共领域606
Public Domain 606
公共、私人空间630
public, private spaces 630
出版599
publishing 599
下拉机构102
pull-down mechanism 102
问
Q
四声道655
Quadraphonic 655
量化509
quantization 509
魁北克587
Qube 587
QuickTime VR 16、617、619、664 _ _ _ _ _
QuickTime VR 16, 617, 619, 664
五音阶139
quintaphonic 139
配额快速268
quota quickies 268
右
R
比赛298
race 298
上午658
AM 658
CB 655
CB 655
流派514
genres 514
无线电城音乐厅273
Radio City Music Hall 273
美国广播公司（见 RCA）
Radio Corporation of America see RCA
广播剧482
radio play 482
莱558
RAI 558
说唱64
Rap 64
生产报告34
Rapports de Production 34
RBOC 660
RBOCs 660
RCA 266、500、508、517、524、528、644、660 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
RCA 266, 500, 508, 517, 524, 528, 644, 660
阅读图像194
Reading the Image 194
现实生活292
real life 292
背投154
rear projection 154
录音513
recording 513
媒体29
media 29
系统78
systems 78
关系编辑449
relational editing 449
相对孔径97
relative aperture 97
翻拍393
remakes 393
遥控器587
remotes 587
复制品599
repro 599
评论274
Revue 274
美国唱片工业协会603
RIAA 603
钢铁之环610
Ring of Steel 610
精简指令集664
RISC 664
雷电华265、266、274、333、645、649、650 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
RKO 265, 266, 274, 333, 645, 649, 650
卷226
roll 226
浪漫476
Romance 476
恐惧症216
rosophobia 216
S
S
扫视模式175
saccade patterns 175
取样602
Sampling 602
卫星288 , 526 , 527 , 558 , 652 , 655 , 656 , 664
satellite 288, 526, 527, 558, 652, 655, 656, 664
萨沃伊影视娱乐281
Savoy Pictures Entertainment 281
丑闻310
scandal 310
科幻小说340 , 359 , 361 , 384 , 385 , 386 , 392 , 394 , 404 , 649 , 659
Science Fiction 340, 359, 361, 384, 385, 386, 392, 394, 404, 649, 659
Screwball Comedy 329, 333, 354, 646
SDDS 162
SDDS 162
安全数字音乐倡议670
Secure Digital Music Initiative 670
世嘉662
Sega 662
塞利格260
Selig 260
符号466
semioclasm 466
续集狂热392
sequelmania 392
系列658
serial 658
和电影院476
and cinema 476
电视559
tv 559
性政治304 , 309 , 415 , 476 , 552
sexual politics 304, 309, 415, 476, 552
夏洛克·福尔摩斯392
Sherlock Holmes 392
短路标志470
short-circuit sign 470
镜头构图222
shot composition 222
银王281
Silver King 281
六十年代583
sixties 583
肥皂剧515
Soap Opera 515
社会契约629
social contract 629
社交网络628
social networking 628
社会主义现实主义449
Socialist Realism 449
社会圈630
sociosphere 630
声色126
Sonochrome 126
索尼140、279、280、286、508、510、512、587、589、594、595、648、654、660、661、662、663、664、667、674 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Sony 140, 279, 280, 286, 508, 510, 512, 587, 589, 594, 595, 648, 654, 660, 661, 662, 663, 664, 667, 674
声音235
sound 235
平行与对位238
parallel and contrapuntal 238
同步和异步238
synchronous and asynchronous 238
原声摘要599
sound bite 599
意大利面西部340
Spaghetti Western 340
西班牙418
Spain 418
西班牙宗教裁判所563
Spanish Inquisition 563
特效147
Special Effects 147
斯普雷扎图拉635
sprezzatura 635
明星卫视663
Star TV 663
星星294
stars 294
立体声651
stereophonic sound 651
剧照618
stillies 618
故事板143
storyboard 143
拉伸视野122
stretch-o-vision 122
结构主义468
Structuralism 468
演播室系统270
studio system 270
夏季电影421
Summer movies 421
爱情之夏378
Summer of Love 378
圣丹斯电影节406
Sundance festival 406
超级站532
superstation 532
Sweden 285, 324, 345, 364, 418
Swedish Film Institute 285, 652
扫荡546
sweeps 546
瑞士375
Switzerland 375
符号406
symbols 406
联合组织525
syndication 525
提喻188
synecdoche 188
组合结构和范式结构471
syntagmatic and paradigmatic structures 471
语法191
syntax 191
时间
T
塔尔博特640型
Talbottype 640
脱口秀535
Talk show 535
特艺彩色120 , 128 , 647 , 648 , 649
Technicolor 120, 128, 647, 648, 649
技术拉玛122
Technirama 122
技术镜120
Techniscope 120
特德506
TeD 506
意大利电信670
Telecom Italia 670
1996年电信法520、532、665 _
Telecommunications Act of 1996 520, 532, 665
电话花园609
Telegarden 609
电话642
telegraphone 642
telepresence 609, 612, 613, 666
电信620
Teletel 620
图文电视620
teletext 620
电视272 , 356 , 519 , 645 , 647 , 650
television 272, 356, 519, 645, 647, 650
数字669
digital 669
格式和流派545
formats and genres 545
法国558
France 558
流派536
genres 536
德国558
Germany 558
意大利558
Italy 558
恐怖主义610
terrorism 610
残酷剧场60
Theater of Cruelty 60
理论475
theory 475
3-D 121 , 210 , 612 , 650 , 657 , 674 , 676
3-D 121, 210, 612, 650, 657, 674, 676
惊悚片334
Thrillers 334
票务大师282
Ticketmaster 282
延时107
time lapse 107
时代华纳510、533、622、665、671 _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Time Warner 510, 533, 622, 665, 671
蒂沃488
Tivo 488
梯恩梯661
TNT 661
音131
tone 131
卡通乐园403
Toonland 403
东芝510
Toshiba 510
与缩放224
versus zooming 224
晶体管498
transistor 498
Tri-Ergon process 138, 270, 644
TriStar 277, 278, 490, 659, 662
二十世纪福克斯看到福克斯
Twentieth Century Fox see Fox
曲折的道路633
twisty roads 633
2K 164
2K 164
U
U
英国266 , 268 , 272 , 285 , 311 , 314 , 317 , 319 , 324 , 326 , 344 , 349 , 358 , 360 , 394 , 412
U.K. 266, 268, 272, 285, 311, 314, 317, 319, 324, 326, 344, 349, 358, 360, 394, 412
地下355
Underground 355
理解图像195
Understanding the Image 195
统一码591
Unicode 591
联美263 , 274 , 276 , 295 , 644 , 653 , 658 , 662
United Artists 263, 274, 276, 295, 644, 653, 658, 662
通用260 , 271 , 274 , 281 , 286 , 531 , 643 , 650 , 671
Universal 260, 271, 274, 281, 286, 531, 643, 650, 671
Universum Film AG 参见 UFA
Universum Film A.G. see UFA
UPN 521
UPN 521
V
V
录像机493、507、529、551、565、574、587、659、662 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
VCR 493, 507, 529, 551, 565, 574, 587, 659, 662
保护效果61
Verfremdungseffekt 61
逼真612
verisimilitude 612
录像带156、506、674 _ _ _ _
维亚康姆280 , 281 , 288 , 530 , 661 , 664 , 670 , 671 , 674
Viacom 280, 281, 288, 530, 661, 664, 670, 671, 674
视频287
video 287
视频协助159
videoassist 159
录像带506
videocassette 506
录像带159
videotap 159
视文620
videotext 620
摄像机502
vidicon 502
乡村之声，650
Village Voice, The 650
虚拟家具617
virtual furniture 617
虚拟伊拉克614
Virtual Iraq 614
虚拟出版598
virtual publishing 598
Virtual Reality 166, 608, 608–618
完全沉浸式610
fully immersive 610
远景愿景122
Vista Vision 122
维塔风644
Vitaphone 644
维塔拉玛120
Vitarama 120
甚小孔径终端527
VSAT 527
瓦
W
华尔道夫宣言314
Waldorf Declaration 314
战争386
War 386
华纳262、265、271、274、275、277、333、335、553、560、643、650、653、654、656、661、667、670 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Warner 262, 265, 271, 274, 275, 277, 333, 335, 553, 560, 643, 650, 653, 654, 656, 661, 667, 670
另见时代华纳
see also Time Warner
水门523
Watergate 523
波力学500
Wave mechanics 500
波长498
wavelength 498
世界银行，521
WB, The 521
网络视频600
web video 600
网络摄像头609
webcam 609
网络电视666
Web-TV 666
韦恩斯坦公司278
Weinstein Company 278
嗯，661
Well, the 661
西电266
Western Electric 266
西屋490 , 524 , 530 , 665 , 668 , 670
Westinghouse 490, 524, 530, 665, 668, 670
WGN 644
WGN 644
宽屏206
widescreen 206
维基百科596
Wikipedia 596
威廉·莫里斯经纪公司283
William Morris Agency 283
冬季电影421
Winter films 421
无线642
wireless 642
伍德法尔电影358
Woodfall Films 358
万维网289、600、620、623、627、662、663、667 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
World Wide Web 289, 600, 620, 623, 627, 662, 663, 667
WTBS 532
WTBS 532
X
X
Xbox 672
Xbox 672
是
Y
YouTube 42、287、567、601、603、604、674、675 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
YouTube 42, 287, 567, 601, 603, 604, 674, 675
Z
Z
蔡司94
Zeiss 94
拉链盘196
zip pan 196
与轨道224
versus track 224
人物指数
People Index
电影制片人、作家、演员等。
Filmmakers, authors, actors, and others.
A
A
詹姆斯·阿吉474
Agee, James 474
艾尔斯，罗杰558
Ailes, Roger 558
阿尔贝蒂，莱昂·巴蒂斯塔640
Alberti, Leon Battista 640
罗伯特·奥尔德里奇338
Aldrich, Robert 338
亚历山大·杰森573
Alexander, Jason 573
亚历山大·莎拉573
Alexander, Sarah 573
小艾伦、赫伯特278
Allen Jr, Herbert 278
Allen, Woody 126, 220, 389, 401
佩德罗·阿尔莫多瓦418
Almodóvar, Pedro 418
杏仁，保罗368
Almond, Paul 368
罗伯特奥特曼92、140、237、340、387、399、421、547、654、663、675 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Altman, Robert 92, 140, 237, 340, 387, 399, 421, 547, 654, 663, 675
詹尼·阿米科364
Amico, Gianni 364
阿姆斯特丹，莫雷537
Amsterdam, Morey 537
安德森，林赛358
Anderson, Lindsay 358
Anderson, Paul Thomas 428, 429
安德森、韦斯427、428、429 _ _
安德鲁，J.达德利441
Andrew, J. Dudley 441
愤怒，肯尼思355
Anger, Kenneth 355
米开朗基罗·安东尼奥尼103 , 107 , 130 , 186 , 206 , 208 , 221 , 235 , 362 , 367 , 675
Antonioni, Michelangelo 103, 107, 130, 186, 206, 208, 221, 235, 362, 367, 675
贾德·阿帕图422
Apatow, Judd 422
第394章
Apted, Michael 394
弗朗索瓦·阿拉戈46
Arago, François 46
阿巴克尔，胖子310
Arbuckle, Fatty 310
阿切尔·弗雷德里克·斯科特46
Archer, Frederick Scott 46
阿姆斯特朗，C.迈克尔668
Armstrong, C. Michael 668
埃德温·阿姆斯特朗498 , 517 , 643 , 646
Armstrong, Edwin 498, 517, 643, 646
阿娇阿姆斯特朗370
Armstrong, Gillian 370
小阿纳兹，德西650
Arnaz Jr, Desi 650
阿纳兹，德西535
Arnaz, Desi 535
Arnheim, Rudolf 205, 444–445, 646
安东尼·阿尔托60
Artaud, Antonin 60
哈尔阿什比390
Ashby, Hal 390
阿什蒂，克莱尔霍普239
Ashitey, Clare-Hope 239
弗雷德·阿斯泰尔226、297、333、335、342 _ _ _ _ _ _
Astaire, Fred 226, 297, 333, 335, 342
亚历山大·阿斯特鲁克357、420、462、649 _ _ _ _
Astruc, Alexandre 357, 420, 462, 649
理查德·阿滕伯勒414
Attenborough, Richard 414
奥尔、米莎214
Auer, Mischa 214
八月，比勒418
August, Bille 418
罗伯特·艾伦·亚瑟534
Aurthur, Robert Alan 534
奥坦-劳拉，克劳德118
Autant-Lara, Claude 118
奥特里，基因668
Autry, Gene 668
乔治·阿克塞尔罗德354
Axelrod, George 354
艾克伯恩，艾伦354
Ayckbourn, Alan 354
查尔斯·阿兹纳沃尔353
Aznavour, Charles 353
乙
B
劳伦·巴考尔332
Bacall, Lauren 332
史蒂文·巴赫277
Bach, Steven 277
贝克，拉文650
Baker, Lavern 650
拉尔夫·巴克希672
Bakshi, Ralph 672
迈克尔·巴尔肯647
Balcon, Michael 647
亚历克·鲍德温560
Baldwin, Alec 560
球，艾伦557
Ball, Alan 557
班克罗夫特，安妮384
Bancroft, Anne 384
安东尼奥·班德拉斯201
Banderas, Antonio 201
威尔理发师642
Barber, Will 642
巴布拉，霍斯特112
Barbulla, Horst 112
约翰·巴丁498
Bardeen, John 498
巴尔，罗珊娜570
Barr, Roseanne 570
德鲁·巴里摩尔308
Barrymore, Drew 308
彼得·巴特277
Bart, Peter 277
米哈伊尔·巴里什尼科夫38
Baryshnikov, Mikhail 38
金·贝辛格308
Basinger, Kim 308
安吉拉·巴塞特413
Bassett, Angela 413
西尔维娅·巴塔耶222
Bataille, Sylvia 222
马里奥·巴塔利567
Batali, Mario 567
埃米尔·博多641
Baudot, Émile 641
巴克斯特，安337
Baxter, Ann 337
安德烈·巴赞196 , 230 , 349 , 456 –462, 649
Bazin, André 196, 230, 349, 456–462, 649
披头士乐队、66、517、616 _ _
沃伦·比蒂397
Beatty, Warren 397
让·雅克·贝内克斯416
Beineix, Jean-Jacques 416
大卫·贝拉斯科59
Belasco, David 59
Bell, Alexander Graham 84, 179, 641
贝尔曼吉娜573
Bellman, Gina 573
雷蒙德·贝卢尔473
Bellour, Raymond 473
让·保罗·贝尔蒙多199 , 291 , 296 , 350 , 355
Belmondo, Jean-Paul 199, 291, 296, 350, 355
本杰明，罗伯特277
Benjamin, Robert 277
Benton, Robert 307, 338, 380, 398
玛丽莎·贝伦森95
Berenson, Marisa 95
布鲁斯·贝尔斯福德370
Beresford, Bruce 370
杰夫·伯格284
Berg, Jeff 284
卑尔根，坎迪斯305
Bergen, Candice 305
卑尔根，埃德加514
Bergen, Edgar 514
安德鲁·伯格曼380
Bergman, Andrew 380
英格玛·伯格曼53、103、106、133、182 –185、192 –193、222、325、344、346、364、389、615、675 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Bergman, Ingmar 53, 103, 106, 133, 182–185, 192–193, 222, 325, 344, 346, 364, 389, 615, 675
英格丽·褒曼328
Bergman, Ingrid 328
Berkeley, Busby 236, 329, 335, 646
伯利，米尔顿648
Berle, Milton 648
Berlusconi, Silvio 286, 417, 558, 664
莎拉·伯恩哈特267
Bernhardt, Sarah 267
威廉·伯恩斯坦277
Bernstein, William 277
吕克·贝松416
Besson, Luc 416
吉安弗兰科·贝蒂尼473
Bettetini, Gianfranco 473
布拉德·伯德423
Bird, Brad 423
伯金，简354
Birkin, Jane 354
杰奎琳·比塞特477
Bisset, Jacqueline 477
比特曼，马克567
Bittman, Mark 567
比约恩斯特兰德，贡纳尔222
Björnstrand, Gunnar 222
黑色，路易斯237
Black, Louis 237
布莱克蒙，火星410
Blackmon, Mars 410
布莱奇曼，RO150
Blechman, R. O.150
琼·布朗德尔304
Blondell, Joan 304
查尔斯·布卢多恩274
Bluhdorn, Charles 274
史蒂文·博赫科339、547、549、550、658 _ _ _ _ _ _
Bochco, Steven 339, 547, 549, 550, 658
汉斯·迈克尔·博克690
Bock, Hans-Michael 690
鲍嘉、汉弗莱291、296、332、350 _ _ _ _
Bogart, Humphrey 291, 296, 332, 350
彼得·博格丹诺维奇380
Bogdanovich, Peter 380
大卫·博姆克191
Bombyk, David 191
约翰·布尔曼360
Boorman, John 360
丹尼尔·布尔斯汀295
Boorstin, Daniel 295
查尔斯·布拉克特332
Brackett, Charles 332
布雷克特，利329
Brackett, Leigh 329
白兰度、马龙293、298、340、650、673、676 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Brando, Marlon 293, 298, 340, 650, 673, 676
乔·勃兰特266
Brandt, Joe 266
布拉斯基，尼科莱塔415
Braschi, Nicoletta 415
布拉顿，WH 498
Brattain, W. H. 498
布莱希特、贝托尔特60、313、466 _ _
罗伯特·布列松344
Bresson, Robert 344
让-克洛德·布里亚利205
Brialy, Jean-Claude 205
丹·布里克林582
Bricklin, Dan 582
桥梁杰夫391
Bridges Jeff 391
布里奇斯，克里斯“卢达克里斯” 431
Bridges, Chris “Ludacris” 431
詹姆斯·布里奇斯292
Bridges, James 292
西兰花，阿尔伯特392
Broccoli, Albert 392
赫伯特·布罗德金536
Brodkin, Herbert 536
布罗迪，阿德里安428
Brody, Adrien 428
雅各布·布罗诺夫斯基562
Bronowski, Jacob 562
布鲁克斯，詹姆斯L.402
Brooks, James L. 402
Brooks, Mel 237, 390, 434, 534
理查德·布鲁克斯（演员）551
Brooks, Richard (actor) 551
理查德·布鲁克斯（导演）388
Brooks, Richard (director) 388
布朗，H. Rap 564
Brown, H. Rap 564
Bruckheimer, Jerry 422, 556, 671
桑德拉·布洛克431
Bullock, Sandra 431
Buñuel, Luis 191, 324, 366, 373
爱德华·伯恩斯406
Burns, Edward 406
Burns, George 237, 514, 534, 666
理查德·伯顿379
Burton, Richard 379
弗雷德里克·布施56
Busch, Frederick 56
布什，万尼瓦尔581
Bush, Vannevar 581
布什内尔、诺兰655
Bushnell, Nolan 655
布兹，露丝542
Buzzi, Ruth 542
C
C
约翰·凯奇27
Cage, John 27
尼古拉斯·凯奇426
Cage, Nicolas 426
约翰·卡利667
Calley, John 667
Cameron, James 152, 395, 400, 405
简·坎皮恩416
Campion, Jane 416
阿尔伯特·加缪428
Camus, Albert 428
糖果，约翰409
Candy, John 409
乔治·坎塔里尼415
Cantarini, Giorgio 415
卡佩塔诺斯，莱昂143
Capetanos, Leon 143
Capra, Frank 312, 337, 646, 648
乔治·卡林517
Carlin, George 517
第542章朱迪·卡恩
Carne, Judy 542
卡尼，艺术339
Carney, Art 339
卡伦，格伦·戈登548
Caron, Glenn Gordon 548
卡西，马西570
Carsey, Marcy 570
Carson, Johnny 535, 537, 652, 663
卡维，达纳400
Carvey, Dana 400
案例，史蒂夫533
Case, Steve 533
赫尔曼·卡斯勒642
Casler, Herman 642
Cassavetes, John 349, 356, 388, 661
凯特罗尔，金302
Cattrall, Kim 302
蒂姆·考克韦尔690
Cawkwell, Tim 690
Chabrol, Claude 187, 349, 352, 462
查孔，胡安315
Chacón, Juan 315
陈成龙419
Chan, Jackie 419
查尔斯·卓别林263、290、295、322、323、646 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Chaplin, Charles 263, 290, 295, 322, 323, 646
康斯坦斯·玛丽·查彭蒂尔220
Charpentier, Constance Marie 220
Cheadle, Don 301, 305, 425, 428, 429, 431
陈凯歌419
Chen Kaige 419
樱桃，马克559
Cherry, Marc 559
孩子，朱莉娅553
Child, Julia 553
乔普拉、乔伊斯391
Chopra, Joyce 391
亨利·克雷蒂安118
Chrétien, Henri 118
克里斯蒂朱莉363
Christie, Julie 363
希蒂洛娃，维拉365
Chytilová, Vera 365
迈克尔·西米诺277
Cimino, Michael 277
克拉克，肯尼思562
Clark, Kenneth 562
克林顿、威廉·杰斐逊668
Clinton, William Jefferson 668
关闭，查克57
Close, Chuck 57
关闭，格伦304
Close, Glenn 304
亨利·乔治·克鲁佐204
Clouzot, Henri-Georges 204
雅克·克洛佐430
Cluzaud, Jacques 430
古柯、伊莫金534、535、649 _
罗伯特·科克伦557
Cochran, Robert 557
科恩、伊桑和乔尔405
Coen, Ethan and Joel 405
哈里·科恩266
Cohn, Harry 266
克里斯·哥伦布403
Columbus, Chris 403
康登，比尔424
Condon, Bill 424
弗兰克·康拉德524
Conrad, Frank 524
克里斯·库珀426
Cooper, Chris 426
库珀，梅里安 C. 118
Cooper, Merian C. 118
弗朗西斯·福特·科波拉42、140、237、281、342、374、382、390、393、546、658、675 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Coppola, Francis Ford 42, 140, 237, 281, 342, 374, 382, 390, 393, 546, 658, 675
Cosby, Bill 237, 400, 550, 660
Costa-Gavras, Constantin 314, 654
科斯特洛，多洛雷斯337
Costello, Dolores 337
凯文·科斯特纳340
Costner, Kevin 340
玛丽昂·歌迪亚416
Cotillard, Marion 416
约瑟夫·科顿213、337、338 _
雅克·库斯托430
Cousteau, Jacques 430
考克斯，内尔391
Cox, Nell 391
理查德·科伊尔573
Coyle, Richard 573
克拉布，巴斯特531
Crabbe, Buster 531
琼·克劳福德304
Crawford, Joan 304
海因里希·克莱默640
Cremer, Heinrich 640
克里亚莱塞，埃曼纽尔418
Crialese, Emmanuele 418
迈克尔·克莱顿655
Crichton, Michael 655
克鲁兹，佩内洛普418
Cruz, Penelope 418
乔恩·克莱尔573
Cryer, Jon 573
乔治·库克204
Cukor, George 204
科廷，简546
Curtin, Jane 546
约翰·库萨克429
Cusack, John 429
D
D
奥利维尔·大汉416
Dahan, Olivier 416
罗伯特·戴利A.670
Daly, Robert A. 670
达蒙，马特406
Damon, Matt 406
丹恩·迈克尔528
Dann, Michael 528
达尔克，米雷耶220
Darc, Mireille 220
达辛，朱尔斯338
Dassin, Jules 338
杰克·达文波特573
Davenport, Jack 573
大卫·雅克·路易斯204
David, Jacques-Louis 204
大卫·拉里557
David, Larry 557
戴维斯，吉娜307
Davis, Geena 307
戴维斯，马丁S.280
Davis, Martin S. 280
戴维斯，奥西370
Davis, Ossie 370
彼得·戴维斯390
Davis, Peter 390
爱德华·戴斯38
Dayes, Edward 38
丹尼尔·戴刘易斯389
Day-Lewis, Daniel 389
若阿金·佩德罗·德·安德拉德366
de Andrade, Joaquim Pedro 366
De Forest, Lee 138, 270, 498, 642
德哈维兰，奥利维亚648
de Havilland, Olivia 648
费迪南德·索绪尔72
de Saussure, Ferdinand 72
Dean, James 292, 298, 650, 676
辩论，米歇尔430
Debats, Michel 430
安德烈·德布里118
Debrie, André 118
德尔·托罗，吉列尔莫420
del Toro, Guillermo 420
德莱尼，谢拉358
Delaney, Shelagh 358
德拉·波塔，乔瓦尼·巴蒂斯塔81
della Porta, Giovanni Battista 81
路易斯·德卢克441
Delluc, Louis 441
阿兰·德龙206
Delon, Alain 206
德米尔，塞西尔B.322
DeMille, Cecil B. 322
乔纳森·戴米404
Demme, Jonathan 404
朱迪·丹奇304
Dench, Judi 304
热拉尔·德帕迪约296
Depardieu, Gérard 296
约翰尼·德普422
Depp, Johnny 422
德仁，玛雅648
Deren, Maya 648
钻石，IAL 332
Diamond, I. A.L. 332
安吉·迪金森199
Dickinson, Angie 199
迪生, 西九龙85 , 103 , 256 , 641 , 642
Dickson, W. K. L. 85, 103, 256, 641, 642
卡洛斯·迪格366
Diégues, Carlos 366
威廉·迪特勒269
Dieterle, William 269
巴里·迪勒280、281、521、531、594、626、660、663、664、668 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Diller, Barry 280, 281, 521, 531, 594, 626, 660, 663, 664, 668
狄龙，马特431
Dillon, Matt 431
迪士尼，沃尔特645
Disney, Walt 645
菲尔·多纳休552
Donahue, Phil 552
Doniol-Valcroze, Jacques 461, 649
约恩·唐纳364
Donner, Jörn 364
多斯桑托斯，纳尔逊·佩雷拉366
dos Santos, Nelson Pereira 366
亚历山大·多夫任科326
Dovzhenko, Alexander 326
德拉宾斯基，加斯669
Drabinsky, Garth 669
罗伯特·德鲁356
Drew, Robert 356
达里尔杜克369
Duke, Darryl 369
杜拉克，杰曼324
Dulac, Germaine 324
杜拉，凯尔634
Dullea, Keir 634
艾琳·邓恩304
Dunne, Irene 304
杜邦，EA 269
Dupont, E. A. 269
罗曼·杜里斯417
Duris, Romain 417
理查德·戴尔296
Dyer, Richard 296
鲍勃·迪伦584
Dylan, Bob 584
乔治·敦扎551
Dzundza, George 551
乙
E
Eastman, George 83, 116, 260, 641
Ebert, Roger 474, 552, 657, 669
杰克·艾伯茨286
Eberts, Jake 286
托马斯·爱迪生83 , 84 , 85 , 256 , 257 , 310 , 319 , 490 , 494 , 641
Edison, Thomas 83, 84, 85, 256, 257, 310, 319, 490, 494, 641
艾格峰，罗伯特673
Eiger, Robert 673
谢尔盖·爱森斯坦64 , 244 , 325 , 437 , 449 –454, 461
Eisenstein, Sergei 64, 244, 325, 437, 449–454, 461
迈克尔·艾斯纳266、280、284、342、660、673 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Eisner, Michael 266, 280, 284, 342, 660, 673
杜克大学艾灵顿78
Ellington, Duke 78
罗伯特·埃尔斯维特135
Elswit, Robert 135
伊曼纽尔，阿里284
Emmanuel, Ari 284
道格拉斯·恩格尔巴特581
Engelbart, Douglas 581
爱泼斯坦，让324
Epstein, Jean 324
詹妮弗·埃斯波西托431
Esposito, Jennifer 431
尤斯塔什，让372
Eustache, Jean 372
F
F
Fairbanks, Douglas 263, 265, 290, 295, 322
法尔科，伊迪561
Falco, Edie 561
彼得·福克541
Falk, Peter 541
迈克尔·法拉第103
Faraday, Michael 103
曼尼·法伯474
Farber, Manny 474
法恩斯沃斯，菲罗 T. 500
Farnsworth, Philo T. 500
法罗，米娅389
Farrow, Mia 389
Fassbinder, Rainer Werner 373, 659
威廉·福克纳329
Faulkner, William 329
萨姆·费迪达620
Fedida, Sam 620
费德里科·费里尼145 , 222 , 344 , 346 , 347 , 362 , 663
Fellini, Federico 145, 222, 344, 346, 347, 362, 663
弗格森·奥蒂斯474
Ferguson, Otis 474
米格尔·费雷尔429
Ferrer, Miguel 429
路易·福亚德319
Feuillade, Louis 319
莎莉·菲尔德306
Field, Sally 306
字段，WC 333
Fields, W. C. 333
拉尔夫·费因斯303
Fiennes, Ralph 303
第671章
Figgis, Mike 671
凡士通，信达391
Firestone, Cinda 391
Flaherty, Robert 135, 323, 430, 644, 646
维克多·弗莱明647
Fleming, Victor 647
罗伯特·弗洛里269
Florey, Robert 269
福特·哈里森365
Ford, Harrison 365
福特、约翰270、303、329、340、341、647 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Ford, John 270, 303, 329, 340, 341, 647
福尔曼，米洛斯365
Forman, Milos 365
马克·福斯特414、427、429 _ _
福赛斯，比尔413
Forsyth, Bill 413
朱迪·福斯特411
Foster, Jodie 411
威廉·福克斯262
Fox, William 262
杰米·福克斯301
Foxx, Jamie 301
法国奥尔多367
Francia, Aldo 367
乔治·弗兰朱647
Franju, Georges 647
鲍勃·弗兰克斯顿582
Frankston, Bob 582
弗雷泽，布伦丹431
Fraser, Brendan 431
亚瑟·弗里德341
Freed, Arthur 341
弗里兰，桑顿335
Freeland, Thornton 335
小弗里曼，阿尔410
Freeman Jr, Al 410
摩根·弗里曼301
Freeman, Morgan 301
友好的弗雷德649
Friendly, Fred 649
威廉·弗里斯·格林257
Friese-Greene, William 257
弗斯曼，朱尔斯329
Furthman, Jules 329
G
G
克拉克·盖博296
Gable, Clark 296
冈斯、阿贝尔118、124、324、658 _ _ _ _
Gance, Abel 118, 124, 324, 658
詹姆斯·甘多菲尼561
Gandolfini, James 561
Garbo, Greta 59, 269, 325, 644
加菲猫，约翰338
Garfield, John 338
加芬克尔，艺术379
Garfunkel, Art 379
詹姆斯·加纳541
Garner, James 541
第676章
Garrone, Matteo 676
盖茨，比尔70、582、656、670 _ _ _ _
让·热内57
Genet, Jean 57
乔治·皮科，奥尔加359
Georges-Picot, Olga 359
彼得罗·杰米362
Germi, Pietro 362
梅尔·吉布森396
Gibson, Mel 396
威廉·吉布森660
Gibson, William 660
吉尔伯特·克雷格569
Gilbert, Craig 569
佩内洛普·吉利亚特358
Gilliatt, Penelope 358
弗兰克·吉尔罗伊D.534
Gilroy, Frank D. 534
托尼·吉尔罗伊424
Gilroy, Tony 424
吉什，莉莲59
Gish, Lillian 59
菲利普·格拉斯659
Glass, Philip 659
杰基·格里森534
Gleason, Jackie 534
丹尼·格洛弗396
Glover, Danny 396
让-吕克·戈达尔69、91、93、189、196、199、205、209、220、225、227、241、296、298、349、350、377、448、462、463 –46 8 , 517 , 579 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , 580 , 603 , 607 , 608 , 623
Godard, Jean-Luc 69, 91, 93, 189, 196, 199, 205, 209, 220, 225, 227, 241, 296, 298, 349, 350, 377, 448, 462, 463–468, 517, 579, 580, 603, 607, 608, 623
亚瑟·戈弗雷535
Godfrey, Arthur 535
塞缪尔·戈德温263
Goldwyn, Samuel 263
米歇尔·冈德里426
Gondry, Michel 426
巩俐419
Gong Li 419
小古丁，古巴412
Gooding Jr, Cuba 412
约翰·古德曼570
Goodman, John 570
克劳德·戈雷塔375
Goretta, Claude 375
弗雷德里克·古迪605
Goudy, Frederick 605
戴夫·古尔德335
Gould, Dave 335
等级，卢勋爵285
Grade, Lord Lew 285
彼得·格雷厄姆462
Graham, Peter 462
格兰特、卡里248、297、312、328、348 _ _ _ _ _ _
Grant, Cary 248, 297, 312, 328, 348
草，君特373
Grass, Günter 373
格雷，以利沙84
Gray, Elisha 84
保罗·格林格拉斯421
Greengrass, Paul 421
罗伯特·格林沃尔德316
Greenwald, Robert 316
格里尔，杰曼555
Greer, Germaine 555
约翰·格里尔森314、326、430、443、446 _ _ _ _ _ _
Grierson, John 314, 326, 430, 443, 446
格里菲斯, DW 32 , 48 , 117 , 121 , 262 , 263 , 320 , 436 , 442 , 642 , 643
Griffith, D. W. 32, 48, 117, 121, 262, 263, 320, 436, 442, 642, 643
桑尼·格罗索538
Grosso, Sonny 538
彼得·古贝尔279
Guber, Peter 279
鲁伊格拉366
Guerra, Ruy 366
亚历克·吉尼斯344
Guinness, Alec 344
约翰·古腾堡483
Gutenberg, Johann 483
古铁雷斯·阿利亚，托马斯368
Gutiérrez Alea, Tomás 368
路易斯·古兹曼429
Guzmán, Luis 429
H
H
琼·哈克特198
Hackett, Joan 198
哈尔667
HAL 667
亚历克斯·海莉656
Haley, Alex 656
霍尔斯特伦，莱塞418
Hallström, Lasse 418
达希尔哈米特338
Hammett, Dashiell 338
彼得·汉德克374
Handke, Peter 374
阿尔让·哈梅兹676
Harmetz, Aljean 676
亨利·海瑟薇340
Hathaway, Henry 340
莫里斯·哈顿360
Hatton, Maurice 360
约翰·霍克斯429
Hawkes, John 429
Hawks, Howard 291, 329, 331, 646
本·赫克特646
Hecht, Ben 646
艾米·赫克林414
Heckerling, Amy 414
赫尔曼，蒙特380
Hellman, Monte 380
赫尔姆，扎克427
Helm, Zach 427
大卫·海明斯367
Hemmings, David 367
亨利·巴克378
Henry, Buck 378
奥黛丽·赫本361
Hepburn, Audrey 361
伯纳德·赫尔曼203
Herrmann, Bernard 203
马歇尔·赫斯科维茨548 , 549 , 550 , 600
Herskovitz, Marshall 548, 549, 550, 600
维尔纳·赫尔佐格374
Herzog, Werner 374
贾里德·赫斯424
Hess, Jared 424
希尔，WE 172
Hill, W. E. 172
赫希菲尔德，艾伦 J. 276
Hirschfield, Alan J. 276
希区柯克，阿尔弗雷德91，121，141，179，190，196，213，213，231，233，233，248，326，327，344，348，354，354，455，473，473，645，647，647，647，658，658 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Hitchcock, Alfred 91, 121, 141, 179, 190, 196, 213, 231, 233, 248, 326, 327, 344, 348, 354, 455, 473, 645, 647, 658
霍奇斯，迈克204
Hodges, Mike 204
锄，理查德·马奇483
Hoe, Richard March 483
达斯汀·霍夫曼307、378、384、402、427 _ _ _ _ _ _
Hoffman, Dustin 307, 378, 384, 402, 427
蒂姆·霍尔特337
Holt, Tim 337
希望，鲍勃673
Hope, Bob 673
丹尼斯·霍珀380
Hopper, Dennis 380
威廉·霍纳83
Horner, William 83
鲍勃·霍斯金斯403
Hoskins, Bob 403
霍华德罗恩402
Howard, Ron 402
霍华德，特伦斯431
Howard, Terrence 431
威廉·哈德逊170
Hudson, William 170
Hughes, Howard 266, 274, 331, 649
约翰·休斯239、403、409 _ _
丹妮尔于耶372
Huillet, Danièle 372
亨特，海伦402
Hunt, Helen 402
赫胥黎，奥尔德斯567
Huxley, Aldous 567
艾略特·海曼274
Hyman, Eliot 274
我
I
罗伯特·伊勒561
Iler, Robert 561
伊梅森，乔690
Imeson, Jo 690
Iñárritu, Alejandro González 420, 429
托马斯·因斯303
Ince, Thomas 303
欧文，313 年5 月
Irwin, May 313
凯特·伊西特573
Isitt, Kate 573
J
J
迈克尔·杰克逊660
Jackson, Michael 660
杰克逊，塞缪尔 L. 301
Jackson, Samuel L. 301
卢克·雅凯430
Jacquet, Luc 430
亨利·贾格洛姆380
Jaglom, Henry 380
贾马尔·华纳，马尔科姆570
Jamal-Warner, Malcolm 570
亨利·詹姆斯641
James, Henry 641
贾罗德，朱利安415
Jarrold, Julian 415
詹金斯，塔玛拉424
Jenkins, Tamara 424
詹宁斯，汉弗莱326
Jennings, Humphrey 326
让·皮埃尔·热内416
Jeunet, Jean-Pierre 416
诺曼·杰维森242
Jewison, Norman 242
贾布瓦拉，露丝·普劳尔415
Jhabvala, Ruth Prawer 415
乔布斯，史蒂文422、582、595、665、667、668 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Jobs, Steven 422, 582, 595, 665, 667, 668
乔斯林安德烈187
Jocelyn, André 187
琼斯，安格斯T.573
Jones, Angus T. 573
琼斯，杜安383
Jones, Duane 383
汤米·李·琼斯305
Jones, Tommy Lee 305
琼斯，斯派克426
Jonze, Spike 426
贾德，阿什利427
Judd, Ashley 427
克劳德·尤特拉368
Jutra, Claude 368
K
K
凯尔、宝琳474、672、690 _
菲尔·卡尔森338
Karlson, Phil 338
卡尔马津，梅尔671
Karmazin, Mel 671
Kasdan, Lawrence 239, 394, 659
卡茨，以法莲690
Katz, Ephraim 690
Katzenberg, Jeffrey 266, 281, 660, 664
唐纳德·考夫曼426
Kaufman, Donald 426
菲利普·考夫曼390
Kaufman, Philip 390
考里斯马基，阿基419
Kaurismäki, Aki 419
凯艾伦595
Kay, Alan 595
卡赞扎基斯，尼科斯381
Kazantzakis, Nikos 381
基顿、巴斯特50、322、481 _
黛安·基顿220、302、389 _
约翰·济慈50
Keats, John 50
Keillor, Garrison 236, 388, 675
凯利，大卫E.553
Kelley, David E. 553
凯莉·格蕾丝230
Kelly, Grace 230
科克里安、柯克275、654、658、661、662、666 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Kerkorian, Kirk 275, 654, 658, 661, 662, 666
青蛙克米特407
Kermit the Frog 407
欧文·克什纳368
Kershner, Irvin 368
第666章
Kidder, Margot 666
妮可·基德曼304
Kidman, Nicole 304
胡金371
King Hu 371
艾伦·金368
King, Allan 368
亨利·金340
King, Henry 340
金，拉里427
King, Larry 427
克莱因，内奥米474
Klein, Naomi 474
克莱恩，乔治260
Kleine, George 260
亚历山大·克鲁格372
Kluge, Alexander 372
弗里德里希国王483
König, Friedrich 483
考夫曼，EB 642
Koopman, E. B. 642
埃里希·沃尔夫冈·科恩戈尔德238
Korngold, Erich Wolfgang 238
约翰·科蒂390
Korty, John 390
特德·科切夫368
Kotcheff, Ted 368
Kracauer, Siegfried 237, 444–448
亚瑟·克里姆277
Krim, Arthur 277
克里斯托弗，迈克尔201
Kristofer, Michael 201
罗伯特·克鲁维奇236
Krulwich, Robert 236
斯坦利·库布里克39、64、94、95、97、107、141、149、200、226、231、341、359、388、667、669 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Kubrick, Stanley 39, 64, 94, 95, 97, 107, 141, 149, 200, 226, 231, 341, 359, 388, 667, 669
昆德拉，米兰56
Kundera, Milan 56
L
L
马塞尔·勒尔比尔648
L’Herbier, Marcel 648
尼尔·拉布特424
LaBute, Neil 424
伯纳黛特·拉丰375
Lafont, Bernadette 375
湖，维罗妮卡333
Lake, Veronica 333
索尔·兰道390
Landau, Saul 390
弗里茨·朗269、324、338、644 _ _ _ _
Lang, Fritz 269, 324, 338, 644
哈利·兰登322
Langdon, Harry 322
亨利·朗格卢瓦647
Langlois, Henri 647
劳拉，亚历山德拉玛丽亚393
Lara, Alexandra Maria 393
杰西·拉斯基262
Lasky, Jesse 262
让·马里·拉瓦卢111
Lavalou, Jean-Marie 111
法，菲利达414
Law, Phyllida 414
路易斯·奥古斯丁·勒普林斯257
Le Prince, Louis Augustin 257
理查德·利科克356
Leacock, Richard 356
蒂莫西·利里666
Leary, Timothy 666
让-皮埃尔·利奥249 , 349 , 351 , 375 , 459
Léaud, Jean-Pierre 249, 349, 351, 375, 459
李斯派克299 , 301 , 400 , 407 , 409 , 413 , 661 , 675
Lee, Spike 299, 301, 400, 407, 409, 413, 661, 675
雷曼，欧内斯特349
Lehman, Ernest 349
利，珍妮特198
Leigh, Janet 198
利·迈克413
Leigh, Mike 413
莱森，米切尔331
Leisen, Mitchell 331
杰伊莱诺537
Leno, Jay 537
塞尔吉奥·莱昂340
Leone, Sergio 340
劳伦斯·莱斯格604
Lessig, Lawrence 604
莱斯特、杰瑞537
Lester, Jerry 537
莱斯特、理查德50、237、241、360、363 _ _ _ _ _ _
Lester, Richard 50, 237, 241, 360, 363
丹妮丝·莱维托夫41
Levertov, Denise 41
克洛德·列维·斯特劳斯468
Lévi-Strauss, Claude 468
刘易斯，杰里377
Lewis, Jerry 377
利布林, AJ 628
Liebling, A. J. 628
利布曼，马克斯534
Liebman, Max 534
林德，最大320
Linder, Max 320
理查德·林克莱特406
Linklater, Richard 406
劳拉·林尼304
Linney, Laura 304
米格尔·利廷368
Littín, Miguel 368
哈罗德·劳埃德322
Lloyd, Harold 322
洛杜卡，约瑟夫·玛丽461
Lo Duca, Joseph-Marie 461
勒夫、马库斯262
Loew, Marcus 262
卡罗尔伦巴第 304
Lombard, Carole 304
尼亚龙412
Long, Nia 412
蕾妮·隆加里尼222
Longarini, Renée 222
詹妮弗·洛佩兹303
Lopez, Jennifer 303
约瑟夫·洛西358
Losey, Joseph 358
路易斯-德雷福斯，朱莉娅573
Louis-Dreyfus, Julia 573
洛伊，米尔纳304
Loy, Myrna 304
卢卡斯·乔治140 , 164 , 239 , 352 , 384 , 398 , 531 , 670
Lucas, George 140, 164, 239, 352, 384, 398, 531, 670
奥古斯特·卢米埃尔和路易45 , 103 , 257 , 292 , 318 , 320 , 442 , 609 , 641
Lumière, Auguste and Louis 45, 103, 257, 292, 318, 320, 442, 609, 641
林恩·迈克尔653
Lynne, Michael 653
中号
M
查尔斯·麦克阿瑟646
MacArthur, Charles 646
麦克唐纳、德怀特474
Macdonald, Dwight 474
凯文·麦克唐纳425
Macdonald, Kevin 425
安迪·麦克道尔410
MacDowell, Andie 410
麦克雷恩雪莉308
MacLaine, Shirley 308
约翰·麦登416
Madden, John 416
麦当娜308
Madonna 308
安娜·马格纳尼336
Magnani, Anna 336
伯纳德·马拉默德404
Malamud, Bernard 404
伦纳德·马尔丁690
Maltin, Leonard 690
马穆利安, 鲁本342
Mamoulian, Rouben 342
杰瑞·曼德565
Mander, Jerry 565
曼，安东尼340
Mann, Anthony 340
曼维尔，罗杰690
Manvell, Roger 690
Marconi, Guglielmo 491, 497, 642
格雷戈里·马科普洛斯355
Markopoulos, Gregory 355
马歇尔，加里402
Marshall, Garry 402
马歇尔，罗布424
Marshall, Rob 424
马丁，史蒂夫517
Martin, Steve 517
马文，亨利N.642
Marvin, Henry N. 642
马克思兄弟，333
Marx Brothers, The 333
阿兰·马塞龙111
Masseron, Alain 111
Mastroianni, Marcello 222, 296, 346, 667
成熟，维克多126
Mature, Victor 126
麦克斯韦，詹姆斯·克拉克497
Maxwell, James Clerk 497
卡尔·梅尔324
Mayer, Carl 324
梅耶尔，路易斯B.262
Mayer, Louis B. 262
阿奇·梅奥40
Mayo, Archie 40
阿尔伯特·梅索斯和大卫·梅索斯356
Maysles, Albert and David 356
保罗·马祖斯基143、388、408 _ _
麦卡里，狮子座331
McCarey, Leo 331
查理·麦卡锡514
McCarthy, Charlie 514
大卫·麦克林蒂克277
McClintick, David 277
苏珊娜·麦科克尔78
McCorkle, Susannah 78
乔尔·麦克雷333
McCrea, Joel 333
麦克道尔，马尔科姆107
McDowell, Malcolm 107
麦凯，温莎643
McKay, Winsor 643
唐·麦克莱恩298
McLean, Don 298
约翰·麦克蒂尔南400
McTiernan, John 400
迈克·麦达沃伊277
Medavoy, Mike 277
梅卡斯、乔纳斯和阿道法斯355
Mekas, Jonas and Adolfas 355
乔治·梅里爱49 , 258 , 260 , 292 , 318 , 442 607 , 609 , 642
Méliès, Georges 49, 258, 260, 292, 318, 442 607, 609, 642
让·皮埃尔·梅尔维尔219
Melville, Jean-Pierre 219
梅尔文·默里95
Melvin, Murray 95
门肯，HL 644
Mencken, H. L. 644
吉里·门泽尔365
Menzel, Jirí 365
大卫·默瑟353
Mercer, David 353
商人，伊斯梅尔415
Merchant, Ismail 415
梅里尔，马查209
Meril, Macha 209
玛尔塔梅萨罗斯365
Meszarós, Marta 365
梅斯, 克里斯蒂安176 , 178 , 183 , 185 , 235 242 , 244 , 436 , 468 –473, 653
Metz, Christian 176, 178, 183, 185, 235 242, 244, 436, 468–473, 653
安东尼奥·梅乌奇84
Meucci, Antonio 84
保罗·默里斯198
Meurisse, Paul 198
梅耶荷德，弗谢沃洛德325
Meyerhold, Vsevolod 325
南希·迈耶斯302
Meyers, Nancy 302
迈克尔斯，洛美546
Michaels, Lome 546
米耶维尔，安妮玛丽351
Miéville, Anne-Marie 351
迈尔斯，本573
Miles, Ben 573
约翰·米利厄斯382
Milius, John 382
迈克尔·米尔肯284
Milken, Michael 284
大卫·米勒340
Miller, David 340
乔治·米勒416
Miller, George 416
第589章
Mimieux, Yvette 589
牛顿米诺519
Minow, Newton 519
海伦·米伦304
Mirren, Helen 304
罗伯特·米彻姆667
Mitchum, Robert 667
米特拉尼，米歇尔372
Mitrani, Michel 372
让·米特里647
Mitry, Jean 647
沟口贤治343
Mizoguchi, Kenji 343
史蒂文·莫法特573
Moffat, Steven 573
安德鲁·莫洛358
Mollo, Andrew 358
摩纳哥，安德鲁666
Monaco, Andrew 666
摩纳哥，詹姆斯296
Monaco, James 296
摩纳哥，帕斯夸莱418
Monaco, Pasquale 418
克劳德·莫奈47
Monet, Claude 47
马里奥·莫尼切利364
Monicelli, Mario 364
朱利亚诺·蒙塔尔多364
Montaldo, Giuliano 364
伊夫·蒙当296
Montand, Yves 296
Montgomery, Robert 54, 59, 233
摩尔，黛米308
Moore, Demi 308
摩尔，朱丽安304
Moore, Julianne 304
摩尔，玛丽·泰勒574
Moore, Mary Tyler 574
摩尔、迈克尔315、316、429、672、673、675 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Moore, Michael 315, 316, 429, 672, 673, 675
艾格尼丝·穆尔黑德337
Moorehead, Agnes 337
更多，肯尼思569
More, Kenneth 569
珍妮·莫罗296
Moreau, Jeanne 296
迈克尔·莫里亚蒂551
Moriarty, Michael 551
埃德加·莫兰357
Morin, Edgar 357
森田昭夫648
Morita, Akio 648
莫里斯，埃罗尔672
Morris, Erroll 672
莫里斯，加勒特546
Morris, Garrett 546
摩西，露西娅·林恩295
Moses, Lucia Lynn 295
老鼠，米奇286
Mouse, Mickey 286
穆西纳克，莱昂441
Moussinac, Léon 441
莫耶斯，比尔554
Moyers, Bill 554
穆埃，乌尔里希419
Mühe, Ulrich 419
保罗·穆尼275
Muni, Paul 275
明斯特伯格，雨果439 –441
Münsterberg, Hugo 439–441
默多克、鲁珀特279、280、282、530、552、557、626、660、661、663、670 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Murdoch, Rupert 279, 280, 282, 530, 552, 557, 626, 660, 661, 663, 670
穆尔瑙, FW 227 , 231 , 269 , 323 , 324 , 457 , 646
Murnau, F. W. 227, 231, 269, 323, 324, 457, 646
Murrow, Edward R. 647, 648, 649
Muybridge, Eadweard 55, 83, 641
迈克·迈尔斯400
Myers, Mike 400
氮
N
弗拉基米尔·纳博科夫374
Nabokov, Vladimir 374
南卡罗，康伦65
Nancarrow, Conlon 65
纳什，杰·罗伯特690
Nash, Jay Robert 690
内克尔，洛杉矶172
Necker, L.A. 172
李约瑟，山口690
Needham, Col 690
利亚姆·尼森397
Neeson, Liam 397
尼葛洛庞帝，尼古拉斯657
Negroponte, Nicholas 657
尼尔森，阿斯塔328
Neilsen, Asta 328
纽曼，拉瑞恩546
Newman, Laraine 546
Newman, Paul 92, 306, 338, 676
兰迪·纽曼672
Newman, Randy 672
尼凯蒂，毛里齐奥417
Nichetti, Maurizio 417
迈克·尼科尔斯237、378、384、414、517、673
Nichols, Mike 237, 378, 384, 414, 517, 673
Nicholson, Jack 379, 380, 395, 402
约瑟夫·尼埃普斯82
Nièpce, Joseph 82
克里斯托弗·诺兰425
Nolan, Christopher 425
诺曼，马克416
Norman, Marc 416
诺斯，克里斯551
Noth, Chris 551
菲利普·诺伊斯370
Noyce, Phillip 370
氧
O
柯南·奥布莱恩537
O’Brien, Conan 537
玛格丽特·奥布莱恩218
O’Brien, Margaret 218
奥康纳，卡罗尔569
O’Connor, Carroll 569
哦，桑德拉304
Oh, Sandra 304
劳伦斯·奥利维尔73
Olivier, Laurence 73
奥菲尔斯，马塞尔372
Ophüls, Marcel 372
奥尔特加·加塞特，何塞491
Ortega y Gasset, José 491
约翰·奥斯本358
Osborne, John 358
大岛渚371
Oshima, Nagisa 371
迈克尔·奥维茨279、284、664、669、672 _ _ _ _ _ _
Ovitz, Michael 279, 284, 664, 669, 672
克莱夫·欧文239
Owen, Clive 239
唐欧文368
Owen, Don 368
磷
P
帕布斯特，GW 324
Pabst, G. W. 324
艾尔·帕西诺201
Pacino, Al 201
马塞尔·帕尼奥尔327
Pagnol, Marcel 327
白南六月653
Paik, Nam June 653
乔治·帕尔341
Pal, George 341
威廉·佩利S.504、528、530、662 _ _ _ _
Paley, William S. 504, 528, 530, 662
布鲁斯·帕特洛547
Paltrow, Bruce 547
格温妮丝·帕特洛416
Paltrow, Gwyneth 416
谢尔盖·帕拉扎诺夫366
Paradzhanov, Sergei 366
艾伦·帕克394
Parker, Alan 394
老帕克斯，戈登376
Parks Sr, Gordon 376
Parretti, Giancarlo 276, 417, 662
伊万·帕瑟365
Passer, Ivan 365
查尔斯·百代258
Pathé, Charles 258
亚历山大·佩恩674
Payne, Alexander 674
菲利普·珀尔斯坦56
Pearlstein, Philip 56
佩克，格雷戈里231
Peck, Gregory 231
萨姆·佩金帕340
Peckinpah, Sam 340
佩德罗·德·安德拉德，若阿金366
Pedro de Andrade, Joaquim 366
皮尔斯，CS 184
Peirce, C. S. 184
Penn, Arthur 340, 355, 378, 534
弗兰克·佩雷吉尼295
Peregini, Frank 295
佩雷拉·多斯桑托斯，纳尔逊366
Pereira dos Santos, Nelson 366
安东尼·帕金斯204
Perkins, Anthony 204
雅克·佩兰113、114、416、430 _ _ _ _
Perrin, Jacques 113, 114, 416, 430
佩里、弗兰克和埃莉诺378
Perry, Frank and Eleanor 378
乔恩·彼得斯279
Peters, Jon 279
沃尔夫冈·彼得森417
Petersen, Wolfgang 417
佩特里·埃利奥364
Petri, Elio 364
米歇尔·菲佛389
Pfeiffer, Michelle 389
第645章
Pfleumer, Fritz 645
玛丽·皮克福德263、265、295、297、322 _ _ _ _ _ _
Pickford, Mary 263, 265, 295, 297, 322
小猪，407小姐
Piggy, Miss 407
423 年1 月平卡瓦
Pinkava, Jan 423
哈罗德·品特359
Pinter, Harold 359
第434章
Pintoff, Ernest 434
Pirandello, Luigi 59, 427, 542
皮西尔，玛丽-法国199
Pisier, Marie-France 199
布拉德·皮特429
Pitt, Brad 429
皮茨，扎苏325
Pitts, Zasu 325
埃里克·普莱斯科夫277
Pleskow, Eric 277
悉尼普瓦捷672
Poitier, Sidney 672
波拉克, 悉尼390
Pollack, Sydney 390
蓬泰科尔沃，吉洛364
Pontecorvo, Gillo 364
569埃里克·波特
Porter, Eric 569
波特，尼里黎明569
Porter, Nyree Dawn 569
哈利·艾伦·波塔姆金474
Potamkin, Harry Alan 474
弗兰卡·波坦特418
Potente, Franka 418
波特，丹尼斯354
Potter, Dennis 354
波尔森，瓦尔德马642
Poulsen, Valdemar 642
普劳·贾布瓦拉，露丝415
Prawer Jhabvala, Ruth 415
奥托·普雷明格342
Preminger, Otto 342
雅克·普雷韦尔327
Prévert, Jacques 327
价格，理查德411
Price, Richard 411
理查德·普赖尔400
Pryor, Richard 400
Pudovkin, V. I. 244, 325, 449–452
马里奥·普佐670
Puzo, Mario 670
毕达哥拉斯118
Pythagoras 118
右
R
兔子，罗杰403
Rabbit, Roger 403
拉斐尔森，鲍勃380
Rafelson, Bob 380
乔治·拉夫特331
Raft, George 331
山姆·雷米422
Raimi, Sam 422
弗雷德里克·拉斐尔358
Raphael, Frederic 358
拉沙德，菲利西亚570
Rashad, Phylicia 570
雷曼324
Ray, Man 324
雷·萨蒂亚吉特343
Ray, Satyajit 343
里根、罗纳德658
Reagan, Ronald 658
瓦妮莎·雷德格雷夫367
Redgrave, Vanessa 367
红石、萨姆纳280、281、531、661、664、674 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Redstone, Sumner 280, 281, 531, 661, 664, 674
卡罗尔·里德338
Reed, Carol 338
克里斯托弗·里夫666
Reeve, Christopher 666
第632章基努·里维斯
Reeves, Keanu 632
雷吉奥，戈弗雷659
Reggio, Godfrey 659
朱莉娅·赖克特391
Reichert, Julia 391
沃尔特·赖曼324
Reimann, Walter 324
Reitman, Ivan 200, 369, 398, 406
雷兰德，奥斯卡G.47
Rejlander, Oscar G. 47
雷米423
Remy 423
奥古斯特·雷诺阿47
Renoir, Auguste 47
Renoir, Jean 208, 326, 330, 647
阿兰·雷乃349、353、357、359、425 _ _ _ _ _
Resnais, Alain 349, 353, 357, 359, 425
雷韦尔塔斯，罗莎拉315
Revueltas, Rosaura 315
雷诺，埃米尔83
Reynaud, Émile 83
约翰·赖斯313
Rice, John 313
克劳德·里奇359
Rich, Claude 359
弗兰克·里奇474
Rich, Frank 474
迈克尔·理查兹573
Richards, Michael 573
托尼·理查森358
Richardson, Tony 358
汉斯·里克特64
Richter, Hans 64
莱尼·里芬斯塔尔646
Riefenstahl, Leni 646
里西尼洛364
Risi, Nelo 364
雅克·里维特349、352、462 _ _
Rivette, Jacques 349, 352, 462
罗奇，哈尔322
Roach, Hal 322
蒂姆·罗宾斯399
Robbins, Tim 399
布莱恩·罗伯茨532
Roberts, Brian 532
罗伯茨，朱莉娅201
Roberts, Julia 201
布鲁斯·罗宾逊413
Robinson, Bruce 413
罗宾逊，菲尔·奥尔登405
Robinson, Phil Alden 405
罗查，格劳伯366
Rocha, Glauber 366
摇滚，克里斯400
Rock, Chris 400
尼古拉斯·罗伊格361
Roeg, Nicolas 361
罗杰斯，姜335
Rogers, Ginger 335
罗杰斯，罗伊668
Rogers, Roy 668
威尔罗杰斯644
Rogers, Will 644
彼得·马克·罗杰103
Roget, Peter Mark 103
埃里克·侯麦349 , 352 , 394 , 462 , 670
Rohmer, Eric 349, 352, 394, 462, 670
沃尔特·罗里格324
Röhrig, Walter 324
乔治·罗斯481
Rose, George 481
罗斯，杰西卡601
Rose, Jessica 601
罗斯，雷金纳德534
Rose, Reginald 534
罗珊娜570
Roseanne 570
斯图尔特·罗森伯格387
Rosenberg, Stuart 387
赫伯特·罗斯198
Ross, Herbert 198
罗斯，斯坦利·拉尔夫690
Ross, Stanley Ralph 690
罗伯托·罗西里尼223 , 314 , 336 , 339 , 446 , 558
Rossellini, Roberto 223, 314, 336, 339, 446, 558
罗伯特·罗森338
Rossen, Robert 338
蒂姆·罗斯393
Roth, Tim 393
罗萨菲尔，罗克西269
Rothapfel, Roxy 269
罗斯柴尔德，阿马利亚391
Rothschild, Amalie 391
肯·拉塞尔361
Russell, Ken 361
沃尔特·鲁特曼64
Ruttmann, Walter 64
S
S
乔治·萨杜尔690
Sadoul, Georges 690
豪尔赫·桑吉内斯368
Sanjines, Jorge 368
大卫·萨诺夫517
Sarnoff, David 517
安德鲁·萨里斯474
Sarris, Andrew 474
塔尼亚·索尔尼尔201
Saulnier, Tania 201
斐迪南·索绪尔468
Saussure, Ferdinand de 468
萨瓦拉斯，泰利541
Savalas, Telly 541
弗雷德·谢皮西370
Schepisi, Fred 370
史蒂文·舒尔690
Scheuer, Steven 690
理查德·希克尔296
Schickel, Richard 296
朱利安·施纳贝尔67
Schnabel, Julian 67
艾伦·施奈德481
Schneider, Alan 481
施奈德，罗密132
Schneider, Romy 132
舍德萨克，欧内斯特B.118
Schoedsack, Ernest B. 118
保罗·施拉德380
Schrader, Paul 380
施罗德，巴贝特394
Schroeder, Barbet 394
贾森·施瓦兹曼428
Schwartzman, Jason 428
施瓦辛格、阿诺395、399、660、673 _ _ _ _
Schwarzenegger, Arnold 395, 399, 660, 673
马丁·斯科塞斯92 , 126 , 130 , 306 , 342 380 , 384 , 389 , 421 , 423 , 675
Scorsese, Martin 92, 126, 130, 306, 342 380, 384, 389, 421, 423, 675
沃尔特·斯科特爵士57
Scott, Sir Walter 57
斯科特·托尼394
Scott, Tony 394
苏珊·赛德曼405
Seidelman, Susan 405
彼得·塞勒斯344、360、517 _ _
塞姆贝内，奥斯曼370
Sembène, Ousmane 370
塞林，杆534
Serling, Rod 534
塞罗，科林416
Serreau, Coline 416
西摩，简302
Seymour, Jane 302
唐纳德·谢比布368
Shebib, Donald 368
查理·辛573
Sheen, Charlie 573
辛，马丁557
Sheen, Martin 557
希德·辛伯格281
Sheinberg, Sid 281
谢尔顿罗恩404
Shelton, Ron 404
山姆·谢泼德375
Shepard, Sam 375
威廉·秀48
Shew, William 48
布鲁克·希尔兹354
Shields, Brooke 354
威廉·肖克利498
Shockley, William 498
肖尔斯，CL 483
Sholes, C. L. 483
唐·西格尔63、338、341 _ _
西蒙·西涅莱227
Signoret, Simone 227
艾伦·西利托358
Sillitoe, Alan 358
西蒙和加芬克尔378
Simon & Garfunkel 378
西蒙，大卫557
Simon, David 557
约翰·西蒙474
Simon, John 474
西蒙·米歇尔208
Simon, Michel 208
弗兰克·西纳特拉668
Sinatra, Frank 668
约翰·辛格尔顿299、408、412 _ _
西斯克尔，基因552、657、669 _ _
Sjöstróm, Victor 269, 325, 346
Skladanowsky, Max and Emil 257, 641
杰西·斯科利莫夫斯基364
Skolimowski, Jerzy 364
凯文·史密斯406
Smith, Kevin 406
史密斯，罗伯特·迪恩165
Smith, Robert Dean 165
威尔史密斯201 , 288 , 301 , 305 , 311 , 396
Smith, Will 201, 288, 301, 305, 311, 396
艾伦·史密斯426
Smithee, Alan 426
Smothers Brothers 539, 543, 653
Snow, Michael 228, 229, 231, 368
Soderbergh, Steven 406, 410, 429
索拉斯，温贝托368
Solas, Humberto 368
托德·索伦兹406
Solondz, Todd 406
斯蒂芬·桑德海姆204、342、353、397 _ _ _ _
Sondheim, Stephen 204, 342, 353, 397
保罗·索伦蒂诺676
Sorrentino, Paolo 676
约翰·斯宾塞557
Spencer, John 557
杰罗德·斯皮格尔606
Spiegel, Jerrold 606
史蒂文·斯皮尔伯格32、92、126、144、281、282、384、385、394、396、397、398、531、664 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Spielberg, Steven 32, 92, 126, 144, 281, 282, 384, 385, 394, 396, 397, 398, 531, 664
史泰龙、西尔维斯特395
Stallone, Sylvester 395
安德鲁·斯坦顿423
Stanton, Andrew 423
芭芭拉·斯坦威克304
Stanwyck, Barbara 304
斯泰普尔顿，让569
Stapleton, Jean 569
406人
Staypuft man 406
斯坦因，格特鲁德635
Stein, Gertrude 635
斯坦纳，最大238
Steiner, Max 238
乔治·史蒂文斯340
Stevens, George 340
Stiller, Mauritz 269, 325, 644
大卫·斯特雷泽恩135
Straithairn, David 135
斯特拉斯伯格，李649
Strasberg, Lee 649
让-马里·斯特劳布372
Straub, Jean-Marie 372
梅丽尔·斯特里普302、304、307、308、426 _ _ _ _ _ _
Streep, Meryl 302, 304, 307, 308, 426
芭芭拉·史翠珊308
Streisand, Barbra 308
斯特林堡，8 月59 日
Strindberg, August 59
莎莉斯特拉瑟斯569
Struthers, Sally 569
约翰·斯特奇斯340
Sturges, John 340
Sturges, Preston 331, 333, 607
路易斯·沙利文605
Sullivan, Louis 605
苏诺，乔尔557
Surnow, Joel 557
萨瑟兰、基弗557
Sutherland, Kiefer 557
希拉里·斯万克304
Swank, Hilary 304
斯威特，芭芭拉·威利斯165
Sweete, Barbara Willis 165
罗宾·斯威考德415
Swicord, Robin 415
时间
T
让·查尔斯·塔切拉199
Tacchella, Jean-Charles 199
Talbot, William Henry Fox 46, 49, 82
安德烈·塔可夫斯基366
Tarkovsky, Andrei 366
布兰登·塔蒂科夫550
Tartikoff, Brandon 550
雅克·塔蒂344
Tati, Jacques 344
塔维亚尼、保罗和维托里奥364
Taviani, Paolo and Vittorio 364
泰勒，伊丽莎白379
Taylor, Elizabeth 379
泰勒，罗德589
Taylor, Rod 589
坦普尔，朱利安414
Temple, Julien 414
弟子原浩370
Teshigahara, Hiroshi 370
查理兹·塞隆304
Theron, Charlize 304
托马斯·贝蒂424
Thomas, Betty 424
艾玛·汤普森304、385、414、427、663、665 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Thompson, Emma 304, 385, 414, 427, 663, 665
汤普森，苏菲414
Thompson, Sophie 414
大卫·汤姆森296
Thomson, David 296
英格丽德·图林133
Thulin, Ingrid 133
瑟曼，乌玛304
Thurman, Uma 304
汤姆林，莉莉542
Tomlin, Lily 542
朱塞佩·托纳托雷412
Tornatore, Giuseppe 412
奥黛丽·托特59
Totter, Audrey 59
汤，罗伯特330
Towne, Robert 330
罗伯特·汤森407
Townsend, Robert 407
特雷西·斯宾塞204
Tracy, Spencer 204
特罗尔，364 年1 月
Troell, Jan 364
弗朗索瓦·特吕弗247、344、349、462、463、477、580、607、650、660 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Truffaut, François 247, 344, 349, 462, 463, 477, 580, 607, 650, 660
道尔顿特朗博202
Trumbo, Dalton 202
塔洛克，比西601
Tulloch, Bitsie 601
凯瑟琳·特纳390
Turner, Kathleen 390
特德·特纳276、278、280、288、523、532、533、654、661、662、663、665 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Turner, Ted 276, 278, 280, 288, 523, 532, 533, 654, 661, 662, 663, 665
蒂娜·特纳308
Turner, Tina 308
泰森、西西莉541
Tyson, Cicely 541
U
U
乌尔曼，丽芙53 , 106 , 182 –184, 222 , 296 , 364
Ullmann, Liv 53, 106, 182–184, 222, 296, 364
埃德加·乌尔默269
Ulmer, Edgar 269
杰米·乌伊斯419
Uys, Jamie 419
V
V
瓦伦蒂诺、鲁道夫269、296、644 _ _
Valentino, Rudolph 269, 296, 644
范桑特，格斯204
Van Sant, Gus 204
阿涅斯瓦尔达354
Varda, Agnès 354
康拉德·维特328
Veidt, Conrad 328
迈克尔·范霍文417
Verhoeven, Michael 417
保罗·范霍文394
Verhoeven, Paul 394
维尔托夫、吉加326、329、446、644 _ _ _ _
Vertov, Dziga 326, 329, 446, 644
维斯康蒂、卢奇诺132、314、336、362 _ _ _ _
Visconti, Luchino 132, 314, 336, 362
Vitti, Monica 186, 188, 206, 221
黛博拉·沃伊特165
Voigt, Deborah 165
von Donnersmarck, Florian Henckel 417, 675
约瑟夫·冯·斯滕伯格329
von Sternberg, Josef 329
冯·叙多，马克斯185 –193, 296 , 345 , 364
von Sydow, Max 185–193, 296, 345, 364
冯·特罗塔，玛格丽特379
von Trotta, Margarethe 379
瓦
W
沃卓斯基兄弟422
Wachowski brothers 422
沃尔布鲁克、安东227
Walbrook, Anton 227
墙• E 423
WALL• E 423
弗雷德·沃勒119
Waller, Fred 119
沃尔什，拉乌尔338
Walsh, Raoul 338
沃尔特斯，芭芭拉522
Walters, Barbara 522
王韦恩303
Wang, Wayne 303
沃德，大卫S.404
Ward, David S. 404
温暖，赫尔曼324
Warm, Hermann 324
战争秀，罗伯特474
Warshow, Robert 474
华盛顿，丹泽尔301、410、411、413、672 _ _ _ _ _ _
Washington, Denzel 301, 410, 411, 413, 672
沃瑟曼，卢281
Wasserman, Lew 281
彼得·沃特金斯358
Watkins, Peter 358
瓦特，亚历山大·波洛克641
Watt, Alexander Pollock 641
小韦弗，西尔维斯特 L. 528
Weaver Jr, Sylvester L. 528
Weinstein, Bob and Harvey 278, 674
威尔，彼得370
Weir, Peter 370
威尔斯、奥森98、213、214、215、233、246、334、338、515、545、647 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Welles, Orson 98, 213, 214, 215, 233, 246, 334, 338, 515, 545, 647
维姆文德斯374
Wenders, Wim 374
汤姆维尔纳570
Werner, Tom 570
劳拉·韦斯特法尔177
Westphal, Laura 177
韦克斯勒、哈斯克尔294、298、390、656 _ _ _ _
Wexler, Haskell 294, 298, 390, 656
Whitaker, Forest 301, 424, 425, 675
白色，EB 633
White, E. B. 633
惠特尼、詹姆斯和约翰152、355、581
Whitney, James and John 152, 355, 581
威德伯格，博364
Widerberg, Bo 364
桑顿·维尔德328
Wilder, Thornton 328
威尔弗雷德·托马斯70
Wilfred, Thomas 70
约翰·威廉姆斯238
Williams, John 238
威廉姆斯、雷蒙德24、27、564、630、677 _ _ _ _ _ _
Williams, Raymond 24, 27, 564, 630, 677
威灵厄姆考尔德378
Willingham, Calder 378
迈克尔·威尔逊314
Wilson, Michael 314
威尔逊，欧文428
Wilson, Owen 428
安吉拉·温克勒379
Winkler, Angela 379
亨利·温克勒548
Winkler, Henry 548
欧文·温克勒427
Winkler, Irwin 427
怀斯，罗伯特341
Wise, Robert 341
里斯·威瑟斯彭304
Witherspoon, Reese 304
狼、迪克339、548、551 _ _
吴约翰419
Woo, John 419
迈克尔·伍德468
Wood, Michael 468
亚伦·伍尔夫316
Woolf, Aaron 316
乔安·沃利542
Worley, Joann 542
斯蒂芬·沃兹尼亚克582
Wozniak, Stephen 582
史蒂文·赖特237
Wright, Steven 237
怀亚特，简568
Wyatt, Jane 568
威廉·惠勒648
Wyler, William 648
是
Y
雅妮，让220
Yanne, Jean 220
亚布斯，阿尔弗雷德 L. 175
Yarbus, Alfred L. 175
彼得·耶茨360
Yates, Peter 360
约翰·约塞连671
Yossarian, John 671
年轻的弗雷迪669
Young, Freddie 669
年轻的罗伯特568
Young, Robert 568
Z
Z
扎努西, 克日什托夫365
Zanussi, Krzysztof 365
扎普夫，赫尔曼605
Zapf, Hermann 605
弗兰克·扎帕158
Zappa, Frank 158
费迪南泽卡319
Zecca, Ferdinand 319
蕾妮·齐薇格304
Zellweger, Renee 304
Zemeckis, Robert 148, 398, 403
张艺谋419
Zhang Yimou 419
弗雷德·辛尼曼340
Zinnemann, Fred 340
Zwick, Edward 548, 549, 550, 600
弗拉基米尔·兹沃里金 K. 500
Zworykin, Vladimir K. 500
标题索引
Title Index
电影、书籍、视频和电视。
Films, books, video, and television.
A
A
人工智能387
A.I. 387
阿卡托362
Accattone 362
事故359
Accident 359
改编426
Adaptation 426
下班后381
After Hours 381
Age of Innocence, The 381, 389
阿吉雷，上帝之怒374
Aguirre, the Wrath of God 374
艾伯特·布鲁克斯秀，515
Albert Brooks Show, The 515
阿里397
Ali 397
Alice Doesn’t Live Here Anymore 306, 380
爱丽丝梦游城374
Alice in the Cities 374
爱丽丝餐厅378
Alice’s Restaurant 378
异形：复活416
Alien: Resurrection 416
外星人392
Aliens 392
关于我母亲的一切418
All About My Mother 418
All in the Family 539, 543, 569, 655
阿尔法城350
Alphaville 350
艾玛迪斯366
Amadeus 366
阿玛科德362
Amarcord 362
美国梦406
American Dream 406
美国朋友，374
American Friend, The 374
美国涂鸦385
American Graffiti 385
美国在巴黎，An 341
American in Paris, An 341
美式轮盘360
American Roulette 360
阿米斯塔德386
Amistad 386
第567章玩死
Amusing Ourselves to Death 567
分析这个399
Analyze This 399
船继续航行362
And the Ship Sails On 362
安德烈·鲁布廖夫366
Andrei Roublev 366
Angels in America 288, 379, 414
安东尼奥·达斯·莫特斯654
Antonio Das Mortes 654
安托万·费舍尔301
Antwone Fisher 301
小蚁396
Antz 396
公寓，332
Apartment, The 332
现代启示录42、374、382、657 _ _ _ _
Apocalypse Now 42, 374, 382, 657
达迪·克拉维茨 (Duddy Kravitz) 的学徒生涯，The 368
Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz, The 368
阿普三部曲343
Apu trilogy 343
世界末日396
Armageddon 396
艺术与视觉感知205
Art and Visual Perception 205
Art of the Moving Picture, The 438, 643
第402章
As Good as It Gets 402
“正如我们所想的” 581
“As We May Think” 581
人类的崛起，562
Ascent of Man, The 562
沥青丛林，338
Asphalt Jungle, The 338
再见，孩子们354
Au Revoir, les enfants 354
Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me 422, 670
秋天的午后，安343
Autumn Afternoon, An 343
阿瓦隆402
Avalon 402
飞行员，382
Aviator, The 382
乙
B
通天塔420
Babel 420
坏消息熊388
Bad News Bears 388
香蕉389
Bananas 389
288门外的野蛮人
Barbarians at the Gate 288
蝙蝠侠与罗宾396
Batman & Robin 396
蝙蝠侠：侠影之谜398
Batman Begins 398
智利之战，368
Battle of Chile, The 368
海滩救护队560
Baywatch 560
美女与野兽663
Beauty and the Beast 663
比维斯和屁股422
Beavis and Butthead 422
贝基·夏普128
Becky Sharp 128
床客厅，360
Bed-Sitting Room, The 360
甲虫汁398
Beetlejuice 398
第356章 魔鬼知道你死了
Before the Devil Knows You’re Dead 356
革命前363
Before the Revolution 363
成为约翰·马尔科维奇425
Being John Malkovich 425
贝奥武夫422
Beowulf 422
柏林亚历山大广场374
Berlin Alexanderplatz 374
柏林——城市交响曲64
Berlin—Symphony of a City 64
我们生命中最美好的岁月，648
Best Years of Our Lives, The 648
偷自行车的人314
Bicycle Thief 314
老大哥555
Big Brother 555
大热，338
Big Heat, The 338
大勒博斯基，405
Big Lebowski, The 405
大游行，323
Big Parade, The 323
大眠, 291 , 329 , 332 , 338 , 648
Big Sleep, The 291, 329, 332, 338, 648
比利说谎者358
Billy Liar 358
鸟类，354
Birds, The 354
一个国家的诞生，第121、262、299、643 _
Birth of a Nation, The 121, 262, 299, 643
新前卫艺术的诞生：La Caméra-Stylo，The 462
Birth of a New Avant Garde: La Caméra-Stylo, The 462
黑板丛林，388
Blackboard Jungle, The 388
勒索645
Blackmail 645
女巫布莱尔计划，289
Blair Witch Project, The 289
血简单405
Blood Simple 405
蓝色天使645
Blue Angel 645
爱情中的布鲁姆388
Blume in Love 388
鲍勃、卡罗尔、特德和爱丽丝388
Bob & Carol & Ted & Alice 388
身体与灵魂338
Body and Soul 338
Bonnie and Clyde 378, 380, 653
不羁夜428
Boogie Nights 428
出生于407 年7 月 4 日
Born on the Fourth of July 407
Boudu Saved from Drowning 208, 327
奔向荣耀656
Bound for Glory 656
谍影重重421
Bourne Supremacy, The 421
哥伦拜恩保龄球315
Bowling For Columbine 315
布拉姆·斯托克的德古拉384
Bram Stoker’s Dracula 384
美丽新世界567
Brave New World 567
破坏者莫兰特370
Breaker Morant 370
Breakfast at Tiffany’s 354, 361
早餐俱乐部，403
Breakfast Club, The 403
第657章
Breaking Away 657
气喘吁吁241 , 291 , 296 , 350 , 355 , 651
Breathless 241, 291, 296, 350, 355, 651
布莱恩的歌544
Brian’s Song 544
不列颠尼亚医院358
Britannia Hospital 358
英国之声459
British Sounds 459
广播新闻402
Broadcast News 402
Brokeback Mountain 304, 309, 340
断箭340
Broken Arrow 340
遗愿清单，402
Bucket List, The 402
布埃纳维斯塔社交俱乐部375
Buena Vista Social Club 375
Buffalo Bill and the Indians 92, 387
公牛达勒姆404
Bull Durham 404
Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid 305, 306, 654
C
C
卡里加里博士的内阁644
Cabinet of Dr. Caligari 644
Cahiers du Cinema 461, 475, 649
“坎布鲁尔” 670
“Cambrure” 670
偷拍611
Candid Camera 611
候选人，388
Candidate, The 388
恐惧角381
Cape Fear 381
肉体知识379
Carnal Knowledge 379
汽车422
Cars 422
卡斯坎多482
Cascando 482
赌场381
Casino 381
荒岛余生398
Cast Away 398
第387章
Catch Me If You Can 387
第 22 379条军规
Catch-22 379
凯茜回家653
Cathy Come Home 653
名人390
Celebrity 390
Céline 和 Julie 乘船352
Céline et Julie vont en bateau 352
仪式，La 352
Cérémonie, La 352
陈失踪303
Chan Is Missing 303
卓别林414
Chaplin 414
烈火战车413
Chariots of Fire 413
追逐艾米406
Chasing Amy 406
夏安秋季303
Cheyenne Autumn 303
芝加哥424
Chicago 424
千松物语343
Chikimatsu Monogatari 343
儿童游戏404
Child’s Play 404
天堂之子327
Children of Paradise 327
唐人街330
Chinatown 330
下午的克洛伊352
Chloë in the Afternoon 352
基督停在埃博利363
Christ Stopped at Eboli 363
克里斯托在巴黎356
Christo in Paris 356
苹果酒屋规则418
Cider House Rules 418
电影与社会441
Cinéma et cie 441
欧洲电影院：另一个好莱坞320
Cinema Europe: The Other Hollywood 320
电影：批评词典690
Cinema: A Critical Dictionary 690
电影史475
Cinéthique 475
公民凯恩98 , 212 , 213 , 215 , 334 , 647
Citizen Kane 98, 212, 213, 215, 334, 647
城市之光646
City Lights 646
文明562
Civilization 562
克莱尔的膝盖352
Claire’s Knee 352
克莱奥 从 5 到 7 354
Cleo from 5 to 7 354
克利奥帕特拉652
Cleopatra 652
时钟411
Clockers 411
第386章 第三种接触
Close Encounters of the Third Kind 386
“特写视图，A” 437
“Close-up View, A” 437
无能414
Clueless 414
椰子，645
Cocoanuts, The 645
金钱本色，381
Color of Money, The 381
颜色紫色，386
Color Purple, The 386
通讯630
Communications 630
意志一致：建造盖蒂中心356
Concert of Wills: Making the Getty Center 356
墨守成规，363
Conformist, The 363
建造火118
Construire un feu 118
秋季故事352
Conte d’automne 352
春天的故事352
Conte de printemps 352
对话，140、237、382 _ _ _
Conversation, The 140, 237, 382
饼干的财富388
Cookie’s Fortune 388
警察摇滚550
Cop Rock 550
科斯比秀，529、550、570、574 _ _ _
Cosby Show, The 529, 550, 570, 574
宇宙151
Cosmos 151
联轴器573
Coupling 573
表弟，表弟199
Cousin, cousine 199
罪与罚339
Crime and Punishment 339
Crime of M. Lange, The 327, 330, 647
评论家，434
Critic, The 434
人群，323
Crowd, The 323
沪深556
CSI 556
抑制你的热情557
Curb Your Enthusiasm 557
时事，A 660
Current Affair, A 660
D
D
银版照相354
Daguerreotypes 354
与狼共舞340
Dances with Wolves 340
跳舞674
Dancing 674
大吉岭有限公司，427
Darjeeling Limited, The 427
黑暗骑士676
Dark Knight, The 676
亲爱的358
Darling 358
达斯引导417
Das Boot 417
安德伦的生活419
Das Leben der Anderen 419
Das Schreckliche Mädchen 417
Das Schreckliche Mädchen 417
戴夫200
Dave 200
大卫和丽莎378
David and Lisa 378
第二天，659
Day After, The 659
地球静止之日，341
Day the Earth Stood Still, The 341
森林里的日日夜夜344
Days and Nights in the Forest 344
酒与玫瑰的日子354
Days of Wine and Roses 354
死亡诗社370
Dead Poets Society 370
威尼斯之死362
Death in Venice 362
解构哈利390
Deconstructing Harry 390
深喉308
Deep Throat 308
捍卫者联盟，536
Defenders, The 536
草地上的午餐44
Déjeuner sur l’Herbe 44
去可爱427
De-Lovely 427
拆迁人395
Demolition Man 395
Departed, The 382, 421, 423, 675
雷根328
Der Reigen 328
德苏乌扎拉370
Dersu Uzala 370
Desperate Housewives 556, 559, 574
目的地东京312
Destination Tokyo 312
琼斯小姐中的魔鬼，308
Devil in Miss Jones, The 308
谋杀案请拨打 M 121
Dial M for Murder 121
乡村牧师日记344
Diary of a Country Priest 344
疯狂主妇日记378
Diary of a Mad Housewife 378
迪克·特雷西397
Dick Tracy 397
餐厅402
Diner 402
辣身舞308
Dirty Dancing 308
披露402
Disclosure 402
资产阶级的谨慎魅力，373
Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie, The 373
第344章远雷
Distant Thunder 344
潜水钟与蝴蝶，67
Diving Bell and the Butterfly, The 67
意大利式离婚362
Divorce Italian Style 362
做正确的事410
Do the Right Thing 410
唐璜644
Don Juan 644
唐·金：仅在美国288
Don King: Only in America 288
第375章
Don’t Come Knocking 375
别回头356
Don’t Look Back 356
现在别看361
Don’t Look Now 361
门，407
Doors, The 407
双重赔偿332
Double Indemnity 332
418法律制裁
Down By Law 418
速降赛车手388
Downhill Racer 388
马布斯博士644
Dr. Mabuse 644
德古拉646
Dracula 646
另见布拉姆·斯托克的《德古拉》
see also Bram Stoker’s Dracula
659龙穴
Dragon’s Lair 659
梦幻女郎424
Dreamgirls 424
驾驶黛西小姐370
Driving Miss Daisy 370
决斗者，361
Duellists, The 361
王朝558
Dynasty 558
乙
E
初秋343
Early Autumn 343
早春343
Early Spring 343
初夏343
Early Summer 343
德夫人的耳环，344
Earrings of Madame de…, The 344
轻松生活331
Easy Living 331
吃喝男女303
Eat Drink Man Woman 303
日食206
Eclipse 206
呃，乔481
Eh, Joe 481
帝国47
Empire 47
第374章 天涯的邂逅
Encounters at the End of the World 374
夏末，223
End of Summer, The 223
国家公敌397
Enemy of the State 397
艺人，358
Entertainer, The 358
Entertainment Tonight 552, 658
入口处64
Entr’acte 64
第417章
Entre les murs 417
ER 553
ER 553
艾琳·布罗科维奇406
Erin Brockovich 406
逃离恶魔岛338
Escape from Alcatraz 338
电影意义随笔653
Essais sur la signification au cinéma 653
Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind 426, 427
连侏儒也从小开始374
Even Dwarfs Started Small 374
人人都爱雷蒙德556
Everybody Loves Raymond 556
电影语言的演变，457
Evolution of the Language of Cinema, The 457
Eyes on the Prize 554, 555, 661
F
F
面孔388
Faces 388
家庭关系550
Family Ties 550
范妮和亚历山大364
Fanny and Alexander 364
神奇四侠、398
Fantastic Four, The 398
奇幻之旅113
Fantastic Voyage 113
遥远的国家，340
Far Country, The 340
法戈405
Fargo 405
蜉蝣374
Fata Morgana 374
第568章父亲最了解
Father Knows Best 568
恐惧与欲望388
Fear and Desire 388
恐惧吞噬灵魂373
Fear Eats the Soul 373
审判中的恐惧544
Fear on Trial 544
费里斯·布勒的休息日403
Ferris Bueller’s Day Off 403
梦想之地405
Field of Dreams 405
电影481
Film 481
电影表演449
Film Acting 449
电影百科全书，690
Film Encyclopedia, The 690
电影语言：电影符号学468
Film Language: A Semiotics of the Cinema 468
电影感452
Film Sense 452
海底总动员422
Finding Nemo 422
名字：卡门351
First Name: Carmen 351
一把美元，A 340
Fistful of Dollars, A 340
五件简单的作品380
Five Easy Pieces 380
我们父辈的旗帜423
Flags of Our Fathers 423
闪电侠戈登531
Flash Gordon 531
快闪舞308
Flashdance 308
菲利普·威尔逊秀，654
Flip Wilson Show, The 654
飞吧，341
Fly, The 341
愚蠢的妻子323
Foolish Wives 323
外国记者328
Foreign Correspondent 328
阿甘正传398
Forrest Gump 398
福尔赛传奇，562、569、653 _
Forsyte Saga, The 562, 569, 653
幸运饼干，332
Fortune Cookie, The 332
42街646号
42nd Street 646
四十岁处女，422
Forty-Year-Old Virgin, The 422
消除电视的四个论据565
Four Arguments for the Elimination of Television 565
400击、247、249、349、351、651 _ _ _ _ _ _
400 Blows, The 247, 249, 349, 351, 651
4个小女孩411
4 Little Girls 411
弗兰肯斯坦646
Frankenstein 646
弗雷德·奥特的喷嚏319
Fred Ott’s Sneeze 319
“自由球员” 404
“Free Agent” 404
自由高涨272
Freedom Comes High 272
贝莱尔新鲜王子，396
Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, The 396
炒青番茄307
Fried Green Tomatoes 307
朋友574
Friends 574
从地狱到德克萨斯340
From Hell to Texas 340
第474章
From Reverence to Rape 474
头版，646
Front Page, The 646
全金属外壳359
Full Metal Jacket 359
搞笑脸342
Funny Face 342
去论坛的路上发生了有趣的事情，A 50 , 241 , 342 , 360
Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum, A 50, 241, 342, 360
G
G
加布里埃尔在白宫312
Gabriel Over the White House 312
纽约黑帮，382
Gangs of New York, The 382
生发262
Germinal 262
格特鲁德325
Gertrud 325
第426章
Get a Life 426
捉鬼敢死队369 , 398 , 399 , 406 , 660
Ghostbusters 369, 398, 399, 406, 660
早餐前的鬼魂64
Ghosts Before Breakfast 64
吉吉341
Gigi 341
给我庇护所356
Gimme Shelter 356
姜与弗雷德362
Ginger & Fred 362
女朋友392
Girl Friends 392
角斗士361
Gladiator 361
凯莱356
Gloria 356
守门员在点球时的焦虑，374
Goalie’s Anxiety at the Penalty Kick, The 374
中间人，359
Go-Between, The 359
教父、382、546、655 _ _ _
神与妖424
Gods and Monsters 424
诸神一定也疯了，659
Gods Must Be Crazy, The 659
金门418
Golden Door 418
早安，越南402
Good Morning, Vietnam 402
Good Night, and Good Luck 126, 135
善意狩猎406
Good Will Hunting 406
好、坏、丑，340
Good, The Bad, and The Ugly, The 340
Goon 秀，360
Goon Show, The 360
圣马太福音，第362 章
Gospel According to St. Matthew, The 362
愤怒的葡萄，647
Grapes of Wrath, The 647
润滑脂657
Grease 657
伟大的辩手，301
Great Debaters, The 301
火车大劫案，48、319、642 _
Great Train Robbery, The 48, 319, 642
灰色花园356
Grey Gardens 356
实习医生格蕾304
Grey’s Anatomy 304
灰熊人374
Grizzly Man 374
土拨鼠之日399
Groundhog Day 399
集团，305
Group, The 305
OK 畜栏340的枪战
Gunfight at the O.K. Corral 340
枪手，340
Gunfighter, The 340
硝烟543
Gunsmoke 543
H
H
万福玛利亚351
Hail Mary 351
头发366
Hair 366
哈利路亚300
Hallelujah 300
哈姆雷特414
Hamlet 414
哈米特375
Hammett 375
汉普顿，392
Hamptons, The 392
汉娜和她的姐妹们389
Hannah and Her Sisters 389
Hard Day’s Night, A 241, 360, 652
美国哈兰县392
Harlan County, U.S.A. 392
哈利和托托388
Harry and Tonto 388
哈利·波特与阿兹卡班的囚徒420
Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban 420
哈利·波特与魔法石672
Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone 672
他赢了第 411场比赛
He Got Game 411
正午340
High Noon 340
高中356
High School 356
希尔街布鲁斯339 , 529 , 547 , 549 , 658
Hill Street Blues 339, 529, 547, 549, 658
电影史352
Histoire(s) du Cinéma 352
希区柯克580
Hitchcock 580
骗局，418
Hoax, The 418
好莱坞洗牌408
Hollywood Shuffle 408
大屠杀546
Holocaust 546
独自在家403
Home Alone 403
医院356
Hospital 356
卢旺达酒店425
Hotel Rwanda 425
熔炉时刻，368
Hour of the Furnaces, The 368
Hour of the Wolf 106, 185, 192, 364
House on 92nd Street, The 312, 648
我如何赢得战争360
How I Won the War 360
第354章如何谋杀你的妻子
How to Murder Your Wife 354
我
I
第275章我是铁链逃犯
I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang 275
我很好奇——黄色653
I Am Curious—Yellow 653
I Love Lucy 535, 539, 574, 649
我间谍550
I Spy 550
我要抓住你了408
I’m Gonna Git You Sucka 408
冰风暴，304
Ice Storm, The 304
如果……358
If …358
生343
Ikiru 343
“想象中的能指，” 473
“Imaginary Signifier, The” 473
第371章
In the Realm of the Senses 371
难以忽视的真相，316、317、659、674 _ _
Inconvenient Truth, An 316, 317, 659, 674
令人难以置信的机器，113
Incredible Machine, The 113
令人难以置信的缩小人，341
Incredible Shrinking Man, The 341
独立日396
Independence Day 396
印度歌曲238
India Song 238
印第安人大屠杀，303
Indian Massacre, The 303
印第安纳琼斯与水晶头骨王国387
Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull 387
内殿515
Inner Sanctum 515
接口，217
Interface, The 217
室内设计389
Interiors 389
Intervista 362
Intervista 362
不宽容322
Intolerance 322
Invasion of the Body Snatchers 313, 341
食神554
Iron Chef 554
莫罗博士岛，293
Island of Dr. Moreau, The 293
事情发生在这里358
It Happened Here 358
发生一晚646
It Happened One Night 646
这是一只鸟……这是一架飞机……这是超人398
It’s a Bird…It’s a Plane…It’s Superman 398
It’s a Wonderful Life 337, 649
J
J
简·奥斯汀在曼哈顿416
Jane Austen in Manhattan 416
Jane B. par Agnès V. 354
Jane B. par Agnès V. 354
爵士歌手，645
Jazz Singer, The 645
Je t’aime, je t’aime 353, 359, 425
杰弗逊，550
Jeffersons, The 550
危险边缘554
Jeopardy 554
JLG/JLG - autoportrait de décembre 351, 664
乔布斯，132
Job, The 132
约翰尼·斯泰奇诺417
Johnny Stecchino 417
Jonah, Who Will Be 25 in the Year 2000 375, 381
约瑟夫·坎贝尔和神话的力量554
Joseph Campbell and The Power of Myth 554
喜福会，303
Joy Luck Club, The 303
朱莉娅306
Julia 306
Juliet of the Spirits 222, 362
朱诺424
Juno 424
侏罗纪公园151 , 341 , 386 , 396 , 397 , 663
Jurassic Park 151, 341, 386, 396, 397, 663
K
K
干城章嘉峰344
Kanchenjunga 344
卡斯帕·豪瑟374
Kaspar Hauser 374
凯特和利奥波德424
Kate and Leopold 424
杀死比尔421
Kill Bill 421
杀戮场，413
Killing Fields, The 413
有点爱，A 358
Kind of Loving, A 358
玉米王316
King Corn 316
金刚646
King Kong 646
喜剧之王《381》
King of Comedy, The 381
妖精王国，321
Kingdom of the Fairies, The 321
电影眼326
Kino-Eye 326
金赛424
Kinsey 424
第659章
Koyaanisqatsi 659
昆敦382
Kundun 382
L
L
权利女神352
L’ivresse du pouvoir 352
金时代366
L’Âge d’or 366
爱情452
L’Amour fou 352
亚特兰大327
L’Atalante 327
落日362
L’Eclisse 362
巴黎儿童262
L’Enfant de Paris 262
La Caméra-Stylo 462
La Caméra-Stylo 462
女收藏家352
La Collectionneuse 352
拉库卡拉查128
La Cucaracha 128
La Dolce Vita 222, 346, 347, 651
不忠的女人352
La Femme infidèle 352
战争结束353
La Guerre est finie 353
夜362
La Notte 362
“作者政治” 462
“La Politique des auteurs” 462
La Région Centrale 229, 231, 368
电影评论649
La Revue du Cinéma 649
拉特拉特雷马314
La Terra Trema 314
玫瑰人生416
La Vie en Rose 416
罗马人生353
La Vie est un roman 353
伊芙女士，332
Lady Eve, The 332
Last King of Scotland, The 424, 425
希拉的最后，204
Last of Sheila, The 204
最后一场电影放映，380
Last Picture Show, The 380
Last Tango in Paris 293, 363, 655
基督最后的诱惑，381
Last Temptation of Christ, The 381
最后的华尔兹，380
Last Waltz, The 380
最后一波，370
Last Wave, The 370
Last Year at Marienbad 353, 357
晚秋343
Late Autumn 343
深夜秀，338
Late Show, The 338
晚春343
Late Spring 343
法律与秩序339、538、548、551、553 _ _ _ _ _ _
Law & Order 339, 538, 548, 551, 553
幸福354
Le Bonheur 354
勒布歇352
Le Boucher 352
勒玛尼苏拉城362
Le Mani Sulla Città 362
小士兵350
Le Petit Soldat 350
人造丝352 号
Le Rayon vert 352
莱德贝利377
Leadbelly 377
他们自己的联盟，A 405
League of Their Own, A 405
学习树，376
Learning Tree, The 376
出厂320
Leaving the Factory 320
勒达187
Leda 187
左手枪，340
Left-Handed Gun, The 340
列宁格勒牛仔去美国419
Leningrad Cowboys Go America 419
豹子，362
Leopard, The 362
莱斯比克斯352
Les Biches 352
恶魔204
Les Diaboliques 204
孩子们 可怕的219
Les Enfants terribles 219
卢浮宫372 号吉谢特
Les Guichets du Louvre 372
硫磺岛来信423
Letters from Iwo Jima 423
生命655
Life 655
尼古拉斯·尼克尔比 (Nicholas Nickleby) 的生平和时代，150人
Life and Times of Nicholas Nickleby, The 150
与 Steve Zissou 一起体验水上生活，The 427
Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou, The 427
Life of an American Fireman, The 319, 642
大春的一生，343
Life of Oharu, The 343
纽约645之光
Lights of N.Y. 645
小迪特需要飞374
Little Dieter Needs to Fly 374
洛拉·蒙特斯344
Lola Montes 344
洛丽塔360
Lolita 360
独行侠，515
Lone Ranger, The 515
孤星407
Lone Star 407
Lonedale 运营商，322
Lonedale Operator, The 322
第340章勇敢者孤独
Lonely Are the Brave 340
远景360度
Long Shot 360
愤怒回头358
Look Back in Anger 358
指环王422
Lord of the Rings 422
Lost Honor of Katharina Blum, The 372, 379
失去的周末，332
Lost Weekend, The 332
失落的世界：侏罗纪公园、386
Lost World: Jurassic Park, The 386
389爱与死
Love and Death 389
恋人，354
Lovers, The 354
露西娅368
Lucia 368
幸运的卢西亚诺363
Lucky Luciano 363
勒克斯广播剧院515
Lux Radio Theatre 515
中号
M
疯狂麦克斯416
Mad Max 416
宏伟的安伯森，215、334、337 _
Magnificent Ambersons, The 215, 334, 337
豪七，340
Magnificent Seven, The 340
玉兰428
Magnolia 428
曼哈顿女仆303
Maid in Manhattan 303
主要电影理论，441
Major Film Theories, The 441
大联盟405
Major League 405
马耳他猎鹰647
Maltese Falcon, The 647
来自拉勒米的男人，340
Man From Laramie, The 340
阿兰人646
Man of Aran 646
《坠落地球的男人》361
Man Who Fell to Earth, The 361
Man with a Movie Camera 326, 329, 645
曼达比370
Mandabi 370
曼哈顿谋杀案401
Manhattan Murder Mystery 401
马拉松男子358
Marathon Man 358
企鹅进行曲430
March of the Penguins 430
玛丽亚·布劳恩的婚礼，374
Marriage of Maria Braun, The 374
Married Woman, A 209, 350, 652
马蒂650
Marty 650
玛丽泰勒摩尔秀，402、539、654 _
Mary Tyler Moore Show, The 402, 539, 654
男性-女性350
Masculine-Feminine 350
大师与指挥官：世界的另一边370
Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World 370
黑客帝国：重装上阵，632
Matrix Reloaded, The 632
McCabe and Mrs. Miller 340, 387
穷街陋巷380
Mean Streets 380
肉356
Meat 356
肉丸657
Meatballs 657
在圣路易斯见我218
Meet Me in St. Louis 218
纪念品425
Memento 425
欠发达的回忆368
Memories of Underdevelopment 368
正义记忆372
Memory of Justice 372
黑衣人301、305、397 _ _ _
四个季节的商人，373
Merchant of Four Seasons, The 373
下午的网格648
Meshes of the Afternoon 648
迈克尔·克莱顿424
Michael Clayton 424
世界中部，375
Middle of the World, The 375
午夜牛仔358
Midnight Cowboy 358
午夜快车412
Midnight Express 412
米尔豪斯391
Millhouse 391
百万宝贝423
Million Dollar Baby 423
摩根溪的奇迹，332
Miracle of Morgan’s Creek, The 332
格格不入，340
Misfits, The 340
十月导弹，544
Missiles of October, The 544
密西西比美人鱼349
Mississippi Mermaid 349
布朗夫人416
Mrs. Brown 416
索菲尔夫人370
Mrs. Soffel 370
第647章 迪兹先生进城
Mr. Deeds Goes to Town 647
于洛先生的假期344
Mr. Hulot’s Holiday 344
我叔叔344
Mon Oncle 344
我的安托万叔叔368
Mon Oncle Antoine 368
我的美洲叔叔353
Mon Oncle d’Amérique 353
蒙娜丽莎661
Mona Lisa 661
“Montage, mon beau souci” 196, 463
Monty Python’s Flying Circus 236, 563
月鼓152
Moon Drum 152
百老汇上空的月亮356
Moon Over Broadway 356
兼职548
Moonlighting 548
摩根358
Morgan 358
摩西和亚伦372
Moses and Aaron 372
Mother and the Whore, The 372, 375
电影指南，690
Motion Picture Guide, The 690
无事生非414
Much Ado About Nothing 414
慕尼黑387
Munich 387
布偶电影《400强》
Muppet Movie, The 400
音乐室，343
Music Room, The 343
猪巷火枪手，322
Musketeers of Pig Alley, The 322
我美丽的洗衣店661
My Beautiful Laundrette 661
我的辉煌事业370
My Brilliant Career 370
我和安德烈共进晚餐354
My Dinner with Andre 354
第418章我的狗生活
My Life as a Dog 418
我的人生目标350
My Life to Live 350
我的名字叫伊万366
My Name Is Ivan 366
我所谓的生活550
My So-Called Life 550
我的超级前女友399
My Super Ex-Girlfriend 399
神秘河423
Mystic River 423
氮
N
裸城，338
Naked City, The 338
娜娜562
Nana 562
拿破仑炸药424
Napoleon Dynamite 424
国家讽刺动物屋
National Lampoon’s Animal House
参见动物之家
see Animal House
天生杀手315
Natural Born Killers 315
自然，404
Natural, The 404
神经漫游者660
Neuromancer 660
新杰克城408
New Jack City 408
新浪潮，462
New Wave, The 462
纽约, 纽约380
New York, New York 380
新闻前沿370
Newsfront 370
下一站，格林威治村388
Next Stop, Greenwich Village 388
夜雾353
Night and Fog 353
歌剧院之夜，A 209
Night at the Opera, A 209
地球之夜418
Night on Earth 418
猛鬼街278
Nightmare on Elm Street 278
朝九晚五307
Nine to Five 307
1941 386
1941 386
老无所依405
No Country for Old Men 405
诺玛·雷306
Norma Rae 306
North by Northwest 248, 348, 473, 651
第110章 不漂亮的图画
Not a Pretty Picture 110
新星553
Nova 553
现在554
Now 554
新蒙多418
Nuovomondo 418
护士贝蒂424
Nurse Betty 424
氧
O
Ø兄弟，你在哪里？405
O Brother, Where Art Thou? 405
宫女45
Odalisque 45
希腊瓮颂50
Ode on a Grecian Urn 50
噢，幸运儿358
Oh Lucky Man 358
好吧美国312
Okay America 312
关于香颂354
On connaît le chanson 354
海滨650
On the Waterfront 650
第287章
One False Move 287
第366章飞越疯人院
One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest 366
第383章
One from the Heart 383
101 斑点狗669
101 Dalmatians 669
一、二、三332
One, Two, Three 332
独眼杰克340
One-Eyed Jacks 340
“摄影图像的本体论，” 457
“Ontology of the Photographic Image, The” 457
兰花贼426
Orchid Thief, The 426
原罪201
Original Sin 201
我们日用的灵粮323
Our Daily Bread 323
第338章
Out of the Past 338
出一352
Out One 352
智胜：鲁珀特·默多克对新闻业的战争316
Outfoxed: Rupert Murdoch’s War on Journalism 316
局外人，383
Outsiders, The 383
奥齐和哈里特568
Ozzie and Harriet 568
磷
P
神父，神父364
Padre, Padrone 364
排山314
Paisan 314
潘神的迷宫420
Pan’s Labyrinth 420
德克萨斯州巴黎375
Paris, Texas 375
乡村派对222
Partie de campagne 222
Passion de Jeanne d’Arc 221, 325, 645
安娜的激情，364
Passion of Anna, The 364
帕特和迈克204
Pat and Mike 204
帕特·潘查利650
Pather Panchali 650
荣耀之路97
Paths of Glory 97
爱国者游戏370
Patriot Games 370
宝琳 à la 海滩352
Pauline à la plage 352
皮威的大冒险398
Pee-Wee’s Big Adventure 398
Peggy Sue Got Married 383, 390
说服665
Persuasion 665
摄影441
Photogénie 441
摄影剧：一项心理学研究，《439》
Photoplay: A Psychological Study, The 439
钢琴，416
Piano, The 416
扒手344
Pickpocket 344
南街338号接客
Pickup on South Street 338
在 Hanging Rock 370野餐
Picnic at Hanging Rock 370
粉红豹，354
Pink Panther, The 354
小指300
Pinky 300
加勒比海盗422
Pirates of the Caribbean 422
播放481
Play 481
玩家，237、387、399、663 _ _ _ _ _
Player, The 237, 387, 399, 663
普莱森维尔126
Pleasantville 126
充足370
Plenty 370
插件药物，565
Plug-in Drug, The 565
极地特快、148、152、398 _ _
Polar Express, The 148, 152, 398
Prairie Home Companion, A 236, 388
歌颂马克思，传递弹药360
Praise Marx and Pass the Ammunition 360
掠食者661
Predator 661
漂亮宝贝354
Pretty Baby 354
粉红佳人403
Pretty in Pink 403
傲慢与偏见665
Pride and Prejudice 665
灵长类动物356
Primate 356
优质切割389
Prime Cut 389
杨贵妃公主343
Princess Yang Kwei Fei 343
公共场所的私人恐惧354
Private Fears in Public Places 354
普罗维登斯353
Providence 353
抽铁395
Pumping Iron 395
追求幸福，397
Pursuit of Happyness, The 397
问
Q
右
R
防兔围栏370
Rabbit-Proof Fence 370
拉格泰姆366
Ragtime 366
Raiders of the Lost Ark 386, 658
雨人402
Rain Man 402
造雨人，384
Rainmaker, The 384
兰博395
Rambo 395
拉斯科尔尼科夫327
Raskolnikow 327
成衣387
Ready to Wear 387
Rear Window 230, 233, 348, 650
Rebel Without a Cause 292, 650
红色沙漠130 , 186 –188, 207 , 221 , 362 , 652
Red Desert 130, 186–188, 207, 221, 362, 652
红高粱419
Red Sorghum 419
今日余留，414
Remains of the Day, The 414
被流浪者642救起
Rescued by Rover 642
Return of the Secaucus Seven, The 407, 657
骑行高地340
Ride the High Country 340
路易十四的崛起，653
Rise to Power of Louis XIV, The 653
自由之路562
Roads to Freedom 562
机械战警394
Robocop 394
罗科和他的兄弟336
Rocco and His Brothers 336
罗克福德档案馆，541
Rockford Files, The 541
洛奇395
Rocky 395
罗马362
Roma 362
Rome, Open City 314, 336, 339, 346, 648
绳子142
Rope 142
迷迭香的婴儿404
Rosemary’s Baby 404
皇家特南鲍姆，427
Royal Tenenbaums, The 427
Rules of the Game, The 327, 647
隆鼻鱼383
Rumblefish 383
S
S
索布354
S.O.B. 354
破坏者328
Saboteur 328
萨布丽娜332
Sabrina 332
戈斯塔柏林传奇644
Saga of Gösta Berling 644
圣别处547
St. Elsewhere 547
推销员356
Salesman 356
第343章法警山翔
Sansho the Bailiff 343
Saturday Night and Sunday Morning 358, 651
周六夜狂热656
Saturday Night Fever 656
周六夜现场301、399、543、546、556 _ _ _ _ _ _
Saturday Night Live 301, 399, 543, 546, 556
Sauve qui peut la vie 351, 658
野蛮人，424
Savages, The 424
萨亚特诺瓦366
Sayat Nova 366
耻辱的伤疤，295
Scar of Shame, The 295
Scenes from a Marriage 364, 655
Schindler’s List 126, 386, 397, 663
搜索者，340、341、651 _ _
362被诱惑又被抛弃
Seduced and Abandoned 362
立即查看649
See It Now 649
Sense and Sensibility 304, 414, 665
佩珀中士的孤独之心俱乐部乐队517
Sergeant Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band 517
仆人，359
Servant, The 359
芝麻街654
Sesame Street 654
七武士343
Seven Samurai 343
七年之痒332
Seven-Year Itch, The 332
sex, lies and videotape 406, 410, 662
怀疑的阴影328
Shadow of a Doubt 328
影子，515
Shadow, The 515
被遗忘的祖先的影子366
Shadows of Our Forgotten Ancestors 366
轴377
Shaft 377
Shakespeare in Love 278, 416, 669
莎士比亚瓦拉415
Shakespeare Wallah 415
肖恩340
Shane 340
她必须拥有它407、409、661 _
She’s Gotta Have It 407, 409, 661
庇护天空，363
Sheltering Sky, The 363
夏洛克·福尔摩斯515
Sherlock Holmes 515
航运新闻，418
Shipping News, The 418
Shoot the Piano Player 349, 353
射击手，63
Shootist, The 63
就在403街角购物
Shop Around the Corner, The 403
怪物史莱克422
Shrek 422
闭嘴唱歌392
Shut Up and Sing 392
西科315
Sicko 315
横向304
Sideways 304
Signs and Meaning in the Cinema 184, 473, 654
沉默的羔羊404
Silence of the Lambs 404
沉默的伙伴369
Silent Partner 369
丝袜342
Silk Stockings 342
愚蠢的交响曲645
Silly Symphony 645
辛普森一家，402、553、570 _ _
单身白女404
Single White Female 404
寻找作者的六个角色427
Six Characters in Search of an Author 427
Six Degrees of Separation 370, 396
六英尺以下557
Six Feet Under 557
十六支蜡烛403
Sixteen Candles 403
60 分钟552
60 Minutes 552
卧铺389
Sleeper 389
第404章
Sleeping with the Enemy 404
微笑388
Smile 388
夏夜的微笑345
Smiles of a Summer Night 345
吸烟/禁止吸烟354
Smoking/No Smoking 354
柔软的皮肤，349
Soft Skin, The 349
第332章
Some Like It Hot 332
粉红豹之子418
Son of the Pink Panther 418
黑道家族，556、561、571、669、675 _ _ _ _ _ _
Sopranos, The 556, 561, 571, 669, 675
Sorrow and the Pity, The 372, 654
巴黎下水道645
Sous les toits de Paris 645
南方公园：更大、更长、未删减版422
South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut 422
怯场233
Stage Fright 233
驿马车647
Stagecoach 647
星球大战238 , 341 , 385 , 392 , 656
Star Wars 238, 341, 385, 392, 656
Star Wars: Episode I—The Phantom Menace 386, 670
明星证人312
Star Witness 312
657以上开始
Starting Over 657
戒严状态314
State of Siege 314
斯塔维斯基… 353
Stavisky… 353
钢玉兰307
Steel Magnolias 307
偷吻350
Stolen Kisses 350
停止音乐649
Stop the Music 649
三天通行证的故事376
Story of a Three-Day Pass 376
《特种部队312》的故事
Story of G.I. Joe, The 312
Straight Out of Brooklyn 409, 662
Stranger Than Fiction 414, 427
比天堂更陌生405
Stranger Than Paradise 405
欲望号街车 A 293
Streetcar Named Desire, A 293
自动钢琴练习65
Studies for Player Piano 65
山姆之夏411
Summer of Sam 411
星期日，血腥星期日358
Sunday, Bloody Sunday 358
阳光之州407
Sunshine State 407
超人 II 360
Superman II 360
超人归来398
Superman Returns 398
幸存者555
Survivor 555
悬疑515
Suspense 515
理发师陶德：舰队街342 号的恶魔理发师
Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street 342
Sweet Sweetback 的 Baadassss 歌曲376 654
Sweet Sweetback’s Baadasssss Song 376 654
时间
T
T2 ，参见终结者2
T2 , see Terminator 2
谈话电台315
Talk Radio 315
目标380
Targets 380
蜂蜜的味道，A 358
Taste of Honey, A 358
出租车司机380
Taxi Driver 380
电视：技术与文化形式564
Television: Technology and Cultural Form 564
暴风雨，637
Tempest, The 637
温柔慈悲370
Tender Mercies 370
终端人204
Terminal Man 204
航站楼，387
Terminal, The 387
Terminator 2 152, 395, 443, 663
情书402
Terms of Endearment 402
德士古明星剧院649
Texaco Star Theatre 649
谢谢你抽烟424
Thank You for Smoking 424
剧院及其替身，60
Theatre and Its Double, The 60
Theory of Film: The Redemption of Physical Reality 444, 445, 651
电影理论：新艺术的特征和成长454
Theory of the Film: Character and Growth of a New Art 454
第428章血色将至
There Will Be Blood 428
他们靠夜为生338
They Live by Night 338
第312章
They Were Expendable 312
第三人，338
Third Man, The 338
13 马德琳街312
13 Rue Madeleine 312
thirtysomething 392, 548, 549, 600
This Is Cinerama 119, 125, 612
第358章
This Sporting Life 358
托马斯皇冠事件，242
Thomas Crown Affair, The 242
千年美好祈祷，A 303
Thousand Years of Good Prayers, A 303
三个火枪手，360 °
Three Musketeers, The 360
惊悚660
Thriller 660
343血之王座
Throne of Blood 343
Through a Glass Darkly 364, 652
谢谢 1138 384
THX 1138 384
时间码671
Timecode 671
锡鼓，373
Tin Drum, The 373
提提卡特歌舞表演356
Titicut Follies 356
镇上的干杯649
Toast of the Town 649
汤姆·琼斯358
Tom Jones 358
汤米361
Tommy 361
托尼327
Toni 327
黄玉354
Topaz 354
全面回忆394
Total Recall 394
邪恶之触233
Touch of Evil 233
请大家注意351 , 377 , 460 , 467 , 655
Tout va bien 351, 377, 460, 467, 655
“走向第三电影院” 475
“Toward a Third Cinema” 475
交通406
Traffic 406
Tree of the Wooden Clogs, The 364, 371
特里斯坦与伊索尔德165
Tristan und Isolde 165
第646章意志的胜利
Triumph of the Will 646
创659
Tron 659
第646章乐园里的麻烦
Trouble in Paradise 646
杜鲁门秀，370
Truman Show, The 370
真心话大冒险308
Truth or Dare 308
二十世纪646
Twentieth Century 646
28 天424
28 Days 424
黄昏339
Twilight 339
200 汽车旅馆158
200 Motels 158
两车道柏油路380
Two-Lane Blacktop 380
2 or 3 Things That I Know About Her 653, 69, 350
两人同行340 2001：太空漫游64 , 149 , 155 , 226 , 243 , 341 , 359 , 616 , 634 , 667 , 653
Two Rode Together 340 2001: A Space Odyssey 64, 149, 155, 226, 243, 341, 359, 616, 634, 667, 653
U
U
雨月物语343
Ugetsu Monogatari 343
Un Chien Andalou 191, 366, 645
托斯卡纳艳阳下304
Under the Tuscan Sun 304
了解媒体652
Understanding Media 652
“法国电影的必然趋势” 463
“Une certaine tendance du cinéma français” 463
不可饶恕340
Unforgiven 340
楼上/楼下562
Upstairs/Downstairs 562
V
V
流浪汉354
Vagabond 354
吸血鬼325
Vampyr 325
处女泉，345
Virgin Spring, The 345
可见的人，或电影文化，456
Visible Man, or Film Culture, The 456
弗拉基米尔和罗莎460
Vladimir and Rosa 460
沃尔沃418
Volver 418
沃米塔格斯普克64
Vormittagsspuk 64
月球航行318
Voyage to the Moon 318
瓦
W
摇狗402
Wag the Dog 402
Walk East on Beacon 312
Walk the Line 424
步行361
Walkabout 361
战争游戏，358
War Game, The 358
作战室，356
War Room, The 356
西瓜人376
Watermelon Man 376
一路向东322
Way Down East 322
婚宴，303
Wedding Banquet, The 303
婚礼进行曲，323
Wedding March, The 323
西部世界655
Westworld 655
什么是电影？第456章
What Is Cinema? 456
这是怎么回事DOC？380
What’s Up, Doc? 380
当堤坝决堤时411
When the Levees Broke 411
Where the Hell Is Matt? 600, 674
白热338
White Heat 338
Who Framed Roger Rabbit 386, 398, 403
谁想成为百万富翁554
Who Wants to Be a Millionaire 554
谁害怕弗吉尼亚·伍尔夫？第378章
Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf? 378
R.先生为什么要发脾气？第373章
Why Did Herr R. Run Amok? 373
柳条人，424
Wicker Man, The 424
野孩子，350
Wild Child, The 350
威利和菲尔408
Willie & Phil 408
温切尔388
Winchell 388
有翼迁徙113 , 114 , 416 , 430 , 672
Winged Migration 113, 114, 416, 430, 672
欲望之翼375
Wings of Desire 375
冬光364
Winter Light 364
电线，557
Wire, The 557
证人370
Witness 370
绿野仙踪，647
Wizard of Oz, The 647
沙丘中的女人370
Woman in the Dunes 370
神经崩溃边缘的女人418
Woman on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown 418
受影响的女人，A 388
Woman under the Influence, A 388
文字与音乐482
Words and Music 482
Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, The 289, 467
世贸中心407
World Trade Center 407
X
X
萨拉370
Xala 370
X战警398
X-Men 398
是
Y
你妈妈坦比恩420
Y Tu Mamá También 420
黄土660
Yellow Earth 660
由吉姆堡643
Yojimbo 643
你约翰·琼斯272
You John Jones 272
你有邮件403
You’ve Got Mail 403
Your Show of Shows 534, 535, 649
Z
Z
Z 314
Z 314
扎普鲁德电影611
Zapruder film 611
扎齐在地铁354 号
Zazie dans le Métro 354
行为为零327
Zero for Conduct 327
笔记
Notes
*当你读到这篇文章时，二十一世纪的第一个十年可能已经过去了，但在我写下的时候，它仍然没有一个通俗的名字。我们在本书中将其称为“应该”（如八十年代、九十年代的“应该”），既是对上世纪第一个十年的致敬，也是双关语。
* The first decade of the twenty-first century may well be behind us when you read this but as I write, it still doesn’t have a colloquial name. We’re calling it the “oughts” in this book (as in eighties, nineties, oughts), both as a nod to the first decade of the last century and for the pun.
*现在的情况已经不像以前那么真实了。计算机辅助设计，加上大量新型建筑材料，使得像弗兰克·盖里这样的新一代“设计师建筑师”能够建造出装饰华丽的自我纪念碑，避开现代主义的基本原则：形式服从功能。
* This is less true than it once was. Computer-aided design, together with a raft of new construction materials, have allowed a new generation of “designer architects” like Frank Gehry to produce gussied-up monuments to ego that eschew the basic Modernist principle: form follows function.
*也许有充分的理由：与私人监听设备的增长并行的是自动的、无法控制的公共噪音的刺耳爆炸——烦人的备用警报、好战的 175 瓦汽车音响系统、侵入式汽车警报器、毫无意义的数字手表警报、青少年的闹钟。寻呼机。在电子时代，声音污染急剧增加，iPod 耳塞可能是唯一的解决办法。1993年，一些聋人组织抱怨新的手术技术使聋人恢复了听力：他们抗议失去“沉默的礼物”。这在当时看来很荒谬。现在不太这样了。
* Perhaps with good reason: parallel to the growth of private listening devices has been the cacophonous explosion in automatic, uncontrollable public noise—nagging backup warnings, belligerent 175-watt auto sound systems, intrusive car alarms, pointless digital-watch alarms, teenagers’ pagers. Sound pollution has increased so dramatically in the electronic age that iPod earplugs may be the only answer. In 1993, some organizations for the deaf complained about new surgical techniques that gave a measure of hearing to the deaf: they were protesting the loss of “the gift of silence.” That seemed absurd at the time; less so now.
*许多其他人声称发明了电话，包括 Elisha Gray 和 Antonio Meucci。贝尔和格雷展开了一场势均力敌的竞争，而梅乌奇声称几年前就发明了该设备，但从未申请专利。你也可以说，如果没有托马斯·爱迪生的碳基麦克风，贝尔的电磁传输系统就不会取得太大的成功，这使得它在商业上可行。我们在本书中讨论的几乎所有发明都有多个发明——尤其是电话。
* Many others claimed to have invented telephony, including Elisha Gray and Antonio Meucci. Bell and Gray were in a neck-and-neck race, while Meucci claimed to have invented the device years earlier, but never patented it. You could also argue that Bell’s electromagnetic transmission system wouldn’t have achieved much success without Thomas Edison’s carbon-based microphone, which made it commercially viable. Nearly all the inventions we discuss in this book had multiple parents—not least the telephone.
*即使影片经过数字剪辑，情况也可能如此。编辑决策列表提供了用于物理切割和拼接底片的地图。然而，如果你要使用数字中间片，你可能会失去刀片和胶水。
* This may be true even if the film has been edited digitally. The Edit Decision List provides a map for physically cutting and splicing the negative. If you are going to digital intermediate, however, you can lose the razor blade and glue.
*像汉语和日语这样的象形语言作为符号系统可以说介于电影语言和西方语言之间，但只有当它们被书写时，而不是当它们被说出来时，并且仅在有限的情况下。另一方面，有一些词——例如“gulp”——是拟声词，因此与它们所表示的意思有直接关系，但只有当它们被说出来时才如此。
* Pictographic languages like Chinese and Japanese might be said to fall somewhere in between film and Western languages as sign systems, but only when they are written, not when they are spoken, and only in limited cases. On the other hand, there are some words—“gulp,” for example—that are onomatopoeic and therefore bear a direct relationship to what they signify, but only when they are spoken.
*有人建议，拉链平移（其中摄像机移动得如此之快，以至于原始拍摄对象与其后继拍摄对象之间的图像变得模糊）将是解决该问题的最真实的方法。但即使是这种替代方案也会引起人们的注意，而这正是正常感知中不会发生的情况。也许与现实的完美模拟是直接剪辑，其中两个镜头被一个黑框（或者更好的是，一个中性灰框）分开，这将复制每个扫视的时间（大约 1/20 秒）眼球运动需要！
* It has been suggested that the zip pan, in which the camera moves so quickly that the image in between the original subject and its successor is blurred, would be the most verisimilitudinous handling of the problem. But even this alternative draws attention to itself, which is precisely what does not happen in normal perception. Perhaps the perfect analog with reality would be the direct cut in which the two shots were separated by a single black frame (or better yet, a neutral gray frame), which would duplicate the time (approximately 1/20 of a second) each saccadic movement of the eye takes!
*如果所谓的 3D 电影技术只是简单地将剩下的一个因素添加到深度感知中，那么它们就不会有问题。困难在于，它们实际上扭曲了我们对深度的感知，因为它们不允许我们像平常那样聚焦在单个平面上，而且它们往往会产生令人不安的幻视图像（其中正面和背面颠倒）和左右颠倒的伪立体图像。
* If so-called 3-D film techniques simply added the one remaining factor to depth perception, there would be no problem with them. The difficulty is that they actually distort our perception of depth, since they don’t allow us to focus on a single plane, as we do normally, and since they tend to produce disturbing pseudoscopic images (in which front and back are reversed) and pseudostereoscopic images in which left and right are reversed.
*到 2002 年，技术进步让亚历山大·索科洛夫 (Aleksandr Sokurov) 能够制作出终极绝妙的跟踪镜头：99 分钟的俄罗斯方舟单次拍摄。（见图5-6。）
* By 2002 technological advances allowed Aleksandr Sokurov to produce the ultimate tour-de-force tracking shot: the 99-minute single take of Russian Ark. (See Figure 5-6.)
*欧洲人在此之前已经制作了史诗故事片： Quo Vadis？(1912) 和卡比里亚(1914) 在意大利， Germinal (1913) 和L'Enfant de Paris (1914) 在法国。格里菲斯只是追随他们的脚步——尽管利润更丰厚。
* Europeans had already produced epic features before this: Quo Vadis? (1912) and Cabiria (1914) in Italy, Germinal (1913) and L’Enfant de Paris (1914) in France. Griffith was only following their lead—albeit more lucratively.
*这些事件在三本有趣的书中以极大的技巧被记录下来：彼得·巴特的《淡出：米高梅灾难性的最后日子》以津津有味地叙述了这家昔日享有盛誉的工作室的考验和磨难；大卫·麦克林蒂克的《不雅暴露》记录了贝格曼事件；史蒂文·巴赫 (Steven Bach) 的Final Cut讲述了联美公司 (United Artists) 的故事。
* These events were chronicled with great flair in three interesting books: Peter Bart’s Fade Out: The Calamitous Final Days of MGM recounts the trials and tribulations of that formerly prestigious studio with great relish; David McClintick’s Indecent Exposure chronicles the Begelman affair; and Steven Bach’s Final Cut tells the United Artists story.
*好莱坞悠久历史中令人难以忘怀的主题之一是，无论新老大亨，尽管他们排场华丽，却始终无法摆脱“东方银行家”的控制。即使在新世纪的今天，七大电影公司中的六家（哥伦比亚/三星、华纳、福克斯、派拉蒙、环球、米高梅）最终也必须对纽约负责，那里有索尼、时代华纳、新闻集团、维亚康姆和 NBC。维持其总部；新线公司也向纽约汇报。只有迪士尼仍然是本地拥有和管理的。
* It is one of the haunting themes of Hollywood’s long history that the moguls, old and new, despite their pomp and panache, have never been able to escape from the control of the “Eastern Bankers.” Even today, in the new century, six of the seven majors (Columbia/TriStar, Warner, Fox, Paramount, Universal, MGM) have to answer ultimately to New York, where Sony, Time Warner, News Corp., Viacom, and NBC maintain their headquarters; New Line also reports to New York. Only Disney remains locally owned and managed.
†哥伦比亚/三星为日本索尼公司所有；另一家日本公司东芝拥有华纳影业的大量股份（1998 年减少）；米高梅 (MGM) 和联合航空 (UA) 就其价值而言，均由日本人持有部分股份；福克斯由鲁珀特·默多克 (Rupert Murdoch) 的新闻集团 (News Corp.) 所有（默多克在 1980 年代因商业原因成为美国公民，但新闻集团 (News Corp.) 仍总部位于澳大利亚。）从 1995 年到 2004 年，该公司被环球影业 (Universal) 的主要股权 GE 收购从日本业主到加拿大业主再到法国业主，都受到了打击。
† Columbia/TriStar is owned by Sony, a Japanese company; Toshiba, another Japanese company, had a significant stake in Warners (reduced in 1998); MGM and UA, for what they are worth, are part-owned by Japanese; Fox is owned by Rupert Murdoch’s News Corp. (Murdoch became a U.S. citizen in the 1980s for business reasons, but News Corp. is still Australia-based.) From 1995 until 2004, when it was purchase by GE, the major stake in Universal had been batted around from Japanese to Canadian to French owners.
*创始人们一定露出了高高在上的微笑：自从他们离开以来，好莱坞工作室第一次被卖给了一个在这个行业长大的人。雷石东于 20 世纪 50 年代开始了他的职业生涯，当时他在波士顿地区经营他父亲的汽车影院。
* The founding moguls must have smiled from on high: for the first time since they departed, a Hollywood studio had been sold to someone who had grown up in the business. Redstone began his career in the 1950s operating his father’s drive-ins in the Boston area.
*很少有电影评论家和历史学家对明星进行过中肯的描写。大卫·汤姆森的《电影传记词典》提供了大量智慧而生动的小品。理查德·席克尔（Richard Schickel）的《报纸上的照片》对这一主题进行了深思熟虑的介绍。另请参阅詹姆斯·摩纳哥 (James Monaco) 编辑的《名人》(Celebrity ) 和理查德·戴尔 (Richard Dyer) 编辑的《明星》(Stars)。
* Few film critics and historians have written cogently about stars. David Thomson’s Biographical Dictionary of Film offers a wealth of intelligent and telling sketches. Richard Schickel’s His Picture in the Papers is a thoughtful introduction to the subject. See also Celebrity, edited by James Monaco, and Stars, by Richard Dyer.
*二十四年前，我和我的朋友编剧斯图尔特·罗森伯格一起购买了这个故事的选择权。一两年后我们让它失效。如果我们知道四分之一世纪后它会引起史蒂文·斯皮尔伯格的注意，我们可能会续订！
* Twenty-four years earlier I had bought an option on this story with my friend screenwriter Stuart Rosenberg. We let it lapse after a year or two. If we had known it would draw the attention of Steven Spielberg a quarter of a century later, we might have renewed!
*八十年代唯一没有在《周六夜现场》学徒的电影喜剧演员是理查德·普赖尔 (Richard Pryor) 和吉恩·怀尔德 (Gene Wilder) 组成的成功团队，而怀尔德后来与吉尔达·拉德纳 (Gilda Radner) 结婚，吉尔达·拉德纳 (Gilda Radner) 也是如此。金·凯瑞 (Jim Carrey) 是 20 世纪 90 年代身价最高的喜剧明星，他因基恩·艾沃里·韦恩斯 (Keenen Ivory Wayans) 的《In Living Color》而声名鹊起该剧是当时新成立的福克斯电视台模仿《周六夜现场》(SNL) 制作的。相反，这一时期最有影响力的喜剧演员比尔·科斯比在电影界却从未取得过同样的成功。罗宾·威廉姆斯是一位出色的单口喜剧演员，他在戏剧角色上比在喜剧角色上取得了更大的成功。
* About the only film comedians of the eighties you can name who didn’t apprentice at SNL were the successful team of Richard Pryor and Gene Wilder—and Wilder later married Gilda Radner, who did. Jim Carrey, the most expensive comic star of the 1990s, came to prominence on Keenen Ivory Wayans’s In Living Color, the then-new Fox network’s imitation of SNL. Conversely, the most influential comedian of the period, Bill Cosby, never had equal success in film. Robin Williams, a brilliant standup comic, has had greater success with dramatic than with comic roles.
*我从个人经验中知道这一点。1979 年的大部分时间和 1980 年的部分时间我都在尝试在好莱坞推出一种名为“自由代理人”的治疗方案，但是却没有成功。这是一部关于球员、老板和球迷之间新关系的喜剧，读起来仍然很好，而且仍然可以观看。打电话给我。
* I know this from personal experience. I spent most of 1979 and part of 1980 trying to pitch a treatment called “Free Agent” in Hollywood with a singular lack of success. A comedy about the new relationships among players, owners, and fans, it still reads pretty well—and it’s still available. Call me.
*不要把这份令人窒息的目录视为对九十年代和九十年代电影“艺术”的全面调查。在东欧、亚洲和中东，许多有趣的电影制片人都发挥了他们的才能。由于篇幅有限，我们在此重点关注那些在市场上获得国际关注的电影制片人。
* Don’t take this breathless catalogue as a complete survey of film “art” during the nineties and oughts. In Eastern Europe, Asia, and the Middle East many interesting filmmakers have plied their craft. Given the limitations of space, we’ve concentrated here on those filmmakers who have gained international attention in the marketplace.
*这种类型显然是针对青春期前的男性市场，但奇怪的是也受到老年男性的欢迎，是一种更悲伤的趋势。以电视剧《比维斯和屁股》中的青春期浴室幽默为原型，这一类型在《南方公园：加长未 删减版》和《王牌大贱谍：与我上床的间谍》（均于 1999 年上映）中展现了其票房影响力。贾德·阿帕托擅长制作令人作呕的幽默，并通过《四十岁的处女》（2005）证明了其时间范围，尽管亚当·桑德勒的票房收入可能更高。如果婴儿潮一代仍处于青春期，那么他们的孩子，即 X 一代，似乎就停留在青春期前。我们将这一现象归为脚注，希望下一代，即千禧一代，不会发现自己陷入永恒的四年级。我认为他们不会。
* This genre, apparently aimed at the pre-teen male market, but curiously popular with older males as well, is one the sadder trends of the oughts. Prefigured by television’s Beavis-and-Butthead preteen bathroom humor, the genre showed its box-office clout with South Park: Bigger, Longer Uncut and Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me (both 1999). Judd Apatow has made a speciality of gross-out humor and proved its chronological range with The Forty-Year-Old Virgin (2005), although Adam Sandler has probably grossed more. If the Boomer generation remains adolescent their children, Generation X, seem stuck in pre-adolescence. We’ve relegated the phenomenon to a footnote in the hope that the next generation, the Millennials, will not find themselves trapped in an eternal fourth grade. I don’t think they will.
*是的，我知道我们似乎在争论双方的观点：我们希望电影被大学接受，但我们不希望电影制作人学习太多。与七八十年代美国生活的其他方面一样，钟摆摆得太远了。我们在六十年代发现的许多真理在制度化后都被扭曲了。这就是我们在高速公路周围修建空白墙的原因。
* Yes, I know we seem to be arguing both sides of the case: we want film to be accepted in the university but we don’t want filmmakers studying too much. As elsewhere in American life during the seventies and eighties, the pendulum swung too far. Many of the truths we discovered in the sixties were distorted when they were institutionalized. It’s the reason we build blank walls around our highways.
* Peter Graham 编辑的《新浪潮》包含两篇值得注意的文章：Alexandre Astruc 的“新先锋派的诞生：La Caméra-Stylo”；以及安德烈·巴赞的《作者政治》；两者均在本节中引用。
* The New Wave, edited by Peter Graham, contains two essays of note: “The Birth of a New Avant Garde: La Caméra-Stylo,” by Alexandre Astruc; and “La Politique des auteurs,” by André Bazin; both quoted in this section.
* “网络”有多种形式。20 世纪 80 年代与 AT&T 竞争的新长途电话公司更巧妙的策略之一是与垂死的铁路公司签订合同，沿其城市之间的通行权铺设光缆。
* “Networks” come in many forms. One of the more ingenious strategies of the new long-distance telephone companies competing with AT&T in the 1980s was to contract with the moribund railroads to lay fiber-optic cable along their rights-of-way between cities.
*计算机显示器一般不将帧划分为场；它们是“逐行”的，而不是“交错的”——也就是说，它们连续扫描每一行。它们的运行频率也远高于每秒 30 帧。这是它们比电视监视器更清晰、更易读的两个技术原因。这种差异引发了两个行业之间关于数字电视标准的重大争议。
* Computer monitors generally do not divide the frame into fields; they are “progressive,” not “interlaced”—that is, they sweep every line consecutively. They also operate at much higher frequencies than 30 frames per second. These are two of the technical reasons that they are sharper and far more readable than television monitors. The difference gave rise to a major dispute between the two industries over digital television standards.
* VHS VCR 系统的垂直分辨率低于 250 线——与广播电视的理想水平相去甚远。激光光盘的垂直分辨率约为 425 线，DVD 为 480 线。蓝光将垂直分辨率提高到最大 1080 线。
* The vertical resolution of the VHS VCR system was less than 250 lines—far from the ideal of broadcast television. Laserdiscs offered a vertical resolution of about 425 lines, and DVDs 480 lines. Blu-ray increases vertical resolution to a maximum of 1080 lines.
* FCC 于 1970 年颁布了限制网络在联合组织中的经济利益的“Fin-Syn”规则，据称是为了让附属机构能够自由地与网络竞争。1976 年末，NBC 同意就一项反垄断诉讼达成和解，该诉讼限制了电视网拥有的节目数量以及它在其他人拥有的娱乐节目中可能拥有的经济利益。其他网络随后也表示同意。这些电视网与这一规则进行了多年的斗争，最终于 1993 年赢得了官司。到 1998 年，他们迫使制片人建立财务“合作伙伴关系”，其中 NBC 最为激进。
* The “Fin-Syn” rule limiting networks’ financial interests in syndication was promulgated by the FCC in 1970, supposedly to free the affiliates to compete with the networks. In late 1976, NBC consented to the settlement of an antitrust suit that restricted both the number of network-owned programs and the financial interest it might have in entertainment programs owned by others. The other networks concurred later. The networks fought the rule for many years, finally winning their case in 1993. By 1998 they were forcing financial “partnerships” on their producers, with NBC the most aggressive.
*自 2000 年以来，福克斯新闻和后来的 MSNBC 等评论频道越来越受欢迎，在很大程度上导致了国家政治话语的两极分化。当你只听那些支持你的偏见的人时，这些偏见只会被强化。特殊兴趣节目可能对自然、体育和电影很有效，但当它应用于政治时，尤其是当观点伪装成新闻时，它是有害的。
* Since 2000 the growth in popularity of commentary channels like Fox News, and later MSNBC has done much to polarize national political discourse. When you are only listening to people who support your prejudices they are simply reinforced. Special-interest programming may work well for nature, sports, and movies but it is detrimental to when it’s applied to politics—especially when the opinions masquerade as news.
* 1994 年对派拉蒙的竞购败给萨姆纳·雷石东后，迪勒卖掉了他在 QVC 的股份，并再次在马龙的支持下收购了名为 Silver King 的连锁电视台，作为他实现第五次广播愿景的新基地网络。后来，他又加入了 Home Shopping Network、Ticketmaster 和 USA Network。
* After losing his bid for Paramount to Sumner Redstone in 1994, Diller sold out his interest in QVC and acquired, again with Malone’s backing, a chain of television stations known as Silver King to serve as the new base for his vision of a fifth broadcast network. Later, he added Home Shopping Network, Ticketmaster, and USA Network to the mix.
* 《全家福》为情景喜剧角色提供了惊人的教训。在试播节目中，吉恩·斯特普尔顿饰演的伊迪丝·邦克与后来成名的天真、甜美、呆萌的“丁巴特”完全不同。伊迪丝的第一次尝试更加聪明，更加讽刺，而且——制片人和编剧一定很清楚——过于自信，无法在阿奇的屋檐下持续很长时间。如果这个早期版本的伊迪丝继续下去，被剥离的可能是她，而不是她的亲戚莫德。
* All in the Family offered a striking lesson in sitcom character. In the pilot show, Jean Stapleton’s Edith Bunker was entirely different from the naïve, sweet, dopey “dingbat” who later became famous. This first try at Edith was more intelligent, more sardonic, and—it must have been clear to the producers and writers—entirely too self-confident to last long under Archie’s roof. Had this early version of Edith continued, it might have been she that was spun off, not her relative Maude.
*扫描周期（通常为 11 月、2 月和 5 月）是一年中收视率服务衡量当地电视台收视率的时期。为了帮助他们的附属公司，网络在抽奖期间安排了他们最有吸引力的节目。
* Sweeps periods (generally November, February, and May) are those times of the year when the ratings services measure local television station ratings. To help their affiliates, the networks schedule their most attractive programming during the sweeps periods.
* 20 世纪 90 年代和 2000 年代的虚构网络电视是如此无关紧要，以至于它被降级为脚注。《宋飞正传》、《急诊室》和《辛普森一家》占据了主导地位。法律与秩序坚守了信念。大卫·E·凯利 (David E. Kelley) 的名字将载入史册，但他制作的节目却是 20 世纪 80 年代系列节目的苍白翻版。关于青少年、针对青春期前儿童的节目，以及主要利用粗俗幽默的节目（《比维斯和屁股》）构成了疲惫剧目中唯一的新内容。20 世纪 90 年代和 2000 年代的成年人正在观看美食频道或互联网。
* Fictional network television in the 1990s and 2000s was so inconsequential that it is relegated to a footnote. Seinfeld, ER, and The Simpsons dominated. Law & Order kept the faith. David E. Kelley’s name will be found in the history books but the shows he produced were pale copies of 1980s series. And shows about teenagers, for preteens, and mostly exploiting gross-out humor (Beavis and Butthead) constituted the only new additions to the tired repertoire. Grownups in the 1990s and 2000s were watching the Food Channel or the internet.
*迄今为止，过去三十年中最具创意的竞赛节目是日本热门节目《食神大厨》（Ryêri no Tetsujin，富士电视台，1993-1999），该节目在九十年代末由食品网络播出时在美国引起了热捧。该节目将烹饪、体育、竞赛、电视模仿和名人与武术美学完美地融合在一起，而做作的英语配音与原始日语配音的结合使该节目更加精彩。没有任何一场欧美竞赛节目能表现出如此诙谐的共鸣。
* By far the most inventive contest show of the last thirty years was the Japanese hit Iron Chef (Ryêri no Tetsujin, Fuji TV, 1993-1999) which became a cult hit in the U.S. when broadcast dubbed by the Food Network in the late nineties. A meticulous melange of cooking, sport, contest, television parody, and celebrity with an overlay of martial-arts esthetics, the show was only enhanced by the campy English overdubbing mixed with the original Japanese. None of the European-American contest shows exhibited such witty resonance.
*不完全正确。到 1992 年，美国人平均拥有 30 个或更多频道，而不是 3 个，而且很快还会有数百个频道，并且还有一台录像机，以防电缆出现故障。普通欧洲人有十几个频道可供选择，而不是两个，卫星用更多的信号和录像机轰炸他。今天，将所有这些数字增加一个数量级。
* Not quite true. By 1992 the average American had thirty or more channels at his command instead of three, the prospect of hundreds more around the corner, and a VCR in case the cable broke down. The average European had a dozen channels to choose from instead of two, and satellites bombarding him with still more signals, and a VCR. Today, increase all those numbers by a magnitude.
*也正是复兴了符号学。当麦金塔电脑诞生时，最好的电影符号学家要么已经去世，要么正在写流行小说。20 世纪 80 年代初，当苹果公司开始开发 Mac 时，符号学创造力的中心已经从巴黎转移到了库比蒂诺。
* Just in time, too, to revive the science of semiotics. By the time the Macintosh was born, the best film semioticians were either dead or writing popular novels. In the early 1980s, as Apple was beginning work on the Mac, the locus of semiotic creativity had shifted from Paris to Cupertino.
†几年前，施乐公司就曾试图销售一款带有图形界面的机器，但“Star”超前于时代，而且价格过高，苹果自己的 Lisa 也是如此，它比 Macintosh 早一年出现。
† Xerox itself had attempted to sell a machine with a graphical interface several years earlier, but the “Star” was ahead of its time and overpriced, as was Apple’s own Lisa, which predated the Macintosh by a year.
‡虽然乔布斯和沃兹尼亚克可能会在历史书中被铭记相当长一段时间，但在整个 20 世纪 80 年代末和 1990 年代，他们的竞争对手和宿敌微软创始人比尔·盖茨占据了舞台的中心。盖茨为 20 世纪 70 年代中期的新型微型计算机编写了 Basic 的第一个版本，但他非凡的商业成功是建立在仿制品的基础上的。微软并不是先驱，而是通过将卓越的商业头脑应用于苹果、Digital Research Inc.、Adobe 和 Lotus 等创新者开发的创意和产品，建立了其在微型计算机行业的主导地位。
‡ While Jobs and Wozniak are likely to be remembered in history books for quite a while, throughout the late 1980s and 1990s their competitor and nemesis, Bill Gates, founder of Microsoft, held center stage. Gates had written the first version of Basic for the new microcomputer of the mid-1970s, but his remarkable business success was built on products that were imitations. Seldom a pioneer, Microsoft built its dominating position in the microcomputer industry by applying superior business acumen to ideas and products developed by innovators like Apple, Digital Research Inc., Adobe, and Lotus.
*在微型计算机的世界中，字节是等于 8 位的计量单位。位是单个值，可以是 1 或 0。“位”一词源自“二进制数字”。如果一个位是一个字母，那么一个字节就是一个单词。关于位和字节、兆位和兆字节、千兆位和千兆字节存在很多混淆，其中大部分源于十进制前缀（千、兆、千兆）在二进制系统中的应用。例如，千位不是 1,000 位，而是 1,024 位 (2 10 )。有关此问题和其他数字问题的更多详细信息，请参阅我的新媒体词典。
* In the world of microcomputers, a byte is a unit of measurement equal to 8 bits. A bit is a single value, either 1 or 0. The word “bit” is derived from “Binary digiT.” If a bit is a letter, then a byte is a word. There is a lot of confusion about bits and bytes, megabits and megabytes, gigabits and gigabytes, most of it stemming from the application of the decimal prefixes (kilo, mega, giga) to a binary system. For example, a kilobit is not 1,000 bits but 1,024 bits (210). For more detail on this and other digital issues see my Dictionary of New Media.
†计算：640 × 480 像素 × 每像素 1 位 = 307,200 位。307,200 位/每字节 8 位 = 38,400 字节。四位颜色信息产生 16 种可能的颜色（2 的四次方）。24 位颜色信息可产生超过 1600 万种颜色（2 的 24 次方）。这是真实数字色彩的当前标准。38,400 × 24 = 921,600 字节。每屏幕 921,600 字节 × 每秒 12 帧 = 每秒 11,059,200 字节。
† The calculations: 640 × 480 pixels × 1 bit per pixel = 307,200 bits. 307,200 bits / 8 bits per byte = 38,400 bytes. Four bits of color information yields 16 possible colors (2 to the fourth power). Twenty-four bits of color information yields more than 16 million colors (2 to the 24th power). This is the current standard for realistic digital color. 38,400 × 24 = 921,600 bytes. 921,600 bytes per screen × 12 frames per second = 11,059,200 bytes per second.
*传说菲利普斯的工程师向著名指挥家赫伯特·冯·卡拉扬询问有关 CD 容量的建议。他回答说：“七十二分钟，足够听贝多芬的第九交响曲了。” 如果他们问不同的售票员，他们可能会得到不同的号码！
* Legend has it that engineers at Phillips asked famed conductor Herbert von Karajan for advice on the capacity of a CD. He answered, “Seventy-two minutes, enough to fit Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony.” If they’d asked a different conductor, they might have got a different number!
†回到我们之前的方程式：每屏 921,600 字节 × 每秒 30 帧 = 每秒 2770 万字节的未压缩视频。47 亿字节（单层 DVD 的容量）/2770 万字节 = 170 秒，或少于 3 分钟的未压缩视频。DVD 视频压缩通常可以达到超过 100:1 的比率，从而提高单层的容量，从而为整部故事片提供足够的空间。（注：这些数字是简化的。实际上，情况更复杂。）此外，该规范允许双层和双面光盘，因此最终容量可能会超过180亿字节。
† To return to our earlier equations: 921,600 bytes per screen × 30 frames per second = 27.7 million bytes per second of uncompressed video. 4.7 billion bytes (the capacity of a single layer DVD) / 27.7 million bytes = 170 seconds, or less than 3 minutes of uncompressed video. DVD-Video compression routinely achieves greater than 100:1 ratios, boosting the capacity of a single layer so that there is plenty of room for an entire feature film. (Note: these numbers are simplified. In practice, it’s more complicated.) Moreover, the specification allows for double-layer and double-sided discs, so the ultimate capacity may exceed 18 billion bytes.
*如果发烧友认为未压缩的 CD 不好，那么他们只是鄙视有损压缩的 MP3。但绝大多数网络音乐爱好者根本不在乎。毕竟，他们交易的流行音乐通常是用同等质量水平的电子乐器制作的。我们这里不是在谈论斯特拉迪瓦里，甚至不是 Zildjian 与 Sabian 镲片。
* If audiophiles think poorly of uncompressed CD, they have nothing but contempt for the lossy compression of MP3. But the vast majority of internet music hobbyists couldn’t care less. After all, the popular music they trade is usually produced with electronic instruments of the same level of quality. We’re not talking Stradivarius here—or even Zildjian vs Sabian cymbals.
* “有用物品的设计……仅当且仅在一定程度上，此类设计包含可单独识别并能够识别的图画、图形或雕塑特征时，才应被视为绘画、图形或雕塑作品。独立于文章的功利主义方面而存在。” [17 南加州大学第二段。101.]
* “The design of a useful article … shall be considered a pictorial, graphic, or sculptural work only if, and only to the extent that, such design incorporates pictorial, graphic, or sculptural features that can be identified separately from, and are capable of existing independently of, the utilitarian aspects of the article.” [17 U.S.C. Sec. 101.]
*是的，这有点夸张，但并不夸张。为了便于讨论，我们假设全世界的文本大小为 100 TB（1 亿本书，平均每本 1 MB）。100 TB 等于 100,000 GB。如今，您的口袋里可以携带 100 GB 的容量。（这是四层蓝光光盘的容量。）在过去的二十年里，我们将存储密度提高了五个数量级。为了将世界上所有的书面知识装进你的口袋，我们需要将存储密度再增加三个数量级。我们已经差不多到那里了。摩尔定律建议 2023 年某个时候到来。
* Yes, this is a bit of hyperbole, but not much. For the purposes of discussion, let’s assume that all the world’s texts amount to 100 terabytes (100 million books averaging a megabyte each). 100 terabytes equal 100,000 gigabytes. Today, you can carry 100 gigabytes in your pocket. (This is the capacity of a four-layer Blu-ray disc.) In the past twenty years we have increased storage density by five magnitudes. To carry all the world’s written knowledge in your pocket, we will need to increase storage density by another three magnitudes. We’re most of the way there. Moore’s law suggests an arrival date sometime in 2023.
*戏剧电影继续努力提供更强烈的体验。IMAX 已成为院线电影的一个子集。Showscan 仍然可行；自 2005 年以来，随着数字技术提供了更复杂的技术，3D 技术再次从坟墓中复活。
* Theatrical cinema continues to strive for a more intense experience. IMAX is well established as a subset of theatrical film; Showscan is still viable; and since 2005 3-D has risen once again from the graveyard as digital technology has provided more sophisticated techniques.
*适用于蓝光光盘的编解码器（分别称为 H.264、AVC（高级视频编解码器）和 MPEG-4 Part 10）在解决其中一些问题方面发挥了很大作用。大多数欧洲 HDTV 系统也采用了 H.264。截至撰写本文时，尚无定论。
* The codec that has been adapted for Blu-ray discs, variously known as H.264, AVC (for Advanced Video Codec), and MPEG-4 Part 10, goes a long way to fix some of these problems. H.264 has also been adopted for most European HDTV systems. As of this writing, the jury is still out.
*尽管在 20 世纪 80 年代初该行业正在形成时使用了许多术语，但英语使用者最终决定使用“videotext”来描述 Prestel 和 Minitel 等基于电话的系统，并使用“图文电视”来描述视频-基于 Ceefax 和 Oracle 等系统。当然，本来应该是相反的。后来，视频文本失去了最后的“t”。剩下的存根让人想起一次性纸制品——这并不是一个恰当的类比。顺便说一句，美国也尝试过图文电视，但同样没有成功。到这里，问题就简单多了。在该媒体取得成功的英国，所有电视机均配有图文电视解码器。在美国，情况并非如此。
* Although a number of terms were in use in the early 1980s as the industry was being formed, English-speakers eventually settled on “videotext” to describe the telephone-based systems like Prestel and Minitel, and “teletext” to describe the video-based systems like Ceefax and Oracle. Of course, it should have been the reverse. Later, videotext lost its final “t.” The remaining stub reminded one of disposable paper products—not a felicitous analogy. By the way, the U.S. tried teletext too, with an equal lack of success. Here, the problem was much simpler. In the U.K., where the medium succeeded, all television sets were manufactured with teletext decoders; in the U.S., they were not.
*这是互联网历史上最引人注目的方面之一。政府不再支持该网络，但过渡过程是无缝的，而且在经济上也没有痛苦。商业机会似乎如此巨大，以至于电信公司非常愿意投资数百亿美元来开发必要的通信基础设施。
* This is one of the more remarkable aspects of internet history. The government no longer supports the network, but the transition has been seamless and economically painless. The commercial opportunities appear to be so vast, that the telecommunications companies have been more than willing to invest tens of billions to develop the necessary communications infrastructure.
* Network Wizards, Inc. 请访问www.nw.com，了解网络上的当前数字和其他有用数据。在此过程中，您可以在 WWWW3.org 上查看万维网联盟（现由麻省理工学院与 INRIA 联合运营）的原始历史文档，以及在 WWW.NCSA.edu 上查看 NCSA 文档。
* Network Wizards, Inc. See www.nw.com for current numbers and other useful data on the web. While you’re at it, check out original historical documents at the World Wide Web Consortium (now operated by MIT in association with INRIA) at WWWW3.org, and NCSA documents at WWW.NCSA.edu.
*在与微软争夺浏览器市场控制权的一场混战之后，该公司于 1998 年 11 月被 AOL 收购。AOL 股票公布的价格约为 40 亿美元。对于网景股东来说，这并不是一个很好的投资回报。然而，不到四个月后交易完成时，AOL 股票对 Netscape 股东来说价值 100 亿美元。
* After a battle royal with Microsoft for control of the browser market the company was acquired by AOL in November 1998. The announced price was about $4 billion in AOL stock. This was not a very good return on investment for Netscape stockholders. However, by the time the deal was concluded less than four months later, the AOL stock was worth $10 billion to Netscape shareholders.